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[Illustration: THE ROMAN FORUM RESTORED.]
A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME,
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE.
BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.
WITH A CONTINUATION TO A.D. 479.
BY EUGENE LAWRENCE, A.M.
[Illustration]
Illustrated by Engravings on Wood.
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
1881.
[Illustration: Map of Italy.]
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NOTICE.
The present History has been drawn up chiefly for the lower forms in
schools, at the request of several teachers, and is intended to range
with the author's Smaller History of Greece. It will be followed by a
similar History of England. The author is indebted in this work to
several of the more important articles upon Roman history in the
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.
The Table of Contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has been
so arranged that the teacher can frame from it questions for the
examination of his class, the answers to which will be found in the
corresponding pages of the volume.
The restoration of the Forum has been designed by Mr. P.W. Justyne.
W.S.
[Illustration: Temple of Janus. (From a Coin.)]
[Illustration: Julius Cæsar.]
CONTENTS.
B.C. Page
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
Position of Italy 1
Its boundaries 1
Its two Divisions 1
I. Gallia Cisalpina 2
Liguria 2
Venetia 2
II. Italia, properly so called 2
Etruria 2
Umbria 2
Picenum 2
Sabini 3
Marsi 3
Peligni 3
Vestini 3
Marrucini 3
Frentani 3
Latium: its two senses 3
The Campagna 3
The Pontine Marshes 4
Campania 4
Bay of Naples 4
Samnium 4
Apulia 4
Calabria 4
Lucania 4
Bruttii 4
Fertility of Italy 5
Its productions 5
Its inhabitants 5
I. Italians proper 5
1. Latins 5
2. Umbro-Sabellians 5
II. Iapygians 5
III. Etruscans 5
Their name 5
Their language 5
Their origin 5
Their two confederacies 6
1. North of the Po 6
2. South of the Apennines 6
Foreign races--
IV. Greeks 6
Gauls 6
CHAPTER II.
THE FIRST FOUR KINGS OF ROME. B.C. 753-616.
Position of Rome 7
Its inhabitants 7
1. Latins 7
2. Sabines 7
3. Etruscans 7
Remarks on early Roman history 8
Legend of Æneas 8
Legend of Ascanius 8
Foundation of Alba Longa 8
Legend of Rhea Silvia 8
Birth of Romulus and Remus 8
Their recognition by Numitor 9
753. Foundation of Rome 9
Roma Quadrata 9
Pomoerium 9
Death of Remus 10
753-716. Reign of Romulus 9
Asylum 10
Rape of Sabines 10
War with Sabines 10
Tarpeia 10
Sabine women 10
Joint reign of Romulus and Titus Tatius 11
Death of Titus Tatius 11
Sole reign of Romulus 11
Death of Romulus 11
Institutions ascribed to Romulus 12
Patricians & Clients 12
Three tribes--Ramnes, Tities, Luceres 12
Thirty Curiæ 12
Three Hundred Gentes 12
Comitia Curiata 12
The Senate 12
The Army 12
716-673. Reign of Numa Pompilius 12
Institutions ascribed to Numa Pompilius 12
Pontiffs 12
Augurs 13
Flamens 13
Vestal Virgins 13
Salii 13
Temple of Janus 13
673-641. Reign of Tullus Hostilius 13
War with Alba Longa 13
Battle of the Horatii and Curiatii 13
War with the Etruscans 14
Punishment of Mettius Fuffetius, Dictator of Alba Longa 14
Destruction of Alba Longa 14
Removal of its inhabitants to Rome 14
Origin of the Roman Plebs 14
Death of Tullus Hostilius 14
640-616. Reign of Ancus Marcius 14
War with the Latins 14
Increase of the Plebs 15
Ostia 15
Janiculum 15
Pons Sublicius 15
Death of Ancus Marcius 15
CHAPTER III.
THE LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS. B.C. 616-498.
616-578. Reign of Tarquinius Priscus 16
His early history 16
His removal to Rome 16
Becomes king 16
His wars 16
The Cloacæ 16
Circus Maximus 17
Increase of the Senate 17
Increase of the Equites 17
Attus Navius 17
Increase of the Vestal Virgins 17
Early history of Servius Tullius 17
Death of Tarquinius Priscus 18
578-534. Reign of Servius Tullius 18
I. Reform of the Roman Constitution 18
1. Division of the Roman territory into Thirty Tribes 18
2. Comitia Centuriata 18
Census 18
Five Classes 19
The Equites 19
Number of the Centuries 19
Three sovereign assemblies--Comitia Centuriata,
Comitia Curiata, Comitia Tributa 20
II. Increase of the city: walls of Servius Tullius 20
III. Alliance with the Latins 20
Death of Servius Tullius 22
534-510. Reign of Tarquinius Superbus 22
His tyranny 22
His alliance with the Latins 23
His war with the Volscians 23
Foundation of the temple on the Capitoline Hill 23
The Sibylline books 23
Legend of the Sibyl 23
Capture of Gabii 23
King's sons and Brutus sent to consult the oracle at
Delphi 23
Lucretia 24
Expulsion of the Tarquins 25
509. Establishment of the Republic 25
The Consuls 25
First attempt to restore the Tarquins 25
Execution of the sons of Brutus 25
War of the Etruscans with Rome 26
Death of Brutus 26
Defeat of the Etruscans 26
Valerius Publicola 26
Dedication of the Capitoline Temple by M. Horatius 26
508. Second attempt to restore the Tarquins 26
Lars Porsena 26
Horatius Cocles 26
Mucius Scævola 27
Cloelia 27
498. Third attempt to restore the Tarquins 28
War with the Latins 28
Battle of the Lake Regillus 28
496. Death of Tarquinius Superbus 28
CHAPTER IV.
FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE DECEMVIRATE.
B.C. 498-451.
Struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians 29
Ascendency of the Patricians 29
Sufferings of the Plebeians 30
Law of debtor and creditor 30
Ager Publicus 30
Object of the Plebeians to obtain a share in the political
power and in the public land 30
494. Secession to the Sacred Mount 30
Fable of Menenius Agrippa 31
Institution of the Tribunes of the Plebs 31
486. Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius 31
Foreign wars 32
488. I. Coriolanus and the Volscians 32
477. II. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines 33
458. III. Cincinnatus and the Æquians 34
League between the Romans, Latins, and Hernicans 35
CHAPTER V.
THE DECEMVIRATE. B.C. 451-449.
471. Publilian Law transferring the election of the Tribunes
from the Comitia of Centuries to those of the Tribes 36
462. Proposal of the Tribune Terentilius Arsa for the
appointment of Decemviri 37
460. Seizure of the Capitol by Herdonius the Sabine 37
454. Appointment of three Commissioners to visit Greece 37
452. Their return to Rome 37
451. Appointment of the Decemviri 37
The Ten Tables 37
450. New Decemviri appointed 37
Their tyranny 38
Two new Tables added, making twelve in all 38
449. The Decemviri continue in office 38
Death of Sicinius Dentatus 38
Death of Virginia 39
Second secession to the Sacred Mount 39
Resignation of the Decemvirs 39
Election of ten Tribunes 40
Valerian and Horatian Laws 40
Death of Appius Claudius 40
The Twelve Tables 40
CHAPTER VI.
FROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS.
B.C. 448-390.
445. Third secession to the Sacred Mount 41
Lex Canuleia for intermarriage between the two orders 41
Institution of Military Tribunes with consular powers 41
443. Institution of the Censorship 41
421. Quæstorship thrown open to the Plebeians 42
440. Famine at Rome 42
Death of Sp. Mælius 42
Foreign wars 42
Roman colonies 43
War with the Etruscans 43
437. Spolia Opima won by A. Cornelius Cossus 43
426. Capture and destruction of Fidenæ 43
403. Commencement of siege of Veii 43
Tale of the Alban Lake 43
396. Appointment of Camillus as Dictator 43
Capture of Veii 44
394. War with Falerii 44
Tale of the Schoolmaster 44
Unpopularity of Camillus 44
391. He goes into exile 44
CHAPTER VII.
FROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL UNION OF THE
TWO ORDERS. B.C. 390-367.
The Gauls, or Celts 45
391. Attack of Clusium by the Senones 45
Roman ambassadors sent to Clusium 45
They take part in the fight against the Senones 45
The Senones march upon Rome 46
390. Battle of the Allia 46
Destruction of Rome 46
Siege of the Capitol 46
Legend of M. Manlius 47
Appointment of Camillus as Dictator 47
He delivers Rome from the Gauls 47
Rebuilding of the city 47
Further Gallic wars 48
361. Legend of T. Manlius Torquatus 48
349. Legend of M. Valerius Corvus 48
385. Distress at Rome 48
384. M. Manlius comes forward as a patron of the poor 48
His fate 49
376. Licinian Rogations proposed 49
Violent opposition of the Patricians 50
367. Licinian Rogations passed 50
366. L. Sextius first Plebeian Consul 50
Institution of the Prætorship 50
356. First Plebeian Dictator 51
351. First Plebeian Censor 51
336. First Plebeian Prætor 51
300. Lex Ogulnia, increasing the number of the Pontiffs and
Augurs, and enacting that a certain number of them
should be taken from the Plebeians 51
339. Publilian Laws 51
286. Lex Hortensia 51
CHAPTER VIII.
FROM THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS TO THE END OF THE SAMNITE WARS.
B.C. 367-290.
362. Pestilence at Rome 52
Death of Camillus 52
Tale of M. Curtius 53
The Samnites 53
Their history 53
Division into four tribes 53
Conquer Campania and Lucania 53
Samnites of the Apennines attack the Sidicini 53
Campanians assist the Sidicini 53
They are defeated by the Samnites 53
They solicit the assistance of Rome 53
343-341. FIRST SAMNITE WAR 54
Battle of Mount Gaurus 54
Peace concluded 54
Reasons for the conclusion of peace 54
340-338. THE LATIN WAR 54
The armies meet near Mount Vesuvius 55
Tale of Torquatus 55
Decisive battle 55
Self-sacrifice of Decius 55
Capture of Latin towns 56
Conclusion of the war 56
329. Conquest of the Volscian town of Privernum 56
Origin of the Second Samnite War 56
327. The Romans attack Palæopolis and Neapolis 56
326-304. SECOND SAMNITE WAR 57
_First Period._
Roman arms successful 57
325. Quarrel between L. Papirius Dictator and Q. Fabius, his
master of the horse 57
321-315. _Second Period._
Success of the Samnites 57
321. Defeat of the Romans at the Caudine Forks by C. Pontius 68
Ignominious treaty rejected by the Romans 58
314-304. _Third Period._
Success of the Romans 58
311. War with the Etruscans 58
Defeat of the Etruscans 59
Defeat of the Samnites 59
304. Peace with Rome 59
300. Conquests of Rome in Central Italy 59
Coalition of Etruscans, Umbrians, and Samnites against Rome 59
298-290. THIRD SAMNITE WAR 59
295. Decisive battle of Sentinum 59
Self-sacrifice of the younger Decius 59
292. C. Pontius taken prisoner and put to death 59
CHAPTER IX.
FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF ITALY.
B.C. 290-265.
283. War with the Etruscans and Gauls 60
Battle of the Lake Vadimo 60
282. State of Magna Græcia 60
The Romans assist Thurii 60
Their fleet is attacked by the Tarentines 61
Roman embassy to Tarentum 61
281. War declared against the Tarentines 61
They apply for aid to Pyrrhus 61
Pyrrhus arrives in Italy 62
280. His first campaign against the Romans 62
Battle of Heraclea 62
Remarks of Pyrrhus on the victory 62
He attempts to make peace with Rome 62
Failure of his minister Cineas 63
He marches upon Rome and arrives at Præneste 63
Retires into winter quarters at Tarentum 63
Embassy of Fabricius 63
279. Second campaign of Pyrrhus 64
Battle of Asculum 64
278. Treachery of the physician of Pyrrhus 64
Truce with Rome 64
Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily 64
276. He returns to Italy 64
274. Defeat of Pyrrhus 65
He returns to Greece 65
272. Subjugation of Tarentum 65
Conquest of Italy 65
273. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome 65
Three classes of Italian population:
I. Cives Romani, or Roman Citizens 66
1. Of the Thirty-three tribes 66
2. Of the Roman Colonies 66
3. Of the Municipal Towns 66
II. Nomen Latinum, or the Latin name 66
III. Socii, or Allies 66
312. Censorship of Appius Claudius 67
His dangerous innovation as to the Freedmen 67
304. Repealed in the Censorship of Q. Fabius Maximus and
P. Decius Mus 67
312. The Appian Way 67
The Appian Aqueduct 67
Cn. Flavius 67
CHAPTER X.
THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. B.C. 264-241.
814. Foundation of Carthage 68
Its empire 68
Its government 68
Its army 68
Its foreign conquests 68
Conquest of Messana by the Mamertini 69
Hiero attacks the Mamertini 69
They apply for assistance to Rome 69
264. The Consul Ap. Claudius crosses over to Sicily to aid them 70
He defeats the forces of Syracuse and Carthage 70
263. Hiero makes peace with the Romans 70
262. Capture of Agrigentum by the Romans 70
260. The Romans build a fleet 70
Naval victory of the Consul Duilius 71
256. The Romans invade Africa 72
Their naval victory 72
Brilliant success of Regulus in Africa 72
The Carthaginians sue in vain for peace 72
255. Arrival of the Lacedæmonian Xanthippus 72
He restores confidence to the Carthaginians 73
Defeat and capture of Regulus 73
Destruction of the Roman fleet by a storm 73
The Romans build another fleet 73
253. Again destroyed by a storm 73
The war confined to Sicily 73
250. Victory of Metellus at Panormus 73
Embassy of the Carthaginians to Rome 73
Heroic conduct of Regulus 74
250. Siege of Lilybæum 74
249. Defeat of the Consul Claudius at sea 75
Destruction of the Roman fleet a third time 75
247. Appointment of Hamilcar Barca to the Carthaginian command 75
He intrenches himself on Mount Herctè, near Panormus 75
He removes to Mount Eryx 75
241. Victory off the Ægatian Islands 76
Peace with Carthage 76
End of the War 76
CHAPTER XI.
EVENTS BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS. B.C. 240-219.
240-238. War of the Mercenaries with Carthage 77
She owes her safety to Hamilcar 77
238. The Romans seize Sardinia and Corsica 77
Hamilcar goes to Spain 78
235. Temple of Janus closed 78
Completion of the Thirty-five Roman Tribes 78
229. ILLYRIAN WAR 78
Conquest of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians 78
223. Honors paid to the Romans in the Grecian cities 78
232. Agrarian law of the Tribune Flaminius 78
225. GALLIC WAR 78
Defeat of the Gauls at Telamon in Etruria 79
224. Conquest of the Boii 79
223. The Romans cross the Po 79
222. Conquest of the Insubres 79
Marcellus wins the Spolia Opima 79
220. The Via Flaminia from Rome to Ariminum 79
218. Foundation of Colonies at Placentia and Cremona 79
219. SECOND ILLYRIAN WAR 79
235. Hamilcar in Spain 80
Oath of Hannibal 80
229. Death of Hamilcar 80
Hasdrubal succeeds him in the command 80
227. Treaty with Rome 80
221. Death of Hasdrubal 80
Hannibal succeeds him in the command 80
219. Siege of Saguntum 80
Its capture 81
War declared against Carthage 81
CHAPTER XII.
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR: FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF CANNÆ
B.C. 218-216.
218. Preparations of Hannibal 82
His march to the Rhone 83
Arrival of the Consul Scipio at Massilia 83
Hannibal crosses the Rhone 83
Scipio sends his brother to Spain, and returns himself to
Italy 83
Hannibal crosses the Alps 83
Skirmish on the Ticinus 84
Battle of the Trebia 84
Defeat of the Romans 84
217. Hannibal's march through Etruria 86
Battle of the Lake Trasimenus 86
Great defeat of the Romans 86
Q. Fabius Maximus appointed Dictator 87
His policy 87
Rashness of Minucius, the Master of the Horse 87
216. Great preparations of the Romans 88
Battle of Cannæ 88
Great defeat of the Romans 88
Revolt of Southern Italy 88
Hannibal winters at Capua 89
Note on Hannibal's passage across the Alps 90
CHAPTER XIII.
SECOND PUNIC WAR: SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA TO THE
BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. B.C. 215-207.
215. Plan of the War 91
Hannibal's repulse before Nola 92
214. He attempts in vain to surprise Tarentum 92
213. He obtains possession of Tarentum 93
WAR IN SICILY--
216. Death of Hiero 93
Succession of Hieronymus 93
His assassination 93
214. Arrival of Marcellus in Sicily 93
He takes Leontini 93
He lays siege to Syracuse 93
Defended by Archimedes 93
212. Capture of Syracuse 94
WAR IN SPAIN--
212. Capture and death of the two Scipios 95
Siege of Capua 95
211. Hannibal marches upon Rome 95
Is compelled to retreat 96
The Romans recover Capua 96
Punishment of its inhabitants 93
209. The Romans recover Tarentum 96
208. Defeat and death of Marcellus 97
207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy 97
He besieges Placentia 97
March of the Consul Nero to join his colleague Livius
in Umbria 97
Battle of the Metaurus 98
Defeat and death of Hasdrubal 98
CHAPTER XIV.
SECOND PUNIC WAR: THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS TO
THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. B.C. 206-201.
Character and early life of Scipio 99
210. He is elected Proconsul for Spain 100
He takes New Carthage 100
206. He subdues Spain 101
He crosses over into Africa and visits Syphax 101
He returns to Rome 102
205. His Consulship 102
He prepares to invade Africa 102
His project is opposed by Fabius and others 102
204. He arrives in Africa 103
203. He defeats the Carthaginians and Syphax 103
Masinissa and Sophonisba 103
The Carthaginians recall Hannibal 104
202. Battle of Zama, and defeat of Hannibal 104
Terms of peace 105
201. Conclusion of the war 105
Triumph of Scipio 105
CHAPTER XV.
WARS IN THE EAST: THE MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GALATIAN WARS.
B.C. 214-188.
State of the East 106
Syria 106
Pontus 106
Galatia 106
Pergamus 106
Egypt 107
State of Greece 107
Macedonia 107
Achæan League 107
Ætolian League 107
Rhodes 107
Sparta 107
214-205. FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR--
Its indecisive character 108
211. Treaty of the Romans with the Ætolian League 108
205. Conclusion of the war 108
Philip's hostile acts 108
He assists the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama 108
His conduct in Greece 108
200-196. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR--
200. First campaign: the Consul Galba 108
199. Second campaign: the Consul Villius 109
198. Third campaign: the Consul Flamininus 109
197. Battle of Cynoscephalæ 109
196. Declaration of Grecian independence at the Isthmian
Games 109
191-190. SYRIAN WAR--
Antiochus the Third 110
Intrigues of the Ætolians in Greece 110
They Invite Antiochus to Greece 110
Hannibal expelled from Carthage 110
He arrives in Syria 110
His advice to Antiochus 110
192. Antiochus crosses over to Greece 110
191. The Romans defeat him at Thermopylæ 110
He returns to Asia 110
190. The Romans invade Asia 111
Battle of Magnesia 111
Defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus 111
Terms of peace 111
Hannibal flies to Prusias, king of Bithynia 111
189. ÆTOLIAN WAR--
Fulvius takes Ambracia 111
Terms of peace 111
189. GALATIAN WAR--
Manlius attacks the Galatians without the authority of
the Senate or the People 112
187. He returns to Rome 113
Effects of the Eastern conquests upon the Roman character 113
CHAPTER XVI.
WARS IN THE WEST: THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH WARS.
B.C. 200-175.
200. THE GALLIC WAR--
The Gauls take Placentia and lay siege to Cremona 113
Conquest of the Insubres and Cenomani 114
191. Conquest of the Boil 114
190. Colony founded at Bononia 114
180. Via Æmilia 114
200. THE LIGURIAN WAR--
Continued with intermissions for nearly 80 years 114
Character of the war 114
198. TWO PROVINCES FORMED IN SPAIN 114
195. THE SPANISH WAR--
The Consul M. Porcius Cato sent into Spain 114
His success 115
The Spaniards again take up arms 115
180. The war brought to a conclusion by Tib. Sempronius
Gracchus 115
178. THE ISTRIAN WAR 115
177-175. THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN WAR 115
CHAPTER XVII.
THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMY.
Review of the history of the Roman Constitution 116
Political equality of the Patricians and Plebeians 116
I. THE MAGISTRATES--
The Lex Annalis 117
1. The Quæstors 117
2. The Ædiles 117
3. The Prætors 117
4. The Consuls 118
5. The Dictators 118
6. The Censors 118
(_a_) The Census 118
(_b_) Control over the morals of the citizens 119
(_c_) Administration of the finances of the
state 119
II. THE SENATE--
Its number 119
Its mode of Election 119
Its power and duties 119
III. THE POPULAR ASSEMBLIES--
1. The Comitia Curiata 120
2. The Comitia Centuriata: change in its
constitution 120
3. The Comitia Tributa 121
The Tribunes 121
The Plebiscita 121
IV. FINANCES--
Tributum 121
Vectigalia 121
V. THE ARMY--
Number of the Legion 122
1. _First Period_--Servius Tullius 122
2. _Second Period_--The Great Latin War, B.C. 340 122
Hastati 122
Principes 122
Triarii 122
Rorarii and Accensi 123
3. _Third Period_--During the wars of the
younger Scipio 123
Two legions assigned to each Consul 123
Division of the legion 123
The Maniples 123
The Cohorts 123
The Tribuni Militum 123
The Horse-soldiers 123
Infantry of the Socii 123
4. _Fourth Period_--From the times of the
Gracchi to the downfall of the Republic 123
Changes introduced by Marius 124
Triumphs 124
CHAPTER XVIII.
INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME DURING THE MACEDONIAN AND SYRIAN WARS.
CATO AND SCIPIO.
Effect of the Roman conquests in the East 126
Debasement of the Roman character 126
192. Infamous conduct of L. Flamininus 127
193. Worship of Bacchus 127
Gladiatorial exhibitions 127
Rise of the new nobility 127
191. Law against bribery 127
Decay of the peasant proprietors 128
M. Porcius Cato 128
234. His birth 128
His early life 128
204. His Quæstorship 129
198. His Prætorship 129
195. His Consulship 129
Repeal of the Oppian Law 130
191. Cato serves in the battle of Thermopylæ 130
Prosecution of the two Scipios 130
Haughty conduct of Scipio Africanus 130
Condemnation of Scipio Asiaticus 130
Prosecution of Scipio Africanus 130
He leaves Rome 131
188. His death 131
Death of Hannibal 132
184. Censorship of Cato 132
He studies Greek in his old age 132
His character 133
CHAPTER XIX.
THE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHÆAN, AND THIRD PUNIC WARS. B.C. 179-146.
179. Death of Philip and accession of Perseus 134
172. Murder of Eumenes, king of Pergamus 135
171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR--
168. Battle of Pydna 135
Defeat of Perseus by L. Æmilius Paullus 135
167. Æmilius Paullus punishes the Epirotes 135
His triumph 135
His domestic misfortunes 136
Haughty conduct of Rome in the East 136
Embassy to Antiochus Epiphanes 136
Treatment of Eumenes, king of Pergamus 136
Mean conduct of Prusias, king of Bythinia 136
Treatment of the Rhodians 136
167. One thousand Achæans sent to Italy 136
151. The survivors allowed to return to Greece 137
140. A pretender lays claim to the throne of Macedonia 137
He is defeated and taken prisoner 137
147-146. THE ACHÆAN WAR--
146. Corinth taken by L. Mummius 138
Final conquest of Greece 138
Rome jealous of Carthage 139
Advice of Scipio 139
War between Masinissa and Carthage 139
Conduct of the Romans 140
149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR--
147. Scipio Africanus the younger, Consul 140
His parentage and adoption 140
His character 140
146. He takes Carthage 142
Formation of the Roman province of Africa 142
Later history of Carthage 142
CHAPTER XX.
SPANISH WARS, B.C. 153-133. FIRST SERVILE WAR, B.C. 134-132.
153. War with the Celtiberians 143
152. Peace with the Celtiberians 143
151. War with the Lusitanians 143
150. Treacherous murder of the Lusitanians by Galba 144
Success of Viriathus against the Romans 144
The Celtiberians again take up arms--the Numantine War 144
140. Murder of Viriathus 145
138. Brutus conquers the Gallæci 145
137. The Consul Hostilius Mancinus defeated by the Numantines 145
He signs a peace with the Numantines 145
The Senate refuse to ratify it 145
142. Censorship of Scipio Africanus 145
134. Consul a second time 145
He carries on the war against Numantia 146
133. He takes Numantia 146
Increase of slaves 146
They rise in Sicily 146
They elect Eunus as their leader 146
Eunus assumes the title of king 146
134. He defeats the Roman generals 147
132. Is himself defeated and taken prisoner 147
133. Death of Attalus, last king of Pergamus 147
He bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans 147
131. Aristonicus lays claim to the kingdom of Pergamus 147
130. Is defeated and taken prisoner 147
129. Formation of the province of Asia 147
Extent of the Roman dominions 147
CHAPTER XXI.
THE GRACCHI. B.C. 133-121.
Necessity for reform 148
Early life of Tiberius Gracchus 149
137. Quæstor in Spain 149
133. Elected Tribune 150
Brings forward an Agrarian Law 150
Opposition of the landowners 150
The Tribune Octavius puts his veto upon it 150
Deposition of Octavius 151
The Agrarian Law enseted 151
Three Commissioners elected 151
Distribution of the treasures of Pergamus among the Roman
people 151
Renewed opposition to Tiberius 151
He becomes a candidate for the Tribunate a second time 151
Riots 152
Death of Tiberius 152
132. Return of Scipio to Rome 152
He opposes the popular party 153
129. Death of Scipio 153
126. Expulsion of the Allies from Rome 154
125. M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes to give the franchise to the
Italians 154
Revolt and destruction of Fregellæ 154
126. C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia as Quæstor 154
124. He returns to Rome 157
123. He is elected Tribune 157
His legislation 157
I. Laws for improving the condition of the people 157
1. Extension of the Agrarian Law 157
2. State provision for the poor 157
3. Soldiers equipped at the expense of the Republic 157
II. Laws to diminish the power of the Senate 157
1. Transference of the judicial power from the
Senators to the Equites 157
2. Distribution of the Provinces before the
election of the Consuls 158
122. C. Gracchus Tribune a second time 158
Proposes to confer the citizenship upon the Latins 158
Unpopularity of this proposal 158
The Tribune M. Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus 158
Foundation of a colony at Carthage 159
Decline of the popularity of Gracchus 159
121. His murder 160
Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi 160
CHAPTER XXII.
JUGURTHA AND HIS TIMES. B.C. 118-104.
C. MARIUS 161
134. Serves at the siege of Numantia 161
Attracts the notice of Scipio Africanus 161
119. Tribune of the Plebs 162
115. Prætor 162
149. Death of Masinissa 162
Accession of Micipsa 162
134. Jugurtha serves at the siege of Numantia 162
118. Death of Micipsa 162
Jugurtha assassinates Hiempsal 163
War between Jugurtha and Adherbal 163
117. Roman commissioners divide Numidia between Jugurtha and
Adherbal 163
Fresh war between Jugurtha and Adherbal 163
Siege of Cirta 163
112. Death of Adherbal 163
111. The Romans declare war against Jugurtha 163
Jugurtha bribes the Consul Calpurnius Bestia 163
Indignation at Rome 163
Jugurtha comes to Rome 164
111. He murders Massiva 164
Renewal of the war 164
110. Incapacity of the Consul Sp. Postumius Albinus 164
Defeat of his brother Aulus 164
109. Bill of the Tribune C. Mamilius 164
Many Romans condemned 164
The Consul Q. Cæcilius Metellus lands in Africa 164
Accompanied by Marius as his lieutenant 165
Metellus defeats Jugurtha 165
Ambitious views of Marius 165
108. He quits Africa and arrives in Rome 166
Is elected Consul 166
Attacks the nobility 166
Campaign of Metellus as Proconsul 166
The people give Marius command of the Numidian War 166
107. First Consulship of Marius 166
He arrives in Africa 166
He defeats Jugurtha and Bocchus, king of Mauritania 167
106. Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla, the Quæstor of
Marius 167
Early history of Sulla 167
His character 167
104. Triumph of Marius 168
His second Consulship 168
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101. SECOND SERVILE WAR IN SICILY,
B.C. 103-101.
Invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones 169
Their probable origin 169
113. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Papirius Carbo 169
109. Defeat of the Consul M. Junius Silanus 169
107. Defeat of the Consul L. Cassius Longinus 169
105. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the
Proconsul Cn. Servilius Cæpio 170
104. Second Consulship of Marius 170
The Cimbri invade Spain 170
103. Third Consulship of Marius 170
102. Fourth Consulship of Marius 170
The Cimbri return from Spain 170
102. Marius takes up his position near Arles 170
The Cimbri enter Italy by the Pass of Tridentum 170
Great defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquæ Sextiæ 171
101. Fifth Consulship of Marius 171
Great defeat of the Teutones at Vercellæ by Marius and
the Proconsul Catulus 171
Triumph of Marius and Catulus 171
103-101. Second Servile War in Sicily 171
Tryphon king of the Slaves 172
Succeeded by Athenio as king 172
101. The Consul Aquillius puts an end to the war 172
CHAPTER XXIV.
INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME, FROM THE DEFEAT OF THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES
TO THE SOCIAL WAR. B.C. 100-91.
100. Sixth Consulship of Marius 173
His league with the demagogues Saturninus and Glaucia 173
Agrarian Law of Saturninus 174
Banishment of Metellus 174
Saturninus declared a public enemy 174
He is put to death 175
Marius visits the East 175
92. Condemnation of Rutilius Lupus 175
91. Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus 175
His measures 176
Proposes to give the franchise to the Italian allies 176
His assassination 176
CHAPTER XXV.
THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR. B.C. 90-89.
90. The Allies take up arms 178
The war breaks out at Asculum in Picenum 178
Corfinium the new capital of the Italian confederation 178
Q. Pompædius Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papius Mutilus, a
Samnite, the Italian Consuls 178
Defeat and death of the Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus 179
Exploits of Marius 179
The Lex Julia 179
89. Success of the Romans 180
The Lex Plautia Papiria 180
The franchise given to the Allies 180
All the Allies lay down their arms except the Samnites
and Lucanians 180
Ten new Tribes formed 180
CHAPTER XXVI.
FIRST CIVIL WAR. B.C. 88-86.
88. Consulship of Sulla 181
Receives the command of the Mithridatic War 181
The Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus 182
He proposes to distribute the Italians among the
thirty-five Tribes 182
Sulla flies from Rome to Nola 182
The people give Marius the command of the Mithridatic War 182
Sulla marches upon Rome 182
Sulpicius put to death 183
Marius flies from Rome 183
His adventures 183
Is seized at Minturnæ 183
Escapes to Africa 184
Sulla sails to the East 184
87. Riots at Rome 185
The Consul Cinna invites the assistance of Marius 185
Marius and Cinna march upon Rome 185
They enter the city 185
Proscription of their enemies 185
86. Seventh Consulship of Marius 185
His death 185
CHAPTER XXVII.
FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 88-84.
Kingdom of Pontus 186
Its history 186
120. Accession of Mithridates VI 186
His early life 186
His attainments 187
His conquests 187
His disputes with the Romans 187
88. He invades Cappadocia and Bithynia 187
He invades the Roman province of Asia 188
Massacre of Romans and Italians 188
87. The Grecian states declare in favor of Mithridates 188
Sulla lands in Epirus 188
He lays siege to Athens and the Piræus 188
86. Takes these cities 188
Defeats Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, at Chæronea 188
85. Again defeats Archelaus at Orchomenus 189
84. Peace with Mithridates 189
Sulla attacks Fimbria, the Marian general, in Asia 189
83. He returns to Italy 189
CHAPTER XXVIII.
SECOND CIVIL WAR--SULLA'S DICTATORSHIP, LEGISLATION, AND DEATH.
B.C. 83-78.
84. Consulship of Cinna and Carbo 190
Death of Cinna 190
83. Consulship of Scipio and Norbanus 190
Preparations for war 191
The Italians support the Marian party 191
Sulla marches from Brundusium to Campania 191
Defeats the Consul Norbanus 191
Pompey, Metellus Pius, Crasus, and others, join Sulla 192
83. Consulship of Papirus Carbo and the younger Marius 192
Defeat of Marius, who takes refuge in Præneste 192
Murder of Senators in Rome by order of Marius 192
Great battle before the Colline gate at Rome between
Sulla and the Samnites 192
Defeat of the Samnites 193
Surrender of Præneste 193
Death of Marius 193
End of the war 193
Sulla master of Rome 193
Proscription 193
Dreadful scenes 194
81. Sulla dictator 194
He celebrates his triumph over Mithridates 194
His reforms in the constitution 194
His military colonies 194
73. He resigns the Dictatorship 195
He retires to Puteoli 195
73. His death 195
His funeral 196
LEGES CORNELLÆ--
I. _Laws relating to the Constitution_ 196
Deprive the Comitia Tribute of their legislative
and judicial powers 196
Increase the power of the Senate 197
Increase the number of the Quæstors and Prætors 197
Deprive the Tribunes of all real power 197
II. _Laws relating to the Ecclesiastical Corporations_ 197
Repeal of the Lex Domitia 197
Increase of the number of Pontiffs and Augurs 197
III. _Laws relating to the Administration of Justice_ 197
Quæstiones Perpetuæ 197
Transference of the Judicia from the Equites to
the Senators 198
IV. _Laws relating to the improvement of Public Morals_ 198
CHAPTER XXIX.
FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS.
B.C. 78-70.
78. Consulship of Lepidus and Catulus 199
Lepidus attempts to repeal the laws of Sulla 199
Is opposed by Catulus 199
Is defeated at the Mulvian Bridge 199
Retires to Sardinia 200
His death 200
82. Sertorius in Spain 200
79. Carries on war against Metellus 200
CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS 200
His birth 200
89. Fights against the Italians under his father 200
83. Joins Sulla 200
82. Is sent into Sicily and Africa 200
80. Enters Rome in triumph 201
78. Supports the aristocracy against Lepidus 201
76. Is sent into Spain to assist Metellus 201
72. Assassination of Sertorius by Perperna 202
71. Pompey finishes the war in Spain 202
73. War of the Gladiators: Spartacus 202
72. Spartacus defeats both Consuls 202
71. Crassus appointed to the command of the war against
the Gladiators 202
Defeats and slays Spartacus 203
Pompey cuts to pieces a body of Gladiators 203
70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus 203
Pompey restores the Tribunitian power 203
Law of L. Aurelius Cotta, transferring the Judicia to
the Senators, Equites, and Tribuni Ærarii 204
CHAPTER XXX.
THIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. B.C. 74-61.
83. SECOND MITHRIDATIC WAR--
Murena invades Pontus 205
83. Mithridates defeats Murena 205
End of the Second Mithridatic War 205
Preparations of Mithridates 206
71. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR--
Mithridates defeats the Consul Cotta 206
He lays siege to Cyzicus 206
73. The siege is raised by Lucullus 207
Lucullus defeats Mithridates 207
71. Mithridates takes refuge in Armenia 207
70. Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia 207
69. He invades Armenia and defeats Tigranes 208
68. Lucullus defeats Tigranes and Mithridates, and lays
siege to Nisibis 208
67. Mithridates returns to Pontus and defeats the generals
of Lucullus 208
Mutiny in the army of Lucullus 208
The command of the Mithridatic War given to Glabrio 209
WAR WITH THE PIRATES--
Account of the Pirates 209
Command of the war given by the Gabinian Law to Pompey 210
Success of Pompey 210
He finishes the war 210
66. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR CONTINUED 210
Command of the Mithridatic War given by the Manilian Law
to Pompey 210
It is opposed by the aristocracy 211
It is supported by Cicero 211
Pompey defeats Mithridates 211
Mithridates retires into the Cimmerian Bosporus 211
Pompey invades Armenia 212
Submission of Tigranes 212
65. Pompey pursues Mithridates 212
He advances as far as the River Phasis 212
He returns to Pontus, which he reduces to the form of
a Roman province 212
64. He marches into Syria, which he makes a Roman province 212
63. He subdues Phoenicia and Palestine 212
He takes Jerusalem 212
Preparations of Mithridates 213
Conspiracy against him 213
His death 213
Pompey settles the affairs of Asia 213
62. He returns to Italy 213
CHAPTER XXXI.
INTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS TO THE
RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST: THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE.
B.C. 69-61.
C. JULIUS CÆSAR--
100. His birth 214
His early history 214
Proscribed by Sulla 215
81. He serves in Asia 215
77. Accuses Dolabella 215
Taken by the Pirates 215
75. Studies in Rhodes 215
68. Quæstor 215
65. Curule Ædile 216
Restores the statues of Marius 216
M. TULLIUS CICERO--
106. His birth 216
80. Serves in the Social War 216
81. His speech for P. Quintius 216
80. His speech for Sex. Roscius of Ameria 216
79. He goes to Athens 216
78. He studies in Rome 216
77. He returns to Rome 216
76. Quæstor in Sicily 217
70. He accuses Verres 217
68. Ædile 217
66. Prætor 217
He speaks on behalf of the Manilian law 217
65. First conspiracy of Catiline 217
History of Catiline 218
63. Consulship of Cicero 219
Second conspiracy of Catiline 219
Catiline quits Rome 220
Cicero seizes the conspirators 220
They are put to death 221
62. Defeat and death of Catiline 221
Popularity of Cicero 221
Remarks upon the punishment of the conspirators 221
CHAPTER XXXII.
FROM POMPEY'S RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERO'S BANISHMENT AND RECALL.
B.C. 62-57.
62. Pompey arrives in Italy 223
61. Triumph of Pompey 223
State of parties in Rome 224
60. The Senate refuses to sanction Pompey's measures in Asia 224
63. Prætorship of Cæsar 224
61. Proprætor in Spain 224
60. His victories in Spain 224
He returns to Rome 225
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE 225
59. Consulship of Cæsar 225
Agrarian Law for the division of the Campanian land 225
Ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia 225
Marriage of Julia, Cæsar's daughter, with Pompey 225
Cæsar gains over the Equites 225
Vatinian Law, granting to Cæsar the provinces of
Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years 226
Transalpine Gaul added 226
62. Clodius profanes the rites of the Bona Dea 226
61. His trial and acquittal 227
His enmity against Cicero 227
58. Tribune of the Plebs 227
He accuses Cicero 227
Banishment of Cicero 227
57. Riots at Rome between Clodius and Milo 227
Return of Cicero from banishment 228
CHAPTER XXXIII.
CÆSAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B.C. 58-51.
58. _First Campaign_ 229
He defeats the Helvetii 229
He defeats Ariovistus and the Germans 230
57. _Second Campaign_ 230
The Belgic War 230
Great victory over the Nervii 230
55. _Third Campaign_ 230
He defeats the Veneti 231
He defeats the Morini and Menapii 231
55. _Fourth Campaign_ 231
Cæsar crosses the Rhine 231
His first invasion of Britain 231
54. _Fifth Campaign_ 232
His second invasion of Britain 232
Revolt of the Eburones 232
They destroy the detachment of T. Titurius Sabinus
and L. Aurunculeius Cotta 232
They attack the camp of Q. Cicero 232
53. _Sixth Campaign_ 232
Cæsar puts down the revolt in Gaul 233
He crosses the Rhine a second time 233
52. _Seventh Campaign_ 233
Revolt of all Gaul 233
Headed by Vercingetorix 233
Cæsar takes Alesia and Vercingetorix 234
51. _Eighth Campaign_ 234
Pacification of Gaul 234
CHAPTER XXXIV.
INTERNAL HISTORY FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISHMENT TO THE
COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR: EXPEDITION AND DEATH OF CRASSUS.
B.C. 57-50.
57. Cicero supports the Triumvirs 235
56. Pompey and Crassus meet Cæsar at Luca 236
Fresh arrangements for the continuance of their power 236
55. Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus 236
The Trebonian Law, giving the two Spains to Pompey and
Syria to Crassus, and prolonging Pompey's government
for five years more 236
Dedication of Pompey's theatre 236
54. Crassus crosses the Euphrates 237
He winters in Syria 237
53. He again crosses the Euphrates 237
Is defeated and slain near Carrhæ 237
54. Death of Julia 237
53. Riots in Rome 238
52. Murder of Clodius by Milo 238
Pompey sole Consul 238
Trial and condemnation of Milo 238
51. Rupture between Cæsar and Pompey 239
Pompey joins the aristocratical party 239
49. Proposition that Cæsar should lay down his command 240
The Senate invest the Consuls with dictatorial power 240
The Tribunes Antony and Cassius fly to Cæsar's camp 240
Commencement of the Civil War 240
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND CIVIL WAR TO CÆSAR'S DEATH, B.C. 49-44.
49. Cæsar at Ravenna 241
He crosses the Rubicon 241
His triumphal progress through Italy 241
Pompey and his party fly from Rome to Brundusium 242
They are pursued by Cæsar 242
They embark for Greece 242
Cæsar goes to Rome 242
He sets out for Spain 242
He conquers L. Africanus and M. Petreius, Pompey's
lieutenants in Spain 243
Is appointed Dictator, which office he holds only
eleven days 243
He takes Massilia 243
48. He sails from Brundusium to Greece 243
He besieges Pompey at Dyrrhachium 244
Is compelled to retire 241
Battle of Pharsalia, and defeat of Pompey 244
Pompey flies to Egypt 245
His death 245
Cæsar is appointed Dictator a second time 245
The Alexandrine War 245
47. Conclusion of the Alexandrine War 246
Cæsar marches into Pontus and defeats Pharnaces 246
He sails to Africa 246
46. Battle of Thapsus, and defeat of the Pompeians 246
Siege of Utica 247
Death of Cato 247
Cæsar returns to Rome 247
His triumph 247
His reformation of the Calendar 247
Insurrection in Spain 248
Cæsar sets out for Spain 248
45. Battle of Munda, and defeat of the Pompeians 248
Cæsar returns to Rome 248
He is undisputed master of the Roman world 248
Honors conferred upon him 248
Use he made of his power 248
His vast projects 249
44. Conspiracy against Cæsar's life 249
Brutus and Cassius 249
Assassination of Cæsar on the Ides of March 250
Reflections on his death 250
His character and genius 250
CHAPTER XXXVI.
FROM THE DEATH OF CÆSAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. B.C. 44-42.
44. Proceedings of the conspirators 252
Antony and Lepidus 253
Pretended reconciliation 253
Cæsar's will 253
His funeral 253
Popular indignation against the conspirators 253
They fly from Home 253
OCTAVIUS, Cæsar's nephew, at Illyricum 253
Is made Cæsar's heir 253
He proceeds to Rome 254
His opposition to Antony 254
He courts the Senate 254
Antony proceeds to Cisalpine Gaul, and lays siege to
Mutina 254
43. Cicero's second Philippic 254
Octavian and the Consuls Hirtius and Pansa march
against Antony 255
They attack Antony 255
Death of Hirtius and Pansa 255
Antony is defeated, and crosses the Alps 255
Octavian marches to Rome 255
Is declared Consul 255
Breaks with the Senate, and outlaws the murderers
of Cæsar 255
Marches against Antony and Lepidus 255
Is reconciled with them 256
SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 256
The Triumvirs enter Rome 256
Dreadful Scenes 256
Death of Cicero 257
Sextus Pompey master of Sicily and the Mediterranean 257
He defeats the fleet of the Triumvirs 257
Brutus obtains possession of Macedonia 258
Cassius, of Syria 258
Their proceedings in the East 258
They plunder Asia Minor 258
42. They return to Europe to meet the Triumvirs 258
Battle of Philippi 261
Death of Brutus and Cassius 261
CHAPTER XXXVII.
FROM THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 41-30.
41. Antony remains in the East 262
He meets Cleopatra at Tarsus 262
He accompanies her to Alexandria 263
Octavian returns to Rome 263
Confusion in Italy 263
Confiscation of lands 263
Fulvia, the wife of Antony, and L. Antonius, his
brother, rise against Antony 263
They take refuge in Perusia 263
40. Capture of Perusia, and end of the war 263
The Parthians invade Syria 264
Antony joins Sextus Pompey and lays siege to Brundusium 264
Reconciliation between Antony and Octavian 264
Fresh division of the Roman world 264
Antony marries Octavia 264
39. Peace with Sextus Pompey at Misenum 264
Ventidius, the Legate of Antony, defeats the Parthians 265
38. He again defeats the Parthians 265
Death of Pacorus 265
War with Sextus Pompey 265
He destroys the fleet of Octavian 265
37. Antony comes to Tarentum 266
Triumvirate renewed for another period of five years 266
36. Renewal of the war with Sextus Pompey 266
His defeat 266
He flies to Asia 266
Lepidus deprived of his Triumvirate 266
35. Death of Pompey 266
30. Antony joins Cleopatra 267
His infatuation 267
He invades Parthia 267
His disastrous retreat 267
34. He invades Armenia 267
Octavian subdues the Dalmatians 267
His prudent conduct 267
33. Rupture between Octavian and Antony 267
32. War against Cleopatra 268
31. Battle of Actium 268
Defeat of Antony 268
He flies to Alexandria 268
30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra 269
Egypt made a Roman province 269
End of the Republic 269
29. Triumph of Octavian 269
27. He receives the title of Augustus 270
His policy 270
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE FROM THE EARLIEST
TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.
Poetry--
Saturnian Metre 272
Commencement of Roman Literature 272
_The Drama_--
240. M. Livius Andronicus 272
235. Cn. Nævius 273
239-169. Q. Ennius 273
254-184. T. Maccius Plautus 273
195-159. P. Terentius Afer 274
160. Q. Cæcilius 274
100. L. Afranius 274
220-180. M. Pacuvius 275
170-90. L. Accius 275
_Comoediæ Togatæ_ 274
_Comoediæ Palliatæ_ 274
_Comoediæ Prætextatæ_ 275
_Atellanæ Fabulæ_ 275
_Mimes_ 275
50. Dec. Laberius 275
P. Syrus 275
_Fescennine Songs_ 276
_Satire_ 276
148-103. C. Lucilius 276
95-51. T. Lucretius Carus 276
87-47. Valerius Catullus 276
70-19. P. Virgilius Maro 277
65-8. Q. Horatius Flaccus 278
30. Albius Tibullus 280
Aurelius Propertius 280
B.C. A.D.
43-18. P. Ovidius Naso 281
B.C. PROSE WRITERS--
_The Annalists_ 282
210. Q. Fabius Pictor 282
L. Cincius Alimentus 282
234-140. M. Porcius Cato 282
106-43. M. Tullius Cicero 282
117-28. M. Terentius Varro 283
100-41. C. Julius Cæsar 283
86-34. C. Sallustius Crispus 284
Cornelius Nepos 284
B.C. A.D.
53-17. Titus Livius 284
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. B.C. 31-A.D. 14.
Conduct of Augustus 286
His friends 286
Police of Rome 286
Condition of the empire 287
Italy, Gaul, and Spain 287
Africa 288
Egypt and Greece 288
Boundaries of the empire 289
The Prætorian guard 290
Army and navy 290
Augustus in Spain 291
His family 291
His wife, Livia 292
Marcellus, Julia, Tiberius 292
Cains and Lucius Cæsar 293
Birth of the Savior 293
Death of Augustus 294
His character and personal appearance 294
CHAPTER XL.
FROM THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS, A.D. 14-37, TO DOMITIAN, A.D. 96.
Accession of Tiberius 295
Germanicus 296
His death 296
The Lex Majestas 297
The Delatores 297
Sejanus 297
Death of Sejanus 298
Death of Tiberius 299
Caligula 299
Claudius 300
His conduct 300
The Emperor Nero 301
His crimes 301
Vitellius 302
Vespasian 302
Fall of Jerusalem 303
Reign of Titus 304
The Colosseum 304
Reign of Domitian 305
He persecutes the Christians 305
CHAPTER XLI.
PROSPERITY OF THE EMPIRE, A.D. 96.--COMMODUS, A.D. 180.--REIGN OF
M. COCCEIUS NERVA, A.D. 96-98.
The Emperor Nerva 306
Prosperity of the empire 306
Trajan 307
His wise administration 307
The Dacian war 308
Conquests in the East 308
Trajan's public works 309
Reign of Hadrian 309
His travels 310
His death 312
Antoninus Pius 313
His excellent character 313
Marcus Aurelius 314
His conduct 315
He defeats the Barbarians 316
The depraved Commodus 316
His vices 316
Is assassinated 316
CHAPTER XLII.
FROM PERTINAX TO DIOCLETIAN. A.D. 192-284.
Pertinax made emperor 319
Is assassinated 319
Didius Julianus 319
Severus 320
His severe rule 320
Geta and Caracalla 321
Papinian executed 321
Cruelties of Caracalla 322
Elagabalus 322
Alexander Severus 322
Maximin 323
The Goths invade the empire 324
Valerian 325
Thirty tyrants 325
Zenobia 325
Aurelian 325
The Emperor Tacitus 326
Frugal habits of Carus 326
CHAPTER XLIII.
FROM DIOCLETIAN, A.D. 284, TO CONSTANTINE'S DEATH, A.D. 337.
Diocletian 327
His colleagues 328
Persecution of the Christians 329
Abdication of Diocletian 329
Constantine the Great 330
His administration 331
The Council of Nice 332
Constantinople 332
Its magnificence 333
The præfectures 334
Christianity the national religion 334
Taxes 334
Family of Constantine 335
He is baptized and dies 335
CHAPTER XLIV.
FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE, A.D. 337, TO ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS,
A.D. 476.
The three sons of Constantine 336
Constantius jealous of Julian 337
Julian becomes emperor 337
Attempts to restore Paganism 337
Valentinian 338
The Huns appear in Europe 338
The Goths cross the Danube 338
Theodosius the Great 339
Stilicho 339
Alaric enters Italy 340
Luxury of the Romans 340
Sack of Rome 341
Arcadius and Honorius 341
The Vandals 342
The Huns 342
Romulus Augustulus 343
Extinction of the Empire of the West 343
CHAPTER XLV.
ROMAN LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. A.D. 14-476.
Decline of letters 344
Epic poetry--Lucan 344
Silius Italicus 344
Claudian 345
Persius, Juvenal 345
Martial 346
History--Velleius Paterculus 346
Valerius Maximus 346
Tacitus 347
Quintus Curtius 347
Rhetoric--Seneca the elder 348
Quintilian 348
Appuleius 349
Philosophy--Seneca 349
The elder Pliny 349
His nephew 350
Grammarians--Macrobius 350
Marcellinus 350
Legal writers--Gains 350
Science and art 351
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
The Roman Forum FRONTISPIECE
Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens TITLE-PAGE
Map of Italy
Temple of Janus vi
Julius Cæsar vii
Virgil xxx
Tivoli, the ancient Tibur 1
Gate of Arpinum 6
The Alban Hills 7
Plan of the City of Romulus 11
Salii carrying the Ancilia 13
Arch of Volaterræ 15
Pons Sublicius, restored by Canina 16
Cloaca Maxima 17
Map of Rome, showing the Servian Wall and the Seven Hills 21
Coin representing the children of Brutus led to death by Lictors 23
The Campagna of Rome 29
The Environs of Rome 33
Tarpeian Rock 36
View in the neighborhood of Veii 41
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus restored 45
Ruins at Capua 52
Coin of Pyrrhus 60
Temple of Vesta 67
Mount Ercta in Sicily 68
Columna Rostrata 71
Plan of Mount Ercta 76
Coin of Carthage 77
Coin of Hiero 81
Lake Trasimenus 82
Map of the coasts of the Mediterranean, illustrating the history of
the Punic Wars 85
Route of Hannibal 89
Plain of Cannæ 91
Hannibal 99
The Capitoline Wolf 105
Coin of Antiochus the Great 106
Roman Soldiers 113
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 115
Lictors 116
A Roman general addressing the soldiers 125
Scipio Africanus 126
Island in the Tiber, with the Fabrician and Cestian Bridges 134
Plan of Carthage 141
Personification of the River Tiber 143
Stairs of the modern Capitol 148
The Forum in its present state 155
Temple of Saturn at Rome 160
A Roman Trophy 161
Soldiers blowing Tubæ and Cornua 168
Caius Marius 169
Fasces 172
Tomb of Metella Cæcilia 173
Beneventum in Samnium 177
Coin of the Eight Italian Nations taking the Oath of Federation 178
Terracina 181
Mount Argæus in Cappadocia 186
Coin of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia 189
Brundusium 190
Coin of Sulla 198
Cn. Pompeius Magnus 199
Temple of Pudicitia Patricia at Rome 204
Coin of Mithridates 205
Coin of Tigranes 207
Cicero 214
Coin of Pompey 222
Julius Cæsar 223
Temple of Hercules at Rome 228
Temple of Nemausus (_Nimes_), now called the _Maison Carrée_ 229
Ruins on the Esquiline 235
Marcus Brutus 241
Coin of Julius Cæsar 250
Statue of a Roman, representing the Toga 251
M. Antonius 252
Philippi 259
Coin of Antony and Cleopatra 261
M. Agrippa 262
Plan of Actium 268
Map of the Provinces of the Roman Empire 271
Horace 272
Mæcenas 285
Aureus of Augustus Cæsar 288
Gold Coin of Agrippa 292
The Carpentum or Chariot 293
Medal of Augustus 294
Medal of Nero 295
Roman Galley 299
Copper Coin of Antoninus Pius 306
Trajan's Pillar 308
Hadrian's Mausoleum restored 311
Reverse of a Brass Coin of Antoninus Pius 313
Commodus 317
Pertinax 318
Septimius Severus 319
Caracalla 321
Alexander Severus 323
Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Spolatro 327
Constantino and Fausta 330
Arch of Constantine 331
Map of the Propontis, Hellespont, and Bosphorus 333
Map of Constantinople 333
Julian the Apostate 336
Juvenal 351
Coin of Augustus 361
[Illustration: Virgil.]
HISTORY OF ROME.
[Illustration: Tivoli, the ancient Tibur.]
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY--EARLY INHABITANTS.
Italy is the central one of the three great peninsulas which project
from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on
the north by the chain of the Alps, which form a natural barrier, and it
is surrounded on other sides by the sea. Its shores are washed on the
west by the "Mare Inferum," or the Lower Sea, and on the east by the
Adriatic, called by the Romans the "Mare Superum," or the Upper Sea.
It may be divided into two parts, the northern consisting of the great
plain drained by the River Padus, or _Po_, and its tributaries, and the
southern being a long tongue of land, with the Apennines as a back-bone
running down its whole extent from north to south. The extreme length
of the peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700 miles.
The breadth of northern Italy is 350 miles, while that of the southern
portion is on an average not more than 100 miles. But, till the time of
the Empire, the Romans never included the plain of the Po in Italy. To
this country they gave the general name of GALLIA CISALPINA, or Gaul on
this (the Roman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited
by Gauls. The western-most portion of the plain was peopled by Ligurian
tribes, and was therefore called LIGURIA, while its eastern extremity
formed the Roman province of VENETIA.
The name ITALIA was originally applied to a very small tract of country.
It was at first confined to the southern portion of Calabria, and was
gradually extended northward, till about the time of the Punic wars it
indicated the whole peninsula south of the Rivers Rubicon and Macra, the
former separating Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria, the latter Liguria and
Etruria. Italy, properly so called, is a very mountainous country, being
filled up more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the offshoots
or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite to the sea,
but in others leave a considerable space of level or low country.
Excluding the plain of the Po, it was divided into the following
districts:[1]
1. ETRURIA, which extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the
River Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the Tiber
also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from Umbria,
afterward from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium. Its inhabitants
were called Etrusci, or Tusci, the latter form being still preserved in
the name of _Tuscany_. Besides the Tiber it possesses only one other
river of any importance, the Arnus, or Arno, upon which the city of
_Florence_ now stands. Of its lakes the most considerable is the Lacus
Trasimenus, about thirty-six miles in circumference, celebrated for the
great victory which Hannibal there gained over the Romans.
2. UMBRIA, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the
valley of the Tiber to the shores of the Adriatic. It was separated on
the north from Gallia Cisalpina by the Rubicon, and on the south by the
Æsis from Picenum, and by the Nar from the Sabines.
3. PICENUM extended along the Adriatic from the mouth of the Æsis to
that of the Matrinus and inland as far as the central ridge of the
Apennines. It was bounded on the north by Umbria, on the south by the
Vestini, and on the west by Umbria and the Sabini. Its inhabitants, the
Picentes, were a Sabine race, as is mentioned below.
4. The SABINI inhabited the rugged mountain-country in the central chain
of the Apennines, lying between Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Latium, and
the country of the Marsi and Vestini. They were one of the most ancient
races of Italy, and the progenitors of the far more numerous tribes
which, under the names of Picentes, Peligni, and Samnites, spread
themselves to the east and south. Modern writers have given the general
name of _Sabellians_ to all these tribes. The Sabines, like most other
mountaineers, were brave, hardy, and frugal; and even the Romans looked
up to them with admiration on account of their proverbial honesty and
temperance.
5. The MARSI, PELIGNI, VESTINI, and MARRUCINI inhabited the valleys of
the central Apennines, and were closely connected, being probably all of
Sabine origin. The MARSI dwelt inland around the basin of the Lake
Fucinus, which is about thirty miles in circumference, and the only
one of any extent in the central Apennines. The PELIGNI also occupied an
inland district east of the MARSI. The VESTINI dwelt east of the
Sabines, and possessed on the coast of the Adriatic a narrow space
between the mouth of the Matrinus and that of the Aternus, a distance of
about six miles. The MARRUCINI inhabited a narrow strip of country on
the Adriatic, east of the Peligni, and were bounded on the north by the
Vestini and on the south by the Frentani.
6. The FRENTANI dwelt upon the coast of the Adriatic from the frontiers
of the Marrucini to those of Apulia. They were bounded on the west by
the Samnites, from whom they were originally descended, but they appear
in Roman history as an independent people.
7. LATIUM was used in two senses. It originally signified only the land
of the Latini, and was a country of small extent, bounded by the Tiber
on the north, by the Apennines on the east, by the sea on the west, and
by the Alban Hills on the south. But after the conquest of the
Volscians, Hernici, Æquians, and other tribes, originally independent,
the name of Latium was extended to all the country which the latter had
previously occupied. It was thus applied to the whole region from the
borders of Etruria to those of Campania, or from the Tiber to the Liris.
The original abode of the Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban
Mountains are a great volcanic mass, and several of the craters have
been filled with water, forming lakes, of which the Alban Lake is one of
the most remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called the
_Campagna_, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating tract,
intersected by numerous streams, which have cut themselves deep
channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the soil is composed.
The climate of Latium was not healthy even in ancient times. The malaria
of the Campagna renders Rome itself unhealthy in the summer and autumn;
and the Pontine Marshes, which extend along the coast in the south of
Latium for a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential.
8. CAMPANIA extended along the coast from the Liris, which separated it
from Latium, to the Silarus, which formed the boundary of Lucania. It is
the fairest portion of Italy. The greater part of it is an unbroken
plain, celebrated in ancient as well as in modern times for its
extraordinary beauty and fertility. The _Bay of Naples_--formerly called
Sinus Cumanus and Puteolanus, from the neighboring cities of Cumæ and
Puteoli--is one of the most lovely spots in the world; and the softness
of its climate, as well as the beauty of its scenery, attracted the
Roman nobles, who had numerous villas along its coasts.
9. SAMNIUM was an inland district, bounded on the north by the Marsi and
Peligni, on the east by the Frentani and Apulia, on the west by Latium
and Campania, and on the south by Lucania. It is a mountainous country,
being entirely filled with the masses of the Apennines. Its inhabitants,
the Samnites, were of Sabine origin, as has been already mentioned, and
they settled in the country at a comparatively late period. They were
one of the most warlike races in Italy, and carried on a long and fierce
struggle with the Romans.
10. APULIA extended along the coast of the Adriatic from the Frentani on
the north to Calabria on the south, and was bounded on the west by the
Apennines, which separated it from Samnium and Lucania. It consists
almost entirely of a great plain, sloping down from the Apennines to the
sea.
11. CALABRIA formed the heel of Italy, lying south of Apulia, and
surrounded on every other side by the sea. It contains no mountains, and
only hills of moderate elevation, the Apennines running to the southwest
through Lucania and the Bruttii.
12. LUCANIA was bounded on the north by Campania and Samnium, on the
east by Apulia, and on the south by the Bruttii. The Apennines run
through the province in its whole extent. The Lucanians were a branch of
the Samnite nation, which separated from the main body of that people,
and pressed on still farther to the south.
13. The BRUTTII[2] inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, lying
south of Lucania; and, like Lucania, their country is traversed
throughout by the chain of the Apennines.
Italy has been in all ages renowned for its beauty and fertility. The
lofty ranges of the Apennines, and the seas which bathe its shores on
both sides, contribute at once to temper and vary its climate, so as to
adapt it for the productions alike of the temperate and the warmest
parts of Europe. In the plains on either side of the Apennines corn is
produced in abundance; olives flourish on the southern slopes of the
mountains; and the vine is cultivated in every part of the peninsula,
the vineyards of northern Campania being the most celebrated in
antiquity.
The early inhabitants of Italy may be divided into three great
classes--the _Italians_ proper, the _Iapygians_, and the _Etruscans_,
who are clearly distinguished from each other by their respective
languages.
(1.) The _Italians_ proper inhabited the centre of the peninsula. They
were divided into two branches, the _Latins_ and the _Umbro-Sabellians_,
including the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, and their numerous colonies.
The dialects of the Latins and Umbro-Sabellians, though marked by
striking differences, still show clearest evidence of a common origin,
and both are closely related to the Greek. It is evident that at some
remote period a race migrated from the East, embracing the ancestors of
both the Greeks and Italians--that from it the Italians branched
off--and that they again were divided into the Latins on the west and
the Umbrians and Sabellians on the east.
(2.) The _Iapygians_ dwelt in Calabria, in the extreme southeast corner
of Italy. Inscriptions in a peculiar language have here been discovered,
clearly showing that the inhabitants belonged to a different race from
those whom we have designated as the Italians. They were doubtless the
oldest inhabitants of Italy, who were driven toward the extremity of the
peninsula as the Latins and Sabellians pressed farther to the south.
(3.) The _Etruscans_, or, as they called themselves, _Rasena_, form a
striking contrast to the Latins and Sabellians as well as to the Greeks.
Their language is radically different from the other languages of Italy;
and their manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people
originally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races. Their
religion was of a gloomy character, delighting in mysteries and in wild
and horrible rites. Their origin is unknown. Most ancient writers relate
that the Etruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to
Italy; but this is very improbable, and it is now more generally
believed that the Etruscans descended into Italy from, the Rhætian Alps.
It is expressly stated by ancient writers that the Rhætians were
Etruscans, and that they spoke the same language; while their name is
perhaps the same as that of Rasena, the native name of the Etruscans. In
more ancient times, before the Roman dominion, the Etruscans inhabited
not only the country called Etruria, but also the great plain of the Po,
as far as the foot of the Alps. Here they maintained their ground till
they were expelled or subdued by the invading Gauls. The Etruscans, both
in the north of Italy and to the south of the Apennines, consisted of a
confederacy of twelve cities, each of which was independent, possessing
the power of even making war and peace on its own account. In Etruria
proper Volsinii was regarded as the metropolis.
Besides these three races, two foreign races also settled in the
peninsula in historical times. These are the _Greeks_ and the Gauls.
(4.) The _Greeks_ planted so many colonies upon the coasts of southern
Italy that they gave to that district the name of Magna Græcia. The most
ancient, and, at the same time, the most northerly Greek city in Italy,
was Cumæ in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies were situated
farther to the south, where many of them attained to great power and
opulence. Of these, some of the most distinguished were Tarentum,
Sybaris, Croton, and Metapontum.
(5.) The _Gauls_, as we have already said, occupied the greater part of
northern Italy, and were so numerous and important as to give to the
whole basin of the Po the name of Gallia Cisalpina. They were of the
same race with the Gauls who inhabited the country beyond the Alps, and
their migration and settlement in Italy were referred by the Roman
historian to the time of the Tarquins.
[Illustration: Gate of Arpinum.]
[Footnote 1: The description which follows in the text must be compared
with the map of Italy given in this work.]
[Footnote 2: The name "Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers
on ancient geography, is not found in any classical author.]
[Illustration: The Alban Hills.]