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Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 92
Series M, General Hydrographic Investigations, 8
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR
THE PASSAIC FLOOD OF 1903
BY
MARSHALL ORA LEIGHTON
[Illustration]
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1904
CONTENTS.
Page.
Letter of transmittal 7
Introduction 9
Precipitation 11
Descent of flood 14
Highland tributaries and Central Basin 14
Flood at Macopin dam 15
Flood at Beattie's dam, Little Falls 16
Flood flow over Dundee dam 17
Damages 23
General statements 23
Highland tributaries 23
Ramapo River 23
Pequanac and Wanaque rivers 24
Central Basin 25
Lower Valley 25
Paterson 26
Passaic and vicinity 27
Preventive measures 28
General discussion 28
Lower valley improvements 29
Flood catchment 31
Pompton reservoir 31
Ramapo system 33
Wanaque system 34
Midvale reservoir 34
Ringwood reservoir 35
West Brook reservoir 35
Pequanac system 35
Newfoundland reservoir 36
Stickle Pond reservoir 36
Rockaway system 37
Powerville reservoir 37
Longwood Valley reservoir 37
Splitrock Pond 38
Upper Passaic Basin 38
Millington reservoir 38
Saddle River 39
Summary of flood-catchments projects 40
Preferable reservoir sites 40
General conclusions 44
Index 47
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
PLATE I. _A_, Beattie's dam, Little Falls, N. J., in flood; _B_,
Flood-water lines in residence district, Paterson, N. J. 16
II. _A_, Pompton Lakes dam and water front of Ludlum Steel and Iron
Company; _B_, Dry bed of Pompton Lake 24
III. Flood district of Paterson, N. J. 24
IV. _A_, Washout at Spruce street, Paterson, N. J.; _B_,
River street, Paterson, N. J., after flood 26
V. _A_, Effects of flood in mill district, Paterson, N. J.; _B_,
The wreck of a hotel in Paterson, N. J. 26
VI. _A_, Devastation in Hebrew quarter, Paterson, N. J.; _B_,
A common example of flood damage 28
VII. _A_, Inundated lands at Passaic, N. J.; _B_, Undamaged bridge
across Passaic River after partial subsidence of flood 28
FIG. 1. Comparative flood run-off at Dundee dam, March, 1902, and
October, 1903 18
2. Diagram of flood flow at Dundee dam, flood of 1903 20
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,
HYDROGRAPHIC BRANCH,
_Washington, D. C., December 4, 1903._
SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled,
"Passaic Flood of 1903," prepared by Marshall Ora Leighton, and to
request that it be published as one of the series of Water-Supply and
Irrigation Papers.
This paper is a continuation of Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No.
88, by George B. Hollister and Mr. Leighton, and describes the flood of
October, 1903, which was higher and far more disastrous than the flood
of 1902. The occurrence of two great floods in the same basin during so
short a period makes the subject worthy of attention, especially as the
district is, from a manufacturing and commercial standpoint, one of the
most important along the Atlantic coast.
Very respectfully,
F. H. NEWELL,
_Chief Engineer_.
HON. CHARLES D. WALCOTT
_Director United States Geological Survey_.
THE PASSAIC FLOOD OF 1903.
By MARSHALL O. LEIGHTON.
INTRODUCTION.
In the following pages is given a brief history of the disastrous flood
which occurred in the Passaic River Basin in October, 1903. In the
report by George Buell Hollister and the writer, entitled "The Passaic
Flood of 1902," and published by the United States Geological Survey as
Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 88, are discussed the principal
physiographic features of the drainage basin and their general relations
to the stream flow. This report will not repeat this information, and
the discussion will be confined to the flood itself. References to local
features will be made without explanation, the presumption being that
this publication shall accompany the earlier one and be, as it is, a
continuation of it. In the present report more attention is given to an
estimate of damages than in the earlier work, and remedies by which
devastation may be avoided are briefly considered.
Passaic River overflowed its banks on October 8, 1903, and remained in
flood until October 19. Between these dates there occurred the greatest
and most destructive flood ever known along this stream. Ordinarily the
channel of the lower Passaic at full bank carries about 12,000 cubic
feet of water per second, but at the height of this flood it carried
about 35,700 cubic feet per second.
The flood period for the entire stream can not be exactly stated, as the
overflow did not occur at the same time in different parts of the basin.
For example, the gage-height records at Dundee dam show that the flood
began to rise on October 8 at 6.30 a. m., and reached a maximum of 9-1/2
inches over the dam crest at 9 p. m. on October 10. Similarly, on
Beattie's dam at Little Falls the flood began to rise at midnight on
October 7, and reached its maximum at 2 p. m. on October 10, or about
thirty-eight hours after the initial rise, the height of the water being
1.29 inches over the crest of the dam.
The flood rose on the highland tributaries as follows: On Ramapo River
the flood crest passed Hillborn at about 10 a. m. on October 9 and
reached Pompton, at the mouth of the river, shortly after noon of the
same day.
The highest reading recorded on the Geological Survey gage at the feeder
of Morris Canal, in Pompton Plains, was 14.3 feet, at about 6 o'clock on
the morning of October 10. As this gage is read only once daily it is
probable that this reading does not represent the height of the flood
crest. Evidence shows that it passed this point on the previous day.
Records of the Newark water department show that the flood on Pequanac
River began to rise at Macopin dam on October 8 at noon, and rose
rapidly to the maximum of 6,000 cubic feet per second at 4 p. m. on
October 10.
No records are available with reference to the rise of flood on Wanaque
River.
Observations made on Pompton Plains on the morning of the 11th show that
Pompton River was well within its banks at that time; therefore the
Ramapo, Wanaque, and Pequanac must have discharged their flood waters
some time previous to this hour. The fact is important when considered
in connection with the height of water in the main stream at that
period. This observation was made only eighteen hours after the maximum
height over Beattie's dam at Little Falls, and twelve hours after the
flood crest passed Dundee dam. The conditions here outlined illustrate
the rapidity with which flood waters are discharged from the Pompton
drainage area, and the deterring effect of Great Piece Meadows upon the
flood.
The rise of the flood on Rockaway River at Old Boonton was almost
coincident with that on Pequanac River at Macopin dam. The maximum flow
occurred fourteen hours later than the maximum on the Ramapo at Pompton.
The flood crest did not reach Chatham on upper Passaic River until the
morning of October 11, or about twenty-four hours later than the flood
heights in Pompton and Rockaway rivers, and about twelve hours later
than the maximum over Dundee dam.
Adequate reasons for these differences in flood periods between
neighboring points are abundant. They are apparent after a review of the
physiographic conditions described in Water-Supply Paper No. 88.
The flood of 1903 was the immediate result of an enormous rainfall, and
not, as is often the case in north temperate latitudes, the combined
effect of rainfall and the rapid melting of accumulated snows. The
records of weather-observation stations in northern New Jersey and New
York fail to show, throughout their entire observation periods, as great
an amount of precipitation in so short a period. The storm which was the
immediate cause of the flood occurred principally between October 8 and
11. During that interval rain fell to an average depth of 11.74 inches
over the Passaic Basin.
The Passaic Basin is fairly well supplied with storage facilities,
which, under ordinary circumstances, would temper the severity of floods
by holding back a large amount of water. In this case no such effect was
produced, as the reservoirs, lakes, and ponds on the drainage area were
filled, or practically so, at the beginning of the storm, and there was
consequently no available space in which to hold back even an
appreciable part of the run-off water. Over some of the dams in the
highland region a comparatively small amount of water was being
discharged at the beginning of the storm. Therefore, while these storage
basins may have had a certain deterring effect upon the rate of flood
accumulation, they could not, in the end, assist materially in
preventing damages in the lower part of the drainage area.
PRECIPITATION.
The precipitation records for June, July, August, and September are
given below:
_Precipitation, in inches, in Passaic Valley and vicinity, June to
September, 1903._
-----------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+------------
| June. | July. | August. | September.
-----------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+------------
|Normal. |Normal. |Normal. |Normal.
| Observed.| Observed.| Observed.| Observed.
-----------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+------------
Highland region: | | | | | | | |
Dover | 3.29 | 15.02 | 5.54 | 5.47 | 5.08 | 9.04 | 4.02 | 3.39
Chester | 3.48 | 12.80 | 6.42 | 7.59 | 5.16 | 9.35 | 4.60 | ...
Charlotteburg | 3.52 | 9.45 | 5.54 | 3.97 | 4.98 | 7.78 | 4.80 | 3.29
Ringwood | ... | 10.13 | ... | 3.08 | ... | 6.17 | ... | 3.06
Red Sandstone | | | | | | | |
plain: | | | | | | | |
Paterson | 4.31 | 11.17 | 5.32 | 5.40 | 4.31 | 10.89 | 4.86 | 2.88
Hanover | 3.32 | ... | 5.23 | 5.40 | 5.20 | 9.40 | 4.52 | ...
River Vale | 3.17 | 10.62 | 4.87 | 3.41 | 4.17 | ... | 3.61 | 2.90
Essex Fells | 3.08 | ... | 7.03 | ... | 5.95 | ... | 3.67 | 1.80
Newark | 3.60 | 11.51 | 4.48 | 4.27 | 4.75 | 14.54 | 3.83 | 4.56
South Orange | 3.57 | 9.28 | 5.43 | 4.22 | 5.05 | 13.75 | 4.04 | 3.80
New York City | 3.13 | 7.42 | 4.26 | 3.23 | 4.70 | 5.96 | 3.72 | 2.60
Plainfield | 3.62 | 10.14 | 5.86 | 4.70 | 4.37 | 6.87 | 4.42 | 7.10
Elizabeth | 3.68 | 8.76 | 5.74 | 4.31 | 4.26 | 7.15 | 4.14 | 4.38
-----------------+--------------+--------------+------|-------+------+-----
An examination of the above table shows that throughout the summer of
1903 the precipitation was considerably above normal. The records for
June and August indicate extremely wet months, and the July figures are
slightly above while the September figures are somewhat below normal.
The important fact shown by this table is that disastrous floods may
occur after long periods of abundant rains. It has been observed that
heavy precipitation may be expected after protracted periods of drought.
Such a belief is not altogether fanciful. In the northeastern part of
this country the total amount of precipitation is approximately uniform
from year to year. The variations, comparatively speaking, are not very
wide, and we are therefore led to expect that there are in operation
influences which serve to compensate for excesses or deficiencies in our
annual rainfall. Therefore after the abundant precipitation of the
summer of 1903, an observer might have had some measure of justification
in predicting a normally or abnormally dry fall. In view of the actual
events the fact must be emphasized that in adopting measures to prevent
floods the margin of safety must be extremely wide. The extraordinary
rainfall of those three October days can not with assurance be accepted
as the maximum.
_Precipitation, in inches, in Passaic Valley and vicinity, October 7 to
11, 1903._
---------------------+------------------+------------------+--------
| From-- | To-- |
Station. +------+-----------+------+-----------+ Amount.
| Day. | Hour. | Day. | Hour. |
---------------------+------+-----------+------+-----------+--------
Highland region: | | | | |
Dover | 7 | | 11 | 9 p.m. | 10.13
Little Falls | 7 | 4 a.m. | 11 | 7 a.m. | 14.13
Charlotteburg | 7 | | 10 | | 12.67
Ringwood | 8 | 11 a.m. | 9 | 8 p.m. | 10.63
| | | | |
Red Sandstone plain: | | | | |
Paterson | 7 | 5 a.m. | 9 | 3.45 p.m. | 15.04
River Vale | 8 | 8 a.m. | 11 | 6 p.m. | 12.55
Essex Fells | 8 | | 9 | 4 p.m. | 10.66
Newark | 8 | 8.30 a.m. | 11 | 5 a.m. | 12.09
South Orange | 8 | 6 a.m. | 10 | Night | 10.48
---------------------+------+-----------+------+-----------+--------
The extremely rapid rate of precipitation during the crucial part of the
storm is shown by the recording gages placed at observation stations in
Newark and New York City.
_Hourly records of precipitation at New York observation station,
October 8 and 9, 1903_.
Inches.
Oct. 8, 9 to 10 a. m. 0.08
10 to 11 a. m. .02
11 to 12 m. .32
12 m. to 1 p. m. .10
1 to 2 p. m. .05
2 to 3 p. m. .06
3 to 4 p. m. .34
4 to 5 p. m. .01
5 to 6 p. m. .10
6 to 7 p. m. .02
7 to 8 p. m. .93
8 to 9 p. m. .32
9 to 10 p. m. .24
10 to 11 p. m. .27
11 to 12 p. m. .26
9, 12 to 1 a. m. .30
Oct. 9, 1 to 2 a. m. 0.25
2 to 3 a. m. .75
3 to 4 a. m. .34
4 to 5 a. m. .46
5 to 6 a. m. .41
6 to 7 a. m. .29
7 to 8 a. m. .51
8 to 9 a. m. 1.38
9 to 10 a. m. 1.04
10 to 11 a. m. .08
11 to 12 m. .23
12 m. to 1 p. m. .24
1 to 2 p. m. .31
2 to 3 p. m. .32
3 to 4 p. m. .01
_____
Total 6.92
_Hourly record of precipitation at Newark observation station, October
8-11, 1903_.
Inches.
Oct. 8, 8.25 to 9 a. m. 0.05
9 to 10 a. m. .04
10 to 11 a. m. .00
11 to 12 m. .00
12 m. to 1 p. m. .14
1 to 2 p. m. .72
2 to 3 p. m. .49
3 to 4 p. m. .11
4 to 5 p. m. 1.05
5 to 6 p. m. .45
6 to 7 p. m. 1.20
7 to 8 p. m. .60
8 to 9 p. m. .24
9 to 10 p. m. .24
10 to 11 p. m. .13
11 to 12 p. m. .17
9, 12 to 1 a. m. .29
1 to 2 a. m. .33
2 to 3 a. m. .62
3 to 4 a. m. .29
4 to 5 a. m. .35
5 to 6 a. m. .26
6 to 7 a. m. .13
Oct. 9, 7 to 8 a. m. 0.29
8 to 9 a. m. .69
9 to 10 a. m. .69
10 to 11 a. m. .39
11 to 12m. .20
12m. to 1 p. m. .39
1 to 2 p. m. .28
2 to 3 p. m. .34
3 to 3.25 p. m. .13
11.50 to 11.55 p. m. .01
10, 3 to 4 a. m. .02
7 to 8 p. m. .07
8 to 9 p. m. .09
9 to 10 p. m. .02
10 to 11 p. m. .04
11 to 12 p. m. .04
11, 12 to 1 a. m. .06
1 to 2 a. m. .09
2 to 3 a. m. .03
3 to 4 a. m. .05
4 to 5 a. m. .01
_____
Total 11.83
From the above tables it may be seen that the maximum rate of
precipitation per hour was 1.38 inches at New York and 1.2 inches at
Newark. Comparison of the tables on pages 11 and 12 gives an excellent
idea of the intensity of the storm. The amount of water falling in a
single storm is nearly equal to the total for June, a month of unusual
precipitation.
The average of the total amounts of precipitation recorded at the
various stations in the Passaic area is 11.74 inches. These totals are
fairly uniform, none of them varying widely from the average. Therefore
the figure 11.74 represents a conservative mean for a calculation of
total amount of water over the drainage area. Assuming this as the
correct depth, the amount of water which fell on each square mile of the
Passaic drainage area during the storm was 27,273,000 cubic feet, or for
the whole Passaic drainage area over 27,000,000,000 cubic feet, weighing
about 852,000,000 tons. This amount of water would, if properly stored,
fill a lake with twenty times the capacity of Greenwood Lake, would
cover Central Park in New York City, which has an area of about 1.5
square miles, to a height of 645 feet, and, at the present rate of water
consumption in the city of Newark, N. J., would supply the city with
water for twenty years.
DESCENT OF FLOOD.
HIGHLAND TRIBUTARIES AND CENTRAL BASIN.
A description of the descent of flood waters from the highland
tributaries into the Central Basin has been given in Water-Supply Paper
No. 88. It has been shown that the lands of the Central Basin are
covered even in ordinary freshets, and that in the event of a great
flood the waters merely rise higher, being, for the greater extent,
almost quiescent, and beyond the flooding of houses and barns and the
destruction of crops, little damage is done. In other words, the flood
along this portion is not torrential in character.
During the flood of 1903 the water fell so quickly all over this basin,
and was collected so rapidly by the small tributaries, that a lake was
formed at once which served as a cushion against which the raging
torrent of the highland tributaries spent itself without doing
extraordinary damage in that immediate region. Bridges which might have
been lost in a smaller flood like that of 1902 were actually standing in
slack water by the time the mountain torrents appeared in force. These
streams caused much destruction higher up in the mountains, but in the
Central Basin their energy became potential--a gathering of forces to be
loosed upon the lower valley. A discussion of the effects of this will
be taken up under the heading "Damages."
In Water-Supply Paper No. 88 is given the proportion of flood waters
contributed to the Central Basin by each of the tributaries. These
figures were computed from the results of gagings maintained for a
period sufficient to afford this information within a reasonable
approximation. In the case of the storm which resulted in the flood of
1903 it is probable that data referred to can not be safely applied.
The flood of 1902 was the result of abundant rains following upon and
melting a heavy snow. Weather Bureau records show that neither the depth
of the snow nor the amount of subsequent rainfall was uniform, or even
approximately so, over the Passaic drainage area. Indeed, so marked was
the variation that it was believed that the mean rainfall for all the
observation stations on the basin did not bear sufficient relation to
observed run-off to allow of any reliable deductions. In the case of the
October storm, however, the distribution of rainfall was more nearly
uniform, and the run-off from the highland tributaries into the Central
Basin must have been proportionately different in amount from that
indicated in the upland tributary tables in the report of the previous
flood. The data given for the 1902 flood can not, therefore, in the case
of the highland tributaries, be applied to the conditions which obtained
in the flood of 1903.
FLOOD AT MACOPIN DAM.
Mr. Morris R. Sherrerd, engineer of the Newark city water board, has
furnished flow computations over Macopin intake dam, which is the head
of the Newark pipe line. As about 73 per cent of the Pequanac drainage
area lies above this intake, the table on page 16 shows roughly an
equivalent percentage of the flow contributed by Pequanac River to the
Central Basin of the Passaic. In consulting this table it should be
borne in mind that the entire run-off of the drainage area above Macopin
is about 25,000,000 gallons per day more than the amounts presented in
this table. All reservoirs and ponds connected with the conservancy
system of the Newark water supply were filled except that at Oakridge,
which was about 1.5 feet below the crest of the spillway.
_Flow of Pequanac River over Macopin dam, October 7-24, 1903._
[From Newark water department.]
Cubic feet.
Oct. 8, 6 a. m. to 12 m. 240,600
12m. to 4 p. m. 347,600
4 to 6 p. m. 842,200
8-9, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 40,110,000
9, 6 a. m. to 12 m. 51,870,000
12m. to 1 p. m. 15,100,000
1 to 5 p. m. 62,430,000
5 to 10 p. m. 89,040,000
10 to 11 p. m. 19,520,000
9-10, 10 p. m. to 8 a. m. 201,350,000
10, 8 a. m. to 12 m. 75,670,000
12 m. to 6 p. m. 103,650,000
6 to 12 p. m. 73,530,000
11, 12 to 6 a. m. 56,820,000
6 a. m. to 12m. 41,440,000
12 m. to 6 p. m. 32,755,000
6 to 12 p. m. 25,665,000
12, 12 to 6 a. m. 23,800,000
6 a. m. to 12m. 20,725,000
12 m. to 6 p. m. 18,450,000
6 to 12 p. m. 15,105,000
13, 12 to 6 a. m. 13,370,000
6 a. m. to 12 m. 11,890,000
12 m. to 6 p. m. 11,230,000
6 to 12 p. m. 11,230,000
14, 12 to 6 a. m. 9,626,000
6 a. m. to 12 m. 8,690,000
12 m. to 6 p. m. 8,022,000
6 to 12 p. m. 7,353,000
15, 12 to 6 a. m. 6,952,000
6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 12,700,000
15-16, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 10,965,000
16, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 10,025,000
16-17, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 9,091,000
17, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 8,690,000
17-18, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 9,893,000
18, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 10,565,000
18-19, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 8,690,000
19, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 6,952,000
19-20, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 6,150,000
20, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 5,882,000
20-21, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 5,749,000
21, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 5,481,000
21-22, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 5,214,000
22, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 4,144,000
22-23, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 3,677,000
23, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 3,877,000
23-24, 6 p. m. to 6 a. m. 5,749,000
24, 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. 5,615,000
FLOOD AT BEATTIE'S DAM, LITTLE FALLS.
The flow over Beattie's dam at Little Falls, has been calculated
according to coefficients used for the same dam in Water-Supply Paper
No. 88. Recorded gage heights show that over the main dam there was a
maximum depth of 11.12 feet, which continued from 2 to 8 p. m., on
October 10, representing a maximum flow of 31,675 cubic feet per second.
(See Pl. I, A.) In the following table is set forth the flow of the
river over Beattie's dam during the flood, and for purposes of
comparison, the figures for the flood period of March, 1902. It should
be borne in mind in consulting this table, that in the case of the flood
of 1903 exact dates and hours are given, while the figures for the 1902
flood represent flow determinations at six-hour intervals, beginning
with the initial rise of that flood.
* * * * *
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 92 PL. I
[Illustration: _A._ BEATTIE'S DAM, LITTLE FALLS, N. J., IN FLOOD.]
[Illustration: _B._ FLOOD-WATER LINES IN RESIDENCE DISTRICT, PATERSON,
N. J.]
* * * * *
_Flood flow over Beattie's dam during floods of 1902 and 1903._
-----------------+------------+------------+
Date and hour. | 1903. | 1902.[A] |
-----------------+------------+------------+
| Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. |
Oct. 8. 12 p.m | 1,645 | 490 |
9. 6 a.m. | 4,235 | 700 |
12 m. | 8,560 | 1,350 |
6 p.m. | 15,755 | 2,120 |
12 p.m. | 23,927 | 3,540 |
10. 6 a.m. | 28,370 | 4,250 |
12 m. | 31,305 | 4,600 |
6 p.m. | 31,675 | 5,000 |
12 p.m. | 30,770 | 6,500 |
11. 6 a.m. | 29,840 | 7,600 |
12 m. | 28,950 | 8,250 |
6 p.m. | 26,960 | 9,000 |
12 p.m. | 25,530 | 10,200 |
12. 6 a.m. | 24,435 | 11,450 |
12 m. | 22,625 | 14,700 |
6 p.m. | 20,810 | 18,150 |
12 p.m. | 18,655 | 20,650 |
13. 6 a.m. | 17,930 | 22,200 |
12 m. | 16,190 | 22,700 |
6 p.m. | 14,900 | 23,400 |
12 p.m. | 13,615 | 23,300 |
14. 6 a.m. | 12,340 | 22,950 |
12 m. | 11,740 | 22,650 |
6 p.m. | 10,975 | 22,350 |
12 p.m. | 9,820 | 22,100 |
15. 6 a.m. | 9,180 | 21,150 |
12 m. | 8,330 | 19,900 |
6 p.m. | 7,700 | 18,900 |
12 p.m. | 7,005 | 17,350 |
16. 6 a.m. | 6,695 | 15,750 |
12 m. | 5,920 | 13,900 |
6 p.m. | 5,620 | 13,300 |
12 p.m. | 5,360 | 11,800 |
17. 6 a.m. | 4,855 | 10,650 |
Below full bank | 8,900 |
Do. | 8,500 |
Do. | 8,100 |
Do. | 8,200 |
Do. | 7,000 |
Do. | 6,250 |
Do. | 5,900 |
Do. | 5,300 |
Do. | 5,200 |
Do. | 4,900 |
-----------------+------------+------------+
[Footnote A: At six-hour intervals.]
FLOOD FLOW OVER DUNDEE DAM.
The flood, as indicated by gage heights at Dundee dam, lasted from about
6.30 p. m. October 8 to about midnight October 18. Although the maximum
recorded gage height was 19 inches higher than during the flood of 1902,
the actual time during which the river was out of its banks was
forty-five hours less than at the earlier flood. Examination of fig. 1
shows that the flood of 1903 was decidedly more intense than that of
1902, the maximum height being reached in 1903 in about sixty hours,
while in 1902 the maximum was not reached until the expiration of about
one hundred and twenty hours.
At Dundee dam the familiar break in the progress of the flood took place
about thirty-five hours after the initial rise. It occurred before the
time of the maximum gage height at the mouth of Pompton River, and there
is nothing to indicate that it was caused, as has been claimed, by slack
water from the Pompton flood being forced back into Great Piece Meadows.
There is no doubt that a part of the Pompton flood was so diverted, but
there was maintained throughout at Little Falls a steady pressure, which
constantly increased to maximum. This flood check, at Dundee dam was
observed in 1902, but it could not be shown to arise from the frequently
mentioned phenomena at the mouth of Pompton River. It is important to
prove or disprove this hypothesis. If it were found to be true, it
could be advantageously taken into consideration in connection with
measures for the prevention of flood damages. As the Pompton had no such
effect upon the flood flow at Dundee dam in two consecutive historic
floods, the writer is inclined to believe that the idea is entirely
erroneous.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Comparative flood run-off at Dundee dam, March,
1902, and October, 1903.]
Since the flow curves in fig. 1 were drawn it has been found by careful
observation that the depressions which occur in the rise of every flood
over Dundee dam are probably due to the carrying away of the flashboards
which are placed upon the dam crest in times of low water. A review of
the gage heights recorded by floods for several years past shows that
the break occurs when the height of water over the dam crest reaches
from 40 to 60 inches. The flashboards used upon this dam are usually 18
inches wide, and as they are supported by iron rods, which are of
approximately the same strength and are placed upon the dam by one crew
of workmen, it may be safely assumed that they are of approximately
equal stability and might be expected to fail almost simultaneously
along the length of the dam crest. So sudden a decrease in the effectual
height of the dam must lower the water on the dam crest markedly, and as
every other probable cause has been eliminated in the case of the recent
flood, the explanation of the check in the progress of floods over this
dam may be safety accepted as due to carrying away of flashboards. This
effect should be apparent in the gage-height records only.
In the flow diagrams (figs. 1 and 2) the effect would not be the same,
but the curve would rise more sharply. Similarly, the measurements at
the beginning are not correct, as they are calculated according to gage
heights measured from the stone crest of the dam. Therefore, a true
flood curve at this point would be much flatter at the beginning and
rise sharply at a period coincident with the carrying away of the
flashboards.
An important difference between the two floods is that the earlier
continued longer, but the later one was much higher. The flood of 1902
was caused by the turning of an equivalent of approximately 6 inches of
precipitation into the main channel during a period of six days. In the
deluge of 1903 there fell 11.74 inches of rain, the greater part of
which was precipitated in 36 hours. Thus it is seen that there was in
the flood of 1903 a larger rainfall during a much shorter period than in
the flood of 1902. Computation shows that the total run-off from the
drainage area above Dundee dam during the earlier flood was
13,379,000,000 cubic feet, and that on account of the frozen condition
of the ground at that time this amount of water represented practically
all of the precipitation. During the flood of 1903 there was a total
run-off for the same area of 14,772,000,000 cubic feet, which represents
about 66 per cent of the observed precipitation. According to these
figures the total amount of run-off in the 1903 flood was only 10 per
cent greater than that in 1902, while the actual flood height during the
1903 flood was 27 per cent higher than during the flood of 1902. The
above comparison shows, in a striking manner, the effect of the
condition of the surface. In the case of the later flood we had, as has
been stated in previous pages, an area which had been well watered
during the previous summer, and the observed ground-water levels were
fairly high. There was, however, sufficient storage capacity in the
basin to retain about 34 per cent of the precipitation occurring between
October 7 and 11. This water must have been largely absorbed by the
earth. The general relations of the floods of 1903 and 1902 can
therefore be briefly stated as follows:
_General relations of floods of 1903 and 1902._
-----+--------------+--------------+-------------+------------->
|Average | Duration of | Maximum | Total
|precipitation.|precipitation.| flood flow. | run-off.
| | | |
-----+--------------+--------------+-------------+------------->
| _Inches._ | _Days._ |_Sec.-feet._ | _Cubic feet._
1902 | 6 | 6 | 24,800 |13,379,000,000
1903 | 11.74 | 3 | 35,700 |14,772,000,000
-----+--------------+--------------+-------------+------------->
<-----------+-------------
Run-off. | Duration of
| flood at
| Dundee dam.
<-----------+-------------
_Per cent._| _Hours._
[B]100 | 270
66 | 225
<-----------+-------------
[Footnote B: Approximately]
In the following table and fig. 2 are recorded gage heights taken at
hourly intervals during the crucial part of the flood and the amount of
water expressed in cubic feet per second flowing over the crest of the
dam at each gage height.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of flood flow at Dundee dam, flood of
1903.]
_Flow of Passaic River at Dundee dam, 1903._
-------------------------------------------
Date and hour. | Gage. | Flow.
---------------------+-------+-------------
|_Feet._| _Sec.-feet._
Oct. 8. 6.30 a. m. | 0.66 | 780
1 p. m. | 1.50 | 3,175
6.30 p. m. | 2.17 | 5,500
8 p. m. | 2.59 | 7,300
10 p. m. | 3.00 | 9,125
11 p. m. | 3.33 | 10,700
12 p. m. | 3.50 | 11,525
9. 1 a. m. | 3.50 | 11,550
2.30 a. m. | 3.59 | 11,950
4 a. m. | 3.50 | 11,525
6 a. m. | 3.66 | 12,300
8.30 a. m. | 3.75 | 12,775
9.40 a. m. | 4.00 | 14,075
10.55 a. m. | 4.66 | 17,650
12 m. | 4.75 | 18,200
1 p. m. | 5.25 | 21,050
2 p. m. | 5.37 | 21,750
3 p. m. | 5.45 | 22,250
3.45 p. m. | 5.37 | 21,750
4.25 p. m. | 5.29 | 21,300
5 p. m. | 5.23 | 20,950
5.45 p. m. | 5.19 | 20,700
6.30 p. m. | 5.17 | 20,600
7 p. m. | 5.11 | 20,250
8 p. m. | 5.13 | 20,350
9 p. m. | 5.17 | 20,600
10 p. m. | 5.21 | 20,750
11 p. m. | 5.27 | 21,150
12 p. m. | 5.4 | 21,950
10. 1 a. m. | 5.5 | 22,500
2 a. m. | 5.66 | 23,500
3 a. m. | 5.73 | 23,900
4 a. m. | 5.91 | 25,050
5 a. m. | 6.00 | 25,650
6 a. m. | 6.2 | 26,900
7 a. m. | 6.33 | 27,700
8 a. m. | 6.4 | 28,150
9 a. m. | 6.6 | 29,400
10 a. m. | 6.83 | 30,750
11 a. m. | 6.89 | 31,250
11.35 a. m. | 6.97 | 31,750
12 m. | 6.93 | 31,450
1 p. m. | 6.95 | 31,650
2 p. m. | 7.13 | 32,800
3 p. m. | 7.19 | 33,150
4 p. m. | 7.25 | 33,500
5 p. m. | 7.39 | 34,450
6 p. m. | 7.39 | 34,450
7 p. m. | 7.40 | 34,500
8 p. m. | 7.54 | 35,350
9 p. m. | 7.62 | 35,800
10 p. m. | 7.60 | 35,700
11 p. m. | 7.57 | 35,500
12 p. m. | 7.43 | 34,650
11. 1 a. m. | 7.47 | 34,950
2 a. m. | 7.5 | 35,100
3 a. m. | 7.42 | 34,700
4 a. m. | 7.3 | 34,450
5 a. m. | 7.3 | 34,150
6 a. m. | 7.3 | 34,150
7 a. m. | 7.37 | 34,300
8 a. m. | 7.33 | 34,100
9 a. m. | 7.31 | 33,900
10 a. m. | 7.23 | 33,450
11 a. m. | 7.25 | 32,525
12 m. | 7.18 | 33,100
1 p. m. | 7.18 | 33,100
2 p. m. | 7.17 | 33,300
3 p. m. | 7.08 | 32,450
4 p. m. | 7.00 | 31,950
5 p. m. | 6.96 | 31,700
6 p. m. | 6.89 | 31,250
7 p. m. | 6.86 | 31,050
8 p. m. | 6.83 | 30,850
9 p. m. | 6.79 | 30,600
10 p. m. | 6.81 | 30,700
11 p. m. | 6.73 | 30,200
12 p. m. | 6.71 | 30,100
12. 1 a. m. | 6.63 | 29,600
2 a. m. | 6.59 | 29,350
3 a. m. | 6.55 | 29,100
4 a. m. | 6.51 | 28,800
5 a. m. | 6.42 | 28,250
6 a. m. | 6.42 | 28,250
7 a. m. | 6.39 | 28,100
8 a. m. | 6.39 | 28,100
9 a. m. | 6.25 | 27,200
10 a. m. | 6.21 | 26,950
11 a. m. | 6.17 | 26,700
12 m. | 6.05 | 26,100
1 p. m. | 6.06 | 26,050
2 p. m | 5.93 | 25,200
3 p. m. | 5.89 | 24,950
4 p. m. | 5.87 | 24,800
5 p. m. | 5.79 | 24,300
6 p. m | 5.77 | 24,150
7 p. m. | 5.75 | 24,250
8 p. m. | 5.73 | 23,950
9 p. m | 5.63 | 23,300
10 p. m. | 5.59 | 23,100
11 p. m. | 5.54 | 22,750
12 p. m. | 5.49 | 22,450
13. 1 a. m. | 5.44 | 22,200
2 a. m. | 5.39 | 21,000
3 a. m. | 5.35 | 21,650
4 a. m. | 5.30 | 21,350
5 a. m. | 5.24 | 21,000
6 a. m. | 5.21 | 20,850
7 a. m. | 5.16 | 20,525
8 a. m. | 5.13 | 20,350
9 a. m. | 5.08 | 20,100
10 a. m. | 5.04 | 19,800
11 a. m. | 5.00 | 19,560
12 m. | 4.94 | 19,200
1 p. m. | 4.89 | 18,900
2 p. m. | 4.85 | 18,700
3 p. m. | 4.84 | 18,650
4 p. m. | 4.75 | 18,200
5 p. m. | 4.71 | 17,900
6 p. m. | 4.66 | 17,650
7 p. m. | 4.64 | 17,550
8 p. m. | 4.59 | 17,250
9 p. m. | 4.54 | 17,000
10 p. m. | 4.51 | 16,750
11 p. m. | 4.49 | 16,700
12 p. m. | 4.37 | 16,000
14. 1 a. m. | 4.37 | 16,000
2 a. m. | 4.35 | 15,925
3 a. m. | 4.35 | 15,925
4 a. m. | 4.33 | 15,800
5 a. m. | 4.34 | 15,850
6 a. m. | 4.31 | 15,700
7 a. m. | 4.27 | 15,500
8 a. m. | 4.25 | 15,300
9 a. m. | 4.17 | 14,900
10 a. m. | 4.08 | 14,500
11 a. m. | 4.05 | 14,325
12 m. | 4.02 | 14,150
1 p. m. | 4.02 | 14,150
2 p. m. | 4.01 | 14,100
3 p. m. | 3.97 | 13,900
4 p. m. | 3.94 | 13,750
5 p. m. | 3.85 | 13,300
6 p. m. | 3.75 | 12,775
7 p. m. | 3.75 | 12,775
9 p. m. | 3.71 | 12,550
12 p. m. | 3.66 | 12,300
15. 6.30 a. m. | 3.50 | 11,525
1 p. m. | 3.41 | 11,050
6.30 p. m. | 3.41 | 11,050
16. 6.30 a. m. | 3.00 | 9,125
1 p. m. | 3.00 | 9,125
6.30 p. m. | 2.91 | 8,700
17. 6.30 a. m. | 2.5 | 6,900
1 p. m. | 2.5 | 6,900
6.30 p. m. | 2.5 | 6,900
18. 6.30 a. m. | 2.5 | 6,900
1 p.m. | 2.41 | 6,500
6.30 p. m. | 2.33 | 6,200
19. 6.30 a. m. | 2 | 4,900
1 p. m. | 2 | 4,900
6.30 p. m. | 2 | 4,900
DAMAGES.
GENERAL STATEMENTS.
Estimates of flood damages are always approximations only. It is
possible to determine with a fair degree of assurance the cost of
replacing structures which have been carried away, to estimate the value
of goods destroyed--especially if they be commodities stored in shops or
warehouses--to calculate the amount of operatives' wages lost, and in
the case of general mercantile business to estimate the damages incurred
through consequent reduction of trade. Destruction by flood, however
vast, is incomplete. It differs materially from destruction by fire, for
often destructible property is of value after floods have passed.
Buildings which are inundated still retain value, and many kinds of
merchandise are not totally destroyed. Therefore when the amount of
damages is calculated there is always to be taken into consideration the
fact that a part of the material which has been flooded can be
reclaimed, and retains some proportion, at least, of the value which it
had previously possessed. Furthermore, damages by flood enter into
practically every detail of social and business affairs. There are
losses which are severe to one or more persons, and which can not be
appreciated except by those whom the floods have actually overtaken.
Therefore estimations of flood damages can be only approximate, and
while a measure of accuracy may be reached with respect to a part of the
losses, there remains a necessity for approximation which can not be
classed with carefully computed damages along other lines.
HIGHLAND TRIBUTARIES.
Along the three northern tributaries, the Ramapo, Wanaque, and Pequanac,
and at their confluence with the Pompton, the destruction by flood
waters was far greater than along the Rockaway, Whippany, and upper
Passaic, or in that area described as the Central Basin. In the drainage
areas of the three tributaries last mentioned the waters were higher
than in the flood of 1902, but the general effects were of the same
nature, and consisted principally of flooded lands, houses, and
washouts. There were few radical cases of complete destruction like
those which marked the course of the flood in the northern tributaries.
The principal interest is therefore confined to the Pompton and the
three highland tributaries which discharge into it.
_Ramapo River._--The greatest destruction was along the Ramapo. It is
the largest of the upland branches, and was therefore the heaviest
contributor to the main stream. Throughout the flood period the stream
was especially violent, causing great apprehension in the lower valley.
The destruction along several stretches of the valley was almost
complete. Nearly all the dams failed, and every bridge across the river,
with one exception, was carried away. Some small villages were swept
bare, and the damages to realty value and personal property were
excessive.
It was only by strenuous measures that the dam impounding the waters of
Tuxedo Lake was saved. If this had failed the destruction along the
entire course of the river, even to the cities in the lower valley,
would have been enormously increased.
The dam at Cranberry Pond, in Arden, failed in the early part of the
storm, the flood waters disabling the Tuxedo electric-light plant and
inundating the Italian settlements along the river below. The failure of
the dam conserving the waters of Nigger Pond, which lies at the head of
a small tributary emptying into the Ramapo below Tuxedo, resulted in the
inundation of Ramapo village. The village of Sloatsburg was practically
obliterated.
The damage at Pompton Lakes was especially severe. During the early part
of the flood the timber dam of the Ludlum Steel and Iron Company, which
raised the water to a height of 27 feet, and afforded 7.04 horsepower
per foot fall, was carried away with a part of the headrace. (See Pl.
II, _A._) This sudden emptying of Pompton Lake, an expanse of 196 acres
(see Pl. II, _B_), was extremely destructive to Pompton Plains, and the
destruction of the dams above on Ramapo River, which followed some time
after the bursting of the lower dam, refilled Pompton Lake above its
former level, and caused greater damage than that which resulted from
the failure of Pompton dam itself. The large iron bridge just below the
dam was carried away, with the stores of the Ludlum Steel and Iron
Company. The river front along this company's property was destroyed,
along with coal docks at the head of Morris Canal feeder. The channel of
the river below the dam is filled with débris, which will raise the
height of the water in the tailrace, and unless it is cleared will
diminish the available power at the iron works. It has been
authoritatively announced, however, that the power facilities will not
be restored, as the Ludlum Steel and Iron Company is preparing to use
steam power exclusively.
_Pequanac and Wanaque rivers._--Along Pequanac River the principal
damage consisted of washed-out roads and destroyed bridges. The large
ponded area in this basin was practically full at the time of the flood,
and, as measurements at Macopin dam show, the run-off per square mile
was extremely large. In the Wanaque drainage area the storage facilities
afforded at Greenwood Lake were probably useful in holding back a part
of the water for a brief period, but the damages along the stream are
comparable to those of the Pequanac.
The effect of the flow from these two streams, added to that of the
Ramapo, was particularly disastrous over the Pompton Plains. Three
* * * * *
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 92 PL. II
[Illustration: _A._ POMPTON LAKES DAM AND WATER FRONT OF LUDLUM STEEL
AND IRON COMPANY.]
[Illustration: _B._ DRY BED OF POMPTON LAKE.]
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 92 PL. III
[Illustration: FLOOD DISTRICT OF PATERSON, N. J.]
* * * * *
bridges at Pompton station, over Wanaque and Pequanac rivers, were
carried away, and in the end one bridge only remained over Pompton
River, that at Pequanac station. In all about 100 houses were inundated
on Pompton Plains, and the damage to roads and culverts was particularly
severe.
The total loss in the drainage area of Pompton River was $350,000.
CENTRAL BASIN.
Over the Central Basin there was the usual impounding of flood waters,
but the effects were not materially different from those described in
the report on the flood of 1902. The damage along this basin from floods
of this character is accumulative by reason of the fact that the
presence of water over the land for so long a period kills the desirable
feed grasses and fosters in their place the coarse meadow grass. This
effect has been observed for some years, particularly since the flood of
1896. It is estimated that over the Central Basin the damage to crops
and arable land alone arising from the floods of 1902 and 1903 amounts
to $300,000. A statement of the damage arising from the later flood can
not separately be made, as its effect upon the fertility of the meadow
lands can not be determined without the experience of a planting season.
LOWER VALLEY.
The flow of the stream through the constricted channel at Little Falls
and on to Great Falls at Paterson is given in the weir measurements on
page 17. It was attended by comparatively large damages, the features of
which were not materially different from those described in the previous
report. The pumping station of the East Jersey Water Company, situated
just below Little Falls dam, did not suffer as severely as during the
previous flood, by reason of the fact that extensive and effective
barricades were placed so as to keep a large part of the water away from
the pumps. This was not accomplished in the flood of 1902. The total
damage in this district amounted to nearly $200,000.
The channel contours were changed somewhat in this portion of the
stream. In the river at the pumping station of the East Jersey Water
Company there was completed a somewhat interesting cycle of changes,
described in the following extract of a letter from Mr. G. Waldo Smith,
chief engineer for the New York aqueduct commissioners, and formerly
engineer and superintendent of the East Jersey Water Company:
"No better illustration of the old adage, 'The river claims its own,'
could be given than that offered by the action of Passaic River at
Little Falls, New Jersey, at the point where the works of the East
Jersey Water Company have been constructed. These works were built
between 1897 and 1900. In the course of the work the river channel for a
distance of several thousand feet down stream from the power house was
drained and improved, so that the head on the wheels at the ordinary
stage of the river was increased about 6 feet. From the time this
improvement was completed to March, 1902, through the action of the
ordinary flow of water and moderate floods, this head had been reduced
about one-third. The great freshet of March, 1902, cut off about another
third, and the recent flood has completed the cycle and entirely wiped
out the benefit due to the river improvement, and the water at the
pumping station stands now at almost precisely the same level that it
stood before any improvements were undertaken. New bars were formed in
approximately the same location as they existed before, and, so far as
possible, except for the changed conditions brought about by the
building of the power station, the condition of the river is not
dissimilar to that existing when the work was commenced.
"In this connection it might be well to state that a New Jersey drainage
commission, in blasting out a channel below the Little Falls dam some
years ago, dumped a considerable portion of the excavation in the deep
water under the Morris Canal viaduct.
"The action of the two great floods, March, 1902, and October, 1903, has
washed a large part of this material out of this deep hole and piled it
up in the river about 300 feet below where the river widens, and reduces
the force of the current.
"I have made no estimate of the amount of material deposited in the
river, but offhand should say that it would be at least 100,000 yards."
_Paterson._--The flood district in the city of Paterson (see Pl. III)
comprised 196 acres and involved the temporary obstruction of 10.3 miles
of streets. Along the streets close to the river banks the height of
water was 12 feet, sufficient to inundate the first floors of all the
buildings (see Pl. I, _B_), and in some cases to reach to the second
floor. During this flood period householders who remained at their homes
were compelled to use boats, while in the more exposed places the danger
was too great to admit of remaining, and at one time 1,200 persons were
housed and fed in the National Guard armory at Paterson.
The bridges crossing Passaic River in Passaic, Essex, and Bergen
counties were almost completely destroyed, and the damage amounted to
$654,811. Within the limits of Paterson, below Great Falls, all of the
highway bridges except two were either severely damaged or completely
carried away. West street bridge, the first below the falls, was a Melan
concrete, steel-arch structure, built in 1897, and costing $65,000. It
was composed of three spans, each about 90 feet long. The flood
practically split two spans longitudinally, the upstream side of each,
equal to about one-third of the width of the bridge, being carried
* * * * *
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 92 PL. IV
[Illustration: _A._ WASHOUT AT SPRUCE STREET, PATERSON, N. J.]
[Illustration: _B._ RIVER STREET, PATERSON, N. J., AFTER FLOOD.]
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 92 PL. V
[Illustration: _A._ EFFECTS OF FLOOD IN MILL DISTRICT, PATERSON, N. J.]
[Illustration: _B._ THE WRECK OF A HOTEL IN PATERSON, N. J.]
* * * * *
away. This structure was built to conform to the established grades of
streets on both sides of the river and was completely inundated, forming
a barrier for floating débris and practically making a dam in the river.
Main street bridge is a 3-span, steel-arch structure, which was
completely covered during the flood, but was only slightly injured. Arch
street bridge, built in 1902 to take the place of a structure carried
away by the March flood, was a concrete-arch bridge of three spans. It
was undermined at the north pier and collapsed, being practically
destroyed. The original cost of this bridge was $34,000. Its piers
presented a serious obstruction to the flow of the stream, especially as
the channel is very narrow at this point. In addition to this, the
bridge was of low grade and admirably adapted for deterring flood flow.
Below Arch street bridge all the other structures crossing the Passaic
were of iron and were carried away, with the exception of Sixth avenue
and Wesel bridges. Those destroyed were designated as follows: Straight
street, Hillman street, Moffat, Wagaraw, Fifth avenue, East Thirty-third
street, and Broadway bridges. All these structures were built too low,
and were inundated during the early stages of the flood.
The damage to real property, stock, and household goods in the city of
Paterson amounted, according to certified returns, to about $2,700,000.
It is impossible to secure correct figures, because merchants and
manufacturers refuse to give details of losses, fearing that the
publication thereof would affect their credit. General ideas concerning
the destruction by the flood can be gathered from Pls. I, _B_, III, IV,
V, and VI.
_Passaic and vicinity._--Below the city of Paterson destruction was as
complete as in Paterson, although the damage was not as great because
the improvements were not as valuable. Damage to property, exclusive of
public works, in this region, amounted to about $1,250,000. This
estimate does not take into consideration losses by manufacturers
arising from destruction of raw materials or finished products. The
flood was about 4-1/2 feet higher than that of 1902. (See Pl. VII, _A._)
On the right bank of Passaic River, in the city of Passaic, the damage
was severe, especially to manufacturing plants. In addition to the flood
in the Passaic itself, the bursting of Morris Canal, a few miles east of
Passaic, flooded Wesel Brook, which in Passaic is used as the tail-race
of the Dundee Power Company. The capacity of Wesel Brook channel is
limited, and the extraordinary amount of water which was turned into it
carried away all culverts and bridges from Richfield to Passaic.
Below Passaic, along the river front of Essex County, the damages to
bridges amounted to $50,000. (See Pl. VII, _B._) The loss due to
washouts in roads throughout the county amounted to $15,000. The
effects of the flood were apparent along the entire length of the river
and into Newark Bay. The damage from inundation in Newark and vicinity
amounted to $753,199.
The figures above given with reference to damage along Passaic River are
uncommonly accurate, being for the most part the result of a
house-to-house canvass by the northern New Jersey flood commission. As
has been stated above, tradesmen are reluctant to give full details with
reference to their losses through fear of injured credit. Roughly
estimating the damage as a whole, and taking into consideration factors
which were given to the writer confidentially, the damage throughout the
drainage area from this flood will amount to not less than $7,000,000.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
In the consideration of means of preventing damages by floods every plan
proposed falls under one of two general heads--the storage of flood
waters or an increase in the capacity of the streams.