THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only a few
miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominions at first over
Italy and then over the civilized world. The city lay in the central
part of the peninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and about fifteen
miles from its mouth. Its situation was upon the borders of three of the
most powerful races in Italy, the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Though
originally a Latin town, it received at an early period a considerable
Sabine population, which left a permanent impression upon the sacred
rites and religious institutions of the people. The Etruscans exercised
less influence upon Rome, though it appears nearly certain that a part
of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the two Tarquins
represent the establishment of an Etruscan dynasty at Rome. The
population of the city may therefore be regarded as one of mixed origin,
consisting of the three elements of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, but
the last in much smaller proportion than the other two. That the Latin
element predominated over the Sabine is also evident from the fact that
the language of the Romans was a Latin and not a Sabellian dialect.
The early history of Rome is given in an unbroken narrative by the Roman
writers, and was received by the Romans themselves as a faithful record
of facts. But it can no longer be regarded in that light. Not only is it
full of marvelous tales and poetical embellishments, of contradictions
and impossibilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all
history must be based. The reader, therefore, must not receive the
history of the first four centuries of the city as a statement of
undoubted facts, though it has unquestionably preserved many
circumstances which did actually occur. It is not until we come to the
war with Pyrrhus that we can place full reliance upon the narrative as a
trustworthy statement of facts. With this caution we now proceed to
relate the celebrated legends of the foundation and early history of
Home.
* * * * *
Æneas, son of Anchises and Venus, fled after the fall of Troy to seek a
new home in a foreign land. He carried with him his son Ascanius, the
Penates or household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.[3] Upon reaching
the coast of Latium he was kindly received by Latinus, the king of the
country, who gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage. Æneas now built
a city, which he named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. But Lavinia had
been previously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians. This
youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers. He was
slain, however, by the hands of Æneas; but in a new war which broke out
three years afterward the Trojan hero disappeared amid the waters of the
River Numicius, and was henceforward worshiped under the name of Jupiter
Indiges, or "god of the country."
Ascanius, who was also called Iulus, removed from Lavinium thirty years
after its foundation, and built Alba Longa, or the "Long White City," on
a ridge of the Alban Mount about fifteen miles southeast of Rome. It
became the most powerful city in Latium, and the head of a confederacy
of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the family of Æneas succeeded Ascanius.
The last of these, named Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius.
Amulius, the younger, seized the kingdom; and Numitor, who was of a
peaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother. Amulius,
fearing lest the children of Numitor might not submit so quietly to his
usurpation, caused his only son to be murdered, and made his daughter,
Rhea Silvia, one of the vestal virgins, who were compelled to live and
die unmarried. But the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of
twins. She was, in consequence, put to death, because she had broken
her vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the river. The Tiber
had overflowed its banks far and wide; and the cradle in which the babes
were placed was stranded at the foot of the Palatine, and overturned on
the root of a wild fig-tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the
stream, carried them into her den hard by, and suckled them; and when
they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred to Mars, brought
it to them. At length, this marvelous spectacle was seen by Faustulus,
the king's shepherd, who took the children home to his wife, Acca
Larentia. They were called Romulus and Remus, and grew up along with the
sons of their foster-parents on the Palatine Hill.
A quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled
their cattle on the neighboring hill of the Aventine. Remus was taken by
a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor. His age and noble bearing made
Numitor think of his grandsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the
tale of the marvelous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterward
Romulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor; suspicion was
changed into certainty, and the old man recognized them as his
grandsons. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which their family had
suffered. With the help of their faithful comrades they slew Amulius,
and placed Numitor on the throne.
Romulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left Alba to
found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute arose between the
brothers where the city should be built, and after whose name it should
be called. Romulus wished to build it on the Palatine, Remus on the
Aventine. It was agreed that the question should be decided by the gods;
and each took his station on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the
pleasure of the gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and
as the day was dawning Remus saw six vultures; but at sunrise, when
these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each
claimed the augury in his own favor; but the shepherds decided for
Romulus, and Remus was therefore obliged to yield.
1. REIGN OF ROMULUS, B.C. 753-716.--Romulus now proceeded to mark out
the boundaries of his city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a plow,
and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine. This formed the sacred limits
of the city, and was called the _Pomoerium_. To the original city on
the Palatine was given the name of _Roma Quadrata_, or Square Rome, to
distinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over the seven
hills.
Rome is said to have been founded on the 21st of April, 753 years before
the Christian era.
On the line of the Pomoerium Romulus began to raise a wall. One day
Remus leapt over it in scorn; whereupon Romulus slew him, exclaiming,
"So die whosoever hereafter shall leap over my walls." Romulus now found
his people too few in numbers. Accordingly, lie set apart on the
Capitoline Hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which homicides and
runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus became filled with men,
but they wanted women, and the inhabitants of the neighboring cities
refused to give their daughters to such an outcast race. Romulus
accordingly resolved to obtain by force what he could not obtain by
treaty. He proclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honor of the
god Consus, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the
festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers with their wives
and children, but the Roman youths rushed upon their guests and carried
off the virgins. The parents returned home and prepared for vengeance.
The inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, Cænina, Antemnæ and
Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were defeated by the
Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand Acron, king of Cænina, and
dedicated his arms and armor, as _spolia opima_, to Jupiter. These were
offered when the commander of one army slew with his own hand the
commander of another, and were only gained twice afterward in Roman
history. At last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of
the Sabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great that
Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to retire into
the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus had also fortified
the top of the Capitoline Hill, which he intrusted to the care of
Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia, dazzled by the golden bracelets of
the Sabines, promised to betray the hill to them "if they would give her
what they wore on their left arms." Her offer was accepted. In the
night-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when she claimed
her reward they threw upon her the shields "which they wore on their
left arms," and thus crushed her to death. One of the heights of the
Capitoline Hill preserved her name, and it was from the Tarpeian Rock
that traitors were afterward hurled down. On the next day the Romans
endeavored to recover the hill. A long and desperate battle was fought
in the valley between the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the
Romans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed a temple to
Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon his men took courage and
returned again to the combat. At length the Sabine women, who were the
cause of the war, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and
fathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard; the two people not
only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation. The Romans dwelt on
the Palatine under their king Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline
under their king Titus Tatius.[4] The two kings and their senates met
for deliberation in the valley between the two hills, which was hence
called _Comitium_, or the place of meeting, and which afterward became
the Roman Forum. But this union did not last long. Titus Tatius was
slain at Lavinium by some Latins to whom he had refused satisfaction for
outrages committed by his kinsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled alone over
both Romans and Sabines. He reigned, in all, thirty-seven years. One
day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus Martius, near the
Goat's Fool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, and a dreadful storm
dispersed the people. When daylight returned Romulus had disappeared,
for his father Mars had carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot.
Shortly afterward he appeared in more than mortal beauty to the senator
Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell the Romans to worship him under the
name of the god Quirinus.
[Illustration: Plan of the City of Romulus.]
As Romulus was regarded as the founder of Rome, its most ancient
political institutions and the organization of the people were ascribed
to him by the popular belief.
(i.) The Roman people consisted only of _Patricians_ and their
_Clients_. The Patricians formed the Populus Romanus, or sovereign
people. They alone had political rights; the Clients were entirely
dependent upon them. A Patrician had a certain number of Clients
attached to him personally. To these he acted as a _Patronus_ or Patron.
He was bound to protect the interests of the Client both in public and
private, while the Client had to render many services to his patron.
(ii.) The Patricians were divided by Romulus into _three Tribes_; the
Ramnes, or Romans of Romulus; the Tities, or Sabines of Titus Tatius;
and the Luceres, or Etruscans of Cæles, a Lucumo or Etruscan noble, who
assisted Romulus in the war against the Sabines. Each tribe was divided
into 10 curiæ, and each curiæ into 10 gentes. The 30 curiæ formed the
_Comitia Curiata_, a sovereign assembly of the Patricians. This assembly
elected the king, made the laws, and decided in all cases affecting the
life of a citizen.
To assist him in the government Romulus selected a number of aged men,
forming a _Senate_, or Council of Elders, who were called Patres, or
Senators. It consisted at first of 100 members, which number was
increased to 200 when the Sabines were incorporated in the state. The 20
curiæ of the Ramnes and Tities each sent 10 members to the senate, but
the Luceres were not yet represented.
(iii.) Each of the three tribes was bound to furnish 1000 men for the
infantry and 100 men for the cavalry. Thus 3000 foot-soldiers and 300
horse-soldiers formed the original army of the Roman state, and were
called a _Legion_.
2. REIGN OF NUMA POMPILIUS, B.C. 716-673.--On the death of Romulus, the
Senate, at first, would not allow the election of a new king. The
Senators enjoyed the royal power in rotation as Inter-reges, or
between-kings. In this way a year passed. But the people at length
insisted that a king should be chosen, and the Senate were obliged to
give way. The choice fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a
native of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of Tatius. The
forty-three years of Numa's reign glided away in quiet happiness without
any war or any calamity.
As Romulus was the founder of the political institutions of Rome, so
Numa was the author of the religious institutions. Instructed by the
nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia, he instituted
the Pontiffs, four in number, with a Pontifex Maximus at their head, who
had the general superintendence of religion; the Augurs, also four in
number, who consulted the will of the gods on all occasions, both
private and public; three Flamens, each of whom attended to the worship
of separate deities--Jupiter,[5] Mars, and Quirinus; four Vestal
Virgins, who kept alive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba
Longa; and twelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the
sacred shields.[6] Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture,
and marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed under the
care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple of Janus, a god
represented with two heads looking different ways. The gates of this
temple were to be open during war and closed in time of peace.
[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia.]
3. REIGN OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS, B.C. 673-641.--Upon the death of Numa an
interregnum again followed; but soon afterward Tullus Hostilius, a
Roman, was elected king. His reign was as warlike as that of Numa had
been peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the destruction of Alba
Longa. A quarrel having arisen between the two cities, and their armies
having been drawn up in array against each other, the princes determined
to avert the battle by a combat of champions chosen from each army.
There were in the Roman army three brothers, born at the same birth,
named Horatii; and in the Alban army, in like manner, three brothers,
born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The two sets of brothers
were chosen as champions, and it was agreed that the people to whom the
conquerors belonged should rule the other. Two of the Horatii were
slain, but the three Curiatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius,
who was unhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend with
the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of them
separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three opponents at
unequal distances. Suddenly turning round, he slew, first one, then the
second, and finally the third. The Romans were declared the conquerors,
and the Albans their subjects. But a tragical event followed. As
Horatius was entering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met
him, and recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii,
her betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that the anger
of her brother was kindled, and, stabbing her with his sword, he
exclaimed, "So perish every Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this
murder he was condemned by the two judges of blood to be hanged upon the
fatal tree, but he appealed to the people, and they gave him his life.
Shortly afterward Tullus Hostilius made war against the Etruscans of
Fidenæ and Veii. The Albans, under their dictator Mettius Fuffetius,
followed him to the war as the subjects of Rome. In the battle against
the Etruscans, the Alban dictator, faithless and insolent, withdrew to
the hills, but when the Etruscans were defeated he descended to the
plain, and congratulated the Roman king. Tullus pretended to be
deceived. On the following day he summoned the two armies to receive
their praises and rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were
surrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their sentence. Their
dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses driven opposite ways; their
city was to be razed to the ground; and they themselves, with their
wives and children, transported to Rome. Tullus assigned to them the
Cælian Hill for their habitation. Some of the noble families of Alba
were enrolled among the Roman patricians, but the great mass of the
Alban people were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling class.
They were the origin of the Roman _Plebs_, who were thus quite distinct
from the Patricians and their Clients. The Patricians still formed
exclusively the Populus, or Roman people, properly so called. The Plebs
were a subject-class without any share in the government.
After carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and sought to win
the favor of the gods, as Numa had done, by prayers and divination. But
Jupiter was angry with him, and smote him and his whole house with fire
from heaven. Thus perished Tullus, after a reign of thirty-two years.
4. REIGN OF ANCUS MARCIUS, B.C. 640-616.--Ancus Marcius, the successor
of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son of Numa's daughter. He
sought to tread in the footsteps of his grandfather by reviving the
religious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect; but a war with the
Latins called him from the pursuits of peace. He conquered several of
the Latin cities, and removed many of the inhabitants to Rome, where he
assigned them the Aventine for their habitation. Thus the number of the
Plebeians was greatly enlarged. Ancus instituted the Fetiales, whose
duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state when any dispute
arose, to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be
commenced, and to perform the proper religious rites on the declaration
of war. He also founded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber,
built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans,
and united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called the
Pons Sublicius, because it was made of wooden piles, and erected a
prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign of twenty-four
years.
[Illustration: Arch of Volaterræ.]
[Footnote 3: The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was
said to have fallen from heaven, and was preserved at Rome with the most
sacred care.]
[Footnote 4: The Sabines were called _Quirites_, and this name was
afterward applied to the Roman people in their civil capacity.]
[Footnote 5: The Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis.]
[Footnote 6: These shields were called _Ancilia_. One of these shields
is said to have fallen from heaven; and Numa ordered eleven others to be
made exactly like it, that it might not be known and stolen.]
[Illustration: Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina.]