Historic
Ornament.
[Illustration: PAGE FROM ONE OF THE HARLEIAN MANUSCRIPTS.
BRITISH MUSEUM.
FRENCH, EARLY 15TH CENTURY.]
A Manual of
HISTORIC
ORNAMENT
TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION,
TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED
ARTS.
PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
AND CRAFTSMEN.
[Illustration]
BY RICHARD GLAZIER,
Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects;
Head Master of the Municipal School
of Art, Manchester.
[Illustration]
With 470 illustrations by the Author.
[Illustration]
LONDON:
B. T. BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN.
1899.
MANCHESTER:
PRINTED BY CHORLTON & KNOWLES, MAYFIELD PRESS.
Preface.
This manual has been prepared with the three-fold object of giving an
elementary knowledge of Architecture and Historic Ornament, of awakening
a responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many beautiful and
interesting remains of ancient and mediæval civilization, and lastly of
directing the attention of students and craftsmen to the beauty,
suggestiveness and vitality of the Industrial Arts of the past, and
their intimate relation to the social and religious life of the people.
The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from such a study
are manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts, we may see the
capabilities and limitations of material, the appropriateness and
application of ornament, the continuity of line and form--yet with a
marked diversity of enrichment and treatment--the interest and
significance of detail, and the customs, myths and traditions of the
past with their continuity of thought and expression.
The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work, are
typical examples of each period or style and are produced in line as
being the method best suited to the requirements of students, giving
definition, emphasis and the constructive qualities of design rather
than pictorial effect.
In the appendix will be found a list of text books and works of
reference, which may be studied with considerable advantage by students
desiring further information upon this important subject.
RICHARD GLAZIER.
MANCHESTER,
1899.
Contents.
PAGE.
Ornament of Oceania 3
Egyptian Ornament 5
Assyrian Ornament 7
Greek Architecture 9
Greek Ornament 13
Roman Architecture 21
Roman Ornament 25
Pompeian Ornament 29
Byzantine Ornament 31
Scandinavian Ornament 33
Celtic Ornament 35
Norman and Gothic Architecture 36
Norman Details 43
Early Gothic Details 45
Renascence Ornament 49
French Renascence 58
English Renascence 60
Mahometan and Moresque 63
Persian Ornament 65
Indian Ornament 69
Chinese and Japanese Ornament 71
Ivories 73
Mosaics 75
Greek Ceramics 77
Ceramic Art 79
Maiolica 87
Terra Cotta 88
Enamels 91
Glass 95
Stained Glass 97
Gold and Silver 101
Bronzes 103
Wrought Iron 105
Furniture 106
Textile Fabrics 109
Frets 123
Continuity of Style 125
Terms used in Ornamental Art 131
List of Plates
PLATE. PAGE.
1 Ornament of Oceania 2
2 Egyptian Ornament 4
3 Assyrian Ornament 6
4 Greek Architecture 8
5 Greek Ornament 12
6 Greek Ornament 18
7 Roman Architecture 20
8 Roman Ornament 24
9 Roman Ornament 26
10 Pompeian Ornament 28
11 Byzantine Ornament 30
12 Scandinavian Ornament 32
13 Celtic Ornament 34
14 The Triforium and Clearstory 41
15 Norman Details 42
16 Early Gothic Details 44
17 Decorated & Perpendicular Gothic Details 46
18 Renascence Ornament 48
19 Renascence Ornament 55
20 Arabian Ornament 62
21 Persian Ornament 64
22 Persian Ornament 67
23 Indian Ornament 68
24 Chinese and Japanese Ornament 70
25 Ivories 72
26 Mosaics 74
27 Greek Ceramics 76
28 Ceramics 78
29 Maiolica 86
30 Glass 94
31 Stained Glass 96
32 Gold and Silver 100
33 Bronzes 102
34 Wrought Iron 104
35 Textile Fabrics 108
36 Sicilian Fabric 111
37 Indian Palampore 112
38 Persian Carpet 114
39 Textile Fabrics 117
40 Peruvian Textiles 119
41 Peruvian Textiles 120
42 Frets 122
43 Polynesian Paddle 124
Illustrations in the Text.
PAGE.
Ornament of Oceania 3
Plan of the Parthenon 9
Plan of the Erectheum 10
The two Fates, from the
Eastern Pediment of the Parthenon 14
Doric Frieze of the Parthenon 14
North Frieze of the Parthenon 15
Frieze from Phigaleia 15
Relief from Nike Apteros 16
Frieze from Pergamos 16
Frieze from Susa 17
Greek Scroll 17
Greek Coins 19
Arch of Septimius Severus 21
Theatre of Marcellus 22
Plan of the Pantheon 22
Plan of the House of Pansa 23
Roman Scroll 25
Coffered Ceiling 25
Frieze from Tivoli 27
Plan of St. Mark’s 31
Plan of St. Sophia 31
Lismore Crosier 35
Gothic Piers 37
Plan of Lincoln Cathedral 37
Early Gothic Window 38
Grisaille Glass, Salisbury 39
Gothic Crockets 45
Gothic Borders 45
Tomb of Ilaria del Carretto 50
Bas-relief, by Donatello 51
Monument to Conte Ugino 51
Italian Velvet 52
Fresco, by Michel-Angelo 52
A Sibyl, by Michel-Angelo 53
Arabesque Decorations 53
Renascence Scroll 54
Renascence Marble Inlay 54
Frieze, by Mantegna 56
An Italian Etching 56
Venetian Well-head 57
Wood Carving, period of Francis I. 58
Decoration, period of Francis II. 58
Relief, by Jean Goujon 59
Wood Carving, by Jean Goujon 59
Frieze, by Le Pautre 59
Wood Carving, period of Louis XV. 59
Elizabethan Frieze 60
Elizabethan Strap-work 60
Ceiling, Audley End 60
Persian Plate 65
Peruvian Pottery 85
Greek Terra Cotta 89
The Annunciation, by Andrea della Robbia 89
Relief, by Andrea della Robbia 90
Painted Enamel by Pierre Raymond 93
Battersea Enamel 93
Early Gothic Glass 97
Early French Glass 98
Late Gothic Glass 98
Chairs 106
Italian Carved Chest 107
Carved Wood Screen 107
Italian Fabrics 115
Flower Vase Pattern 116
Spitalsfield Silk 116
Flemish Fabrics 116
Frets 123
Egyptian Capital 126
Corinthian Capital 127
Early French Capital 127
Composite Capital 127
Byzantine Capital 128
French Romanesque Capital 128
Siculo-Norman Capital 129
Early English Capital 129
Arabian Capital 129
Decorated Gothic Capital 130
Renascence Capital 130
Roman Scroll 130
[Illustration:
ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate 1.
]
ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA.
The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles is full of interest
and is remarkable for the evolution and perfecting of an ornamental
style by a primitive people, with myths and traditions purely local and
in no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of
meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not founded
upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands but upon
abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with a
pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into
provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and
traditions, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia
the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia.
Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and
zig-zag lines; that of Australia consists almost entirely of these lines
incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour. In New
Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of straight and
curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the province of
Tonga-Samoa, the surface is divided into small fields, and the linear
ornament runs in a different direction on each of the fields. The Hervey
and Austral Islands are distinguished by their remarkable adaptations of
the human female figure, the illustrations given here showing the
original type and its ornamental development. These examples, together
with the circular eye pattern form the elements of the Hervey province,
of which the Heape collection contains many fine examples. In the
Solomon Island the linear ornament is occasionally interspersed with an
inlay of angular pieces of mother of pearl. The New Zealand province is
distinguished by its skilful pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral
forms adapted from the human figure, fig. 1. 12., and the constant use
of the border here given.
[Illustration]
[Illustration:
EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2.
]
EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT.
The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to 340 B.C., during which
30 dynasties existed, is usually divided into three groups: (1) The
Ancient Empire, I.-XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C. (2) The Middle Empire,
XII.-XIX., 2466-1200; and (3) the New Empire, XX.-XXX. dynasties,
1200-340 B.C.
The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and Abydos; of the
Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor and Tanis: and of the New Empire, Sais and
Bubastes. The remarkable civilization of these early dynasties are
attested by the many fine remains of architecture, sculpture and
decorative arts that enrich our national museums. The Great Pyramids
were built during the fourth dynasty, the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700
B.C., is 756 ft. × 756 ft., and 480 ft. high; the second, by Kephren,
3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. × 707 ft. and 454 ft. high: and the third,
333 ft. × 330 ft., and 218 ft. high, was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600
B.C.
The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture known,
and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is singular that
all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties with which we
are acquainted, were realistic portraiture, remarkable for its fidelity
to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note, were finely
sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities, Amen Sckhet,
Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris, were represented in the later dynasties
by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their number rather than for
their artistic qualities, never reaching the excellence or vitality of
the earlier period. Much of the architectural enrichment was in Cavo
Relievo, a peculiarly Egyptian mode of ornamentation, the outline of the
figures, birds, or flowers, being sunk into the surface of the granite
or basalt, and then carved within this sunk outline, leaving the ground
or bed raised, these reliefs being invariably painted red, blue, green,
and yellow. The frieze, which, in the hands of the Greeks at a later
period, became their principal ornamental field, was used by the
Egyptians in superposed bands, showing, in cavo relievo, the industrial
arts and pursuits, weaving, glass blowing, and the making of pottery;
ploughing, sowing, and reaping, also hunting and fishing. The
composition and sculpture of these incidents was simple, refined and
purely decorative, with a _naïveté_ and unaffection so appropriate to
the architectonic conditions. Mingled with these incidents were the
beautiful hieroglyphs, or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13
are examples of painted decorations showing the spiral construction of
lines, together with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter
being regarded by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new
life, hence the profusion with which it was used in their decorative
work. Great fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their
architectural capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A
singular feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor
Capital surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period, B.C.
300, the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell-shaped capital
(fig. 3).
[Illustration:
ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3.
]
ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.
The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars
and conquests. Originally one nation, they became divided, and the
younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that
period under Tiglath Pileser I., B.C. 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C.
885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., B.C. 745-27,
the Great Sargon, B.C., 722-705, Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon,
B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital,
Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to
power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562; this city was destroyed by
Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539.
Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic
conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though
stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no
doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from
Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in
Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional type of building was
rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks;
the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs,
carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors
engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). The upper part of the wall was
in enamelled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and
Bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the
archivolt. The representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of
agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian
reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea,
were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow,
white and black, of fine quality and colour, one splendid example is the
Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of
Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels
were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones,
but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious
subjects (fig. 9). The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal
winged and human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief.
Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and
3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life
(fig 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came
into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between the two
nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian lotus by
its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the
calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).
The Anthemion or _Hom_, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with
strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass
(fig. 3). The _Hom_ is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a
form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and
Sicilian textile fabrics.
[Illustration:
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Plate 4.
]
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman
styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture; the
Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many
examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her
colonies:--Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. From a comparison of
these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are
observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the
characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base, (except
in the Grecian Doric, which has no base) column and capital, and the
Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The
proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower
diameter of the column which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts; the
height of the column always including the base and capital. The DORIC
order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600 and culminated
in the Parthenon B.C. 438. The COLUMNS in this order are 4-1/2 to 6
diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp
arrises; the CAPITAL is half a diameter in height and is composed of an
echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and
a large square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain; the FRIEZE is
enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the
face, termed triglyphs, alternately with square metopes which were
frequently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of simple mouldings, and
enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes,
projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze.
[Illustration]
The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9-1/2 diameters in height, with
24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the _base_ is half a diameter in
height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus,
and fillet. The CAPITAL is 7/10 of a diameter high and consists of a
pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding
enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below.
The ENTABLATURE is 1/4 the height of the columns, the ARCHITRAVE of one
or more fascias, the FRIEZE continuous and frequently enriched with
sculpture in low relief; the CORNICE has simple and compound mouldings
supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into
this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical
folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These caryatides
supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example
of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.
The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples
however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The
COLUMNS are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the BASE is 1/2
diameter high; the CAPITAL is a little greater than a diameter in height
and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The
ENTABLATURE is richer; and the CORNICE deeper and more elaborate than
those of the other orders.
A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is
1/60 of the diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian
examples.
+------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| | | | | | Total |
| | | Architrave | Frieze | Cornice | Entablature |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| Doric | Parthenon | 43 | 43 | 32 | 118 |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| | Theseus | 50 | 48 | 19 | 107 |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| Ionic | Erechtheum | 43 | 48 | 47 | 140 |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| | Priene | 37 | 49 | 47 | 133 |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| Corinthian | Lysicrates | 53 | 41 | 49 | 143 |
| +------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
| | Jupiter | | | | |
| | Olympius | 40 | 26 | 46 | 112 |
+------------+------------+------------+--------+---------+-------------+
The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:--The Temples at Corinth
B.C. 650, Ægina B.C. 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum B.C. 438, the
Temples of Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ B.C. 436,
Minerva at Sunium, and the Propylæa at Athens B.C. 431. The Parthenon is
the only octastyle temple in Greece.
Ionic buildings in Greece are:--Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and
the Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of
Diana at Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos.
[Illustration]
Corinthian buildings in Greece are:--Monument of Lysicrates, the Tower
of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in Athens.
During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the
Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine
hexastyle and peripteral Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of
Zeus B.C. 450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were
found the Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with
their arms raised, probably supporting the roof of the temple.
At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and
peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet.
This temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19
feet. At Egesta, there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric temple with
the columns not fluted, and at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two
Doric temples, the temple of Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the
usual hexastyle and peripteral form, but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral
and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each. All these
buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between B.C. 500 and 430.
Classification of Classic Temples:--
1st. The arrangements of the columns and walls
(_a_) When the side walls have no colonnade _Apteral_
(_b_) When there is a colonnade standing apart
from the side walls _Peripteral_
(_c_) When the colonnade is attached to the
side of the side walls _Pseudo-peripteral_
(_d_) When there is a double colonnade standing
from the wall _Dipteral_
2nd. The relation of the ends of the temple
(_a_) When the columns do not project beyond
the walls _In Antis_
(_b_) When a portico stood in front of the
temple _Prostyle_
(_c_) When there was a portico at each end _Amphi-prostyle_
(_d_) If the portico was one column in depth_Mono-prostyle_
(_e_) If the portico was two columns in depth _Di-prostyle_
3rd. The number of columns in the portico
(_a_) If of 2 columns _Distyle_
(_b_) If of 4 columns _Tetrastyle_
(_c_) If of 6 columns exastyle_
(_d_) If of 8 columns _Octastyle_
4th. The Intercolumniation
(_a_) If 1-1/2 diameters apart _Pycnostyle_
(_b_) If 2 diameters apart _Systyle_
(_c_) If 2-1/4 diameters apart _Eustyle_
(_d_) If 3 diameters apart _Diastyle_
(_e_) If 4 diameters apart _Ærostyle_
[Illustration:
GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 5.
]
GREEK ORNAMENT.
Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the
same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the
Ægean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies,
which supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon. The southern
portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern
by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on
the Black Sea and Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at
Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna
Grecia in Italy. These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of
art at an early period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in
Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta
took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens
became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in
that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was
destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles
(470-29 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.
The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture,
sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic
feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality
and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and
goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the
people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes,
the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the
beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of
Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible
store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other
European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of
the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of conception,
the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the
human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are here seen in
the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.
The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely
represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great
personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon
contemporary and later plastic art.
The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the
Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was
enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the
originals are now in the British Museum, forming part of the Elgin
Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. The two
pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger
than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and
the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon for the soil of
Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British
Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture
during the Phidian age. An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western
pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure,
with rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line
and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and
architectonic in character. Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high
relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin
Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between
the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or Greeks, and are fine examples of
composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the
colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in
height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject
being the Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the
religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm
of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and
maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, its heroes and deities,
heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders
are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor’s art. Each
figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having an
individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition,
appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.
The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or
statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of
plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably
owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias
disappeared at an early date.
[Illustration]
Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the
beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia,
erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows an
extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of
23 slabs 25-1/2 inches in width, the incidents depicted being the battle
of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the Centaurs and
the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here
replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling.
[Illustration]
Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument
of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures display moist
clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet.
These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the
work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.
Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of
the Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and
white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of about the same
date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which
crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. An example of Nike
or victory, adjusting her sandal is here given. These reliefs are
remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment, and the
exquisite rendering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in
the British Museum are from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her
husband Mausolus B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement
of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns.
The upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze, illustrating
the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the frieze of the cella was
illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of
the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum;
they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their
composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and
richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon
frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis,
the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the
south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature,
was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 168. This
had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft. high, enriched
with a sculptured frieze 7-1/2 ft. high. The subject is the
Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being
characterised by passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in
grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze
are now in the Berlin Museum.
The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and
Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was
possible with the continuous frieze, together with its functional use of
banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have
many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An
early and fine example is the frieze of Archers from the palace of
Darius at Persepolis, B.C. 532, now in the Louvre. This frieze, of
which an illustration is here given, was executed in glazed and
enamelled bricks. A dignity of conception and unity of composition were
here combined with skilful modelling of relief work, and fine colouring
of blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt
influenced the later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this
tradition of the frieze.
[Illustration]
Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of
detail, radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry.
The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the
traditional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs
however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism,
having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet
lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many
periods of art.
[Illustration]
The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele, (figs.
1, 2, and 5, plate 4), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and
above the necking of the Ionic columns (plate 6); or painted upon the
panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in a thousand
ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period.
The simplicity and
[Illustration:
GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6.
]
beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless
rendered it one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian
and Assyrian prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with
alternate flower and bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently
by a double spiral. Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a
few typical examples, where the rhythm and beauty of composition are
indicative of the culture and perfection of Greek craftsmanship.
Another feature, which at a later period received considerable
development, was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine
example from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with
V shaped sections, springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the
same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the
tripod upon the apex of the roof (plate 6). This scroll is formed of a
series of spirals springing from each other, the junction of the spiral
being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself being often
broken by a similar sheath.
This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and
Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the
Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and
unbroken.
The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently
used upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 plate
5) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with
the functional straight lines of architectural design. The extraordinary
vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen may be traced through a
magnificent series of coins dating from B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The
interest of subject, beauty of composition and largeness of style,
combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these gold, silver
and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of
the early Greeks.
[Illustration]
[Illustration:
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 7.
]
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of Greece by the
extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many fine
remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary
versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive
skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other
nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek
prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and
with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornament, less refined in
contour and detail.
[Illustration]
A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of
Septimus Severus, A.D. 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D.
79, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was
destroyed by Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building
of his own arch.
The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed
illustration from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of
the Doric and the upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story,
having the Corinthian order, and an attic story, with Corinthian
pilasters; the whole reaching to a height of 156 feet.
[Illustration]
One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon,
with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze
ornaments. The portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian
order, beautifully proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the
Corinthian order was used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently
called Jupiter Stator; some 50 examples of this Corinthian order date
from the Roman period. The _Tuscan_ and _Composite_ orders were added by
the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the Corinthian, forming the five
orders of architecture.
[Illustration]
The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman
orders, the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in
parts:--
+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+
| | |Columns|Capital|Architrave|Frieze|Cornice|Entablature|
+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+
|Doric. |Theatre of| 15-1/2| 24 | 31 | 46 | 37 | 113 |
| | Marcellus| | | | | | |
| |Baths of | 1 | 22 | 32 | 45 | 46 | 123 |
| | Diocletia| | | | | | |
+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+
|Ionic. |Theatre of| 18 | 31 | 43 | 36 | 66 | 145 |
| | Marcellus| | | | | | |
| |Temple of | 17-1/2| 33-3/4| 38 | 28 | 70 | 137 |
| | Virilis | | | | | | |
+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+
|Corinthian.|Jupiter | 20 | 66 | 43 | 43 | 69 | 156 |
| | Stator | | | | | | |
| |Pantheon | 19-1/2| 67 | 42 | 39 | 54 | 136 |
+-----------+----------+-------+-------+----------+------+-------+-----------+
The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cella was
of the same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the
Romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendour of
embellishment. The skilful planning and appropriateness of decorative
treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres are evidences of the
practical nature of the Romans.
The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature,
rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the
Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with
concrete, and supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of
two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of
Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180 × 160 feet, five aisles, the centre
aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates,
is typical of one class; and the basilica of Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with
a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is typical of a vaulted
Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle
with an intersecting vaulted roof.
These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their
service, and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the
12th century in the Romanesque provinces.
[Illustration]
The Roman houses were of two types: the _Domus_, or houses clustered
together, and the _Insular_, houses which were surrounded by streets.
Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the _Insular_ type.
The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the _Ostium_ or entrance,
sometimes called the _Vestibule_, which opened into the _Atrium_, which
was a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the
centre called the _Conpluvium_, under which was the _Impluvium_, or
cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers
surrounded the _Atrium_, and at the further end was the _Tablinum_ or
private room, frequently leading to the _Peristylium_ or private part of
the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble
fountain, with flowers, shrubs and trees, forming a _Viridarium_.
Surrounding the _Peristylium_ were private rooms, one of which was the
_Triclinium_ or dining room. From the _Peristylium_, _fauces_ or
passages led to the _Porticus_, a colonnade which overlooked the
garden.
[Illustration:
ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 8
]
ROMAN ORNAMENT.
Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and
conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the
architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of
Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied sources arose the style
termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal
entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings and
the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the Etruscans, with
the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and
Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the
Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D.
Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles,
consisting of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans
using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with
bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and
graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with
cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals terminating in
a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved
or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foliation, such as the
vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or
griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving
that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic
of Roman art.
The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative
ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square,
hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a centre rosette in high relief and
the border mouldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart
or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded
surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases
ornamented
[Illustration:
ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9.
]
with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or
mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the mouldings
or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and
dart enrichment (plate 9.)
[Illustration]
The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this
period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9), and
were supported by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls of
oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given,
which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship.
The architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected A.D. 114, by
Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the
remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans.
Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a
rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the
dresses, armour and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports
a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97-1/4 feet high and 12
feet in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having
bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the
Emperor Trajan.
This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a
complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that period.
Another well-preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in
Rome by Marcus Aurelius A.D. 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the
war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with
Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals;
magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched
with silver damascening, together with the choice remains of sculpture
and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of
the wealthy Roman citizens.
In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling
combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of
foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This
elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded
serrations of the Acanthus, forms the chief characteristic of Roman
ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and vigorous in conception and
execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art.
[Illustration:
POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10.
]
POMPEIAN ORNAMENT.
Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an
eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79. These cities had already
suffered from an earthquake in A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt
when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the
historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two
letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from
the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the
treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural
paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of
marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of
the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D.
Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 A.D., and from
these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum
at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small
bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large
mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary.
A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of
and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the
vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed
with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey,
and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a
magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject.
The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado 1/6th the height
of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels
and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the
dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black
dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The
decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful,
and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms,
such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon
the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject
usually occupies the centre of each wall panel.
The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman
relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral
form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups
grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon
which birds are placed.
Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings,
were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of
small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the
anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.
[Illustration:
BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11.
]
BYZANTINE.
When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome
to Byzantium, in the year A.D. 330, he inaugurated a new era in art,
viz.: the Byzantine. The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now
assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and
influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality,
deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the
Byzantine period.
[Illustration]
The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the
buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style,
but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the
building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus,
during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is remarkable for
its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square
plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great
inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp
acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of
Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the
peacock also is frequently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but
groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground
mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and
domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in
Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica
churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe,
A.D. 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and
sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of
Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice,
marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans
here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of
the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This symbolism
is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and
crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a
peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the
sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in
the sculptured ornament of this period.
[Illustration:
SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12.
]