SECOND PUNIC WAR. THIRD PERIOD: FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO THE
CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
After the battle of the Metaurus, the chief interest of the war was
transferred to Spain and Africa. The Roman armies were led by a youthful
hero, perhaps the greatest man that Rome ever produced, with the
exception of Julius Cæsar. The remaining period of the war is little
more than the history of P. Scipio. This extraordinary man was the son
of P. Scipio, who fell in Spain in B.C. 212, as already related. In his
early years he acquired, to an extraordinary extent, the confidence and
admiration of his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe
that he was a special favorite of heaven; and he never engaged in any
public or private business without first going to the Capitol, where he
sat some time alone, enjoying communion with the gods. For all he
proposed or executed he alleged the divine approval: he believed himself
in the revelations which he asserted had been vouchsafed to him; and the
extraordinary success which attended all his enterprises deepened this
belief.
P. Scipio is first mentioned in B.C. 218 at the battle of the
Ticinus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father,
though he was then only 17 years of age. He fought at Cannæ two years
afterward (B.C. 216), when he was already a tribune of the soldiers, and
was one of the few Roman officers who survived that fatal day. He was
chosen along with Appius Claudius to command the remains of the army,
which had taken refuge at Canusium; and it was owing to his youthful
heroism and presence of mind that the Roman nobles, who had thought of
leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their rash
project into effect. He had already gained the favor of the people to
such an extent that he was unanimously elected Ædile in B.C. 212. On
this occasion he gave indications of the proud spirit, and of the
disregard of all the forms of law, which distinguished him throughout
life; for when the tribunes objected to the election, because he was not
of the legal age, he haughtily replied, "If all the Quirites wish to
make me Ædile, I am old enough." After the death of Scipio's father and
uncle, C. Nero was sent out as Proprætor to supply their place; but
shortly afterward the Senate resolved to increase the army in Spain, and
to place it under the command of a Proconsul to be elected by the
people. But when they were assembled for this purpose, none of the
generals of experience ventured to apply for so dangerous a command. At
length Scipio, who was then barely twenty-four, to the surprise of every
one, offered himself as a candidate. But the confidence which he felt in
himself he communicated to the people, and he was accordingly chosen
with enthusiasm to take the command.
Scipio arrived in Spain in the summer of B.C. 210. He found that the
three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal, son of Barca, Hasdrubal, son of
Gisco, and Mago, were not on good terms, and were at the time engaged in
separate enterprises in distant parts of the peninsula. Instead of
attacking any of them singly, he formed the project of striking a deadly
blow at the Carthaginian power by a sudden and unexpected attack upon
New Carthage. He gave the command of the fleet to his intimate friend
Lælius, to whom alone he intrusted the secret of the expedition, while
he led the land-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The
project was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian garrison did
not amount to more than a thousand men, and before any succor could
arrive New Carthage was taken by assault. The hostages who had been
given by the various Spanish tribes to the Carthaginians had been placed
for security in the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who
treated them with kindness; and the hostages of those people who
declared themselves in favor of the Romans were restored without ransom.
Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines of arms, corn, and other
necessaries, for the Carthaginians had there deposited their principal
stores.
The immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense. Many of
the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause; and when Scipio
took the field in the following year (B.C. 209) Mandonius and Indibilis,
two of the most powerful and hitherto the most faithful supporters of
Carthage, quitted the camp of Hasdrubal Barca, and awaited the arrival
of the Roman commander. Hasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near
the town of Bæcula, in the upper valley of the Bætis (Guadalquiver),
where he was attacked and defeated by Scipio. He succeeded, however, in
making good his retreat, and retired into northern Spain. He
subsequently crossed the Pyrenees, and marched into Italy to the
assistance of his brother Hannibal, as already narrated.
In B.C. 207 Scipio gained possession of nearly the whole of Spain, by a
decisive victory near a place variously called Silpia or Elinga, but the
position of which is quite uncertain.
Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, and Mago, took refuge within the walls of
Gades, which was almost the only place that now belonged to the
Carthaginians; and all the native chiefs hastened to acknowledge the
supremacy of Rome. But the victories of Scipio had had but a small share
in winning Spain. His personal influence had won far more people than
his arms had conquered. He had gained such an ascendency over the
Spaniards by his humanity and courage, his courtesy and energy, that
they were ready to lay down their lives for him, and wished to make him
their king.
The subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a means to an
end. He had formed the project of transferring the war to Africa, and
thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal from Italy. He
therefore resolved, before returning to Rome, to cross over into Africa,
and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of some of the
native princes. His personal influence had already secured the
attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the Massylians, or
Western Numidians, who was serving in the Carthaginian army in Spain;
and he trusted that the same personal ascendency might gain the more
powerful support of Syphax, the king of the Massæsylians, or Eastern
Numidians. With only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province
and repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old adversary,
Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, who had crossed over from Gades for the same
purpose; and the two generals spent several days together in friendly
intercourse. Scipio made a great impression upon Syphax; but the charms
of Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in
marriage to Syphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax
married her, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally of
the Carthaginians.
During Scipio's absence in Africa a formidable insurrection had broken
out in Spain; but on his return it was speedily put down, and terrible
vengeance was inflicted upon the town of Illiturgis, which had taken the
principal share in the revolt. Scarcely had this danger passed away when
Scipio was seized with a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman
soldiers, discontented with not having received their usual pay, availed
themselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny; but Scipio
quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy. He crushed the last
remains of the insurrection in Spain; and to crown his other successes,
Gades at last surrendered to the Romans. Mago had quitted Spain, and
crossed over into Liguria, to effect a diversion in favor of his brother
Hannibal, and there was therefore now no longer any enemy left in Spain.
Scipio returned to Rome in B.C. 206, and immediately offered himself as
a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for the following year
(B.C. 205) by the unanimous votes of all the centuries, although he had
not yet filled the office of Prætor, and was only 30 years of age. His
colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus, who could not,
therefore, leave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on
abroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio. The
latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the contest to
an end at the gates of Carthage; but the older members of the Senate,
and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, opposed the project, partly through
timidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror. All that
Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permission to
invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage of the Republic;
but the Senate resolutely refused him an army, thus making the
permission of no practical use. The allies had a truer view of the
interests of Italy than the Roman Senate; from all the towns of Italy
volunteers flocked to join the standard of the youthful hero. The Senate
could not refuse to allow him to enlist these volunteers; and such was
the enthusiasm in his favor that he was able to cross over to Sicily
with an army and a fleet, contrary to the expectations and even the
wishes of the Senate. While busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent
over Lælius to Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of
co-operation with Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly
succeeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had no authority
in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of Locri, and after the
conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius in command. The latter had
been guilty of such acts of excesses against the inhabitants, that they
sent an embassy to Rome to complain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus
eagerly availed himself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against
the conduct of Scipio, and to urge his immediate recall. Scipio's
magnificent style of living, and his love of Greek literature and art,
were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations upon old Roman
manners and frugality. It was asserted that the time which ought to be
given to the exercise and the training of his troops was wasted in the
Greek gymnasia or in literary pursuits. Though the Senate lent a willing
ear to these attacks, they did not venture upon his immediate recall,
but sent a commission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army.
During the winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations;
and by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his army
and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners were
astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to return to Rome,
they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as possible.
Accordingly, in B.C. 204, Scipio, who was now Proconsul, sailed from
Lilybæum and landed in Africa, not far from Utica. He was immediately
joined by Masinissa, who rendered him the most important services in the
war. He commenced the campaign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his
quarters on a projecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot
which long bore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the
Carthaginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under the
command of Hasdrubal, son of Cisco, Scipio's old opponent in Spain; and
Syphax came to their assistance with a great force.
In the beginning of B.C. 203 Scipio planned a night-attack upon the two
camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With the assistance of
Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with success: the two camps were
burned to the ground, and only a few of the enemy escaped the fire and
the sword. Among these, however, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax; the
former fled to Carthage, where he persuaded the Senate to raise another
army, and the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he
likewise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again
defeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his appearance
again in Carthage, and Syphax once more fled into Numidia. Scipio did
not give the Numidian prince any repose; he was pursued by Lælius and
Masinissa, and finally taken prisoner. Among the captives who fell into
their hands was Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long
loved, and had expected to marry when she was given to his rival.
Masinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity, but, to
prevent her falling into the hands of the Romans, determined to marry
her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly celebrated without delay;
but Scipio, fearful of the influence which she might exercise over his
ally, sternly upbraided him with his weakness, and insisted on the
immediate surrender of the princess. Unable to resist this command,
Masinissa spared her the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl
of poison, which she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to
her own life.
These repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that they resolved
to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted Italy in B.C. 203, to the
great joy of the Romans. For more than 15 years had he carried on the
war in that country, laying it waste from one extremity to another; and
during all this period his superiority in the field had been
uncontested. The Romans calculated that in these 15 years their losses
in the field alone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men; a
statement which will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the
continued combats in which they were engaged by their ever-watchful foe.
As soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Carthaginians
revived, and they looked forward to a favorable termination of the war.
Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of the real state of affairs;
he saw that the loss of a battle would be the ruin of Carthage, and he
was therefore anxious to conclude a peace before it was too late.
Scipio, who was eager to have the glory of bringing the war to a close,
and who feared lest his enemies in the Senate might appoint him a
successor, was equally desirous of a peace. The terms, however, which
the Roman general proposed seemed intolerable to the Carthaginians; and
as Hannibal, at a personal interview with Scipio, could not obtain any
abatement of the hard conditions, he was forced, against his will, to
continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which are related
very differently, our limits will not permit us to enter. The decisive
battle was at length fought on the 19th of October, B.C. 202, on the
Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama; and Hannibal, according to the
express testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occasion all the
qualities of a consummate general. But he was now particularly deficient
in that formidable cavalry which had so often decided the victory in his
favor; his elephants, of which he had a great number, were rendered
unavailing by the skillful management of Scipio; and the battle ended in
his complete defeat, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran
infantry. Twenty thousand of his men fell on the field of battle, as
many were made prisoners, and Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped
the pursuit of Masinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first
to admit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the
impossibility of the farther prosecution of the war. The terms, however,
now imposed by Scipio were much more severe than before. Carthage had
no alternative but submission; but the negotiations were continued for
some time, and a final treaty was not concluded till the following year
(B.C. 201). By this treaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to
preserve their independence and territory in Africa, but to give up all
claims to any foreign possessions; that they were to surrender all
prisoners and deserters, all their ships of war except ten triremes, and
all their elephants; that they were not to make war in Africa, or out of
Africa, without the consent of Rome; that they were to acknowledge
Masinissa as king of Numidia; that they were to pay 10,000 talents in
silver in the course of fifty years.
Scipio returned to Italy in B.C. 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He
was received with universal enthusiasm; the surname of Africanus was
conferred upon him, and the people, in their gratitude, were anxious to
distinguish him with the most extraordinary marks of honor. It is
related that they wished to make him Consul and Dictator for life, and
to erect his statue in the Comitia, the Senate-house, and even in the
Capitol, but that he prudently declined all these invidious
distinctions.
[Illustration: The Capitoline Wolf.]
[Illustration: Coin of Antiochus the Great.]