_Observations upon the natural Productions of the River Sierra Leone.--The
Author explores its Branches, interior to Bance Island, the Rochelle, and
the Port Logo.--The Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants.--Their
Commerce.--The Author's safe Arrival at Miffaré._
The river of Sierra Leone abounds in fish, and the spermaceti whale has
been occasionally found, the shark, the porpoise, eels, mackarel, mullet,
snappers, yellow tails, cavillos, tenpounders, &c. with the _mannittee_, a
singular mass of shapeless flesh, having much the taste of beef, which the
natives greatly esteem, and consider the highest offering they can make.
Oysters are found in great abundance, attached to the interwoven twigs and
branches of the mangrove tree, to which they closely cling; and of the
zoophytes, there is the common sponge to be found upon the sandy beaches,
on the Boolum shore, and would, no doubt, bring a high price in England.
The domestic animals of the adjoining countries are, cattle, sheep, goats,
hogs, ducks, turkeys, and fowls, very inferior, however, to those in
Europe. The beasts of prey are, lions, leopards, hyaenas, wild hogs in
abundance, squirrels, monkies, antelopes, &c. with the civet and zibeth
cats, and a most extraordinary animal, which is found in the mountains of
Sierra Leone and the adjacent countries, a species of the ourang outang,
called by the natives, japanzee, or chimpanzee, but approaching nearer to
the anatomy of the human frame than the former animal. Some of them, when
full grown, are nearly 5 feet, and are covered with black hair, long on the
back, but thin and short upon the belly and breast; the face is quite bare,
and the hands and feet resemble those of man; its countenance is remarkably
grave, similar to that of an old black man, but its ears are straight; it
will imitate a human being in walking, sleeping, eating, and drinking, and
is certainly a most singular production of nature. Surgeon Burrowes, whom I
have before mentioned, had a perfect skeleton of this animal, which, he
assured me, differed in nothing from the human, but in the spine, it being
curved. This skeleton, I believe, now forms a part of the collection of
Surgeon-General Keate.
There are, of amphibious animals, green turtles, hawk's bills, and
loggerheads, which grow to a great size, some of them weighing several
hundred pounds, land turtles, fresh water turtles, alligators, extremely
voracious, and from 12 to 15 feet in length; they will swallow a man, and
at Bance Island Negro boys have been frequently snatched up by them from
the shore. There are also a variety of the lizard species, with the guava,
and camelion.
Snakes abound; some of them haunt the houses in the night, and prowl about
for poultry, of which they are fond; some have been found to measure above
18 feet; and I have the skin of one in my possession, killed when young,
above 10 feet in length; it is that species which swallows its prey entire;
several animals were found in their perfect state when the one I allude to
was cut open.
There is also an immense animal of this species, which I have heard the
natives of this part of the coast describe, often exceeding 30 feet in
length, and of an enormous size; it is variegated with spots, and the head
is covered with scales; the tongue is fleshy and forked, but its bite is
not poisonous; it is to be found in the recesses of caves and thickets,
from whence it suddenly darts upon its victim, whether man or beast: it
frequently chooses a tree, from which it reconnoitres the passing objects,
supporting itself by the tail, which it twists round the trunk or branches:
when it seizes animals, especially those of the larger kind, such as lions,
tigers, &c. it dexterously, and almost instantaneously twists itself round
their bodies in several folds, and by its powerful muscular force, breaks
the bones, and bruises it in all its parts; when this is done it covers the
animal with a viscous cohesive saliva, by licking its body with its tongue,
which facilitates the power of swallowing it entire; this process is
tedious, and it gradually sucks in the body, which, if large, renders it
incapable of moving for some time, until it digests; and this is the period
which the hunters watch to destroy it: it makes a hissing noise like a
serpent, and has recourse to a variety of expedients to conceal itself; it
is called by the natives _Tinnui_, and is what I apprehend naturalists term
the species of _Boa constrictor_: it is most commonly found in the sultry
climates of Africa, and I believe is also an inhabitant of Asia and
America.
Insects are extremely numerous, of a nondescript species, and exceedingly
beautiful: the most singular are termites, destructive to houses and fences
built of wood; ants, causing ruin to provisions; cockroaches and crickets,
destroying leather, linen, and clothes; musquitos, sand-flies, centipedes,
scorpions; and wild bees, which are very productive of honey. The vermis
and large barnacles abound, which are so destructive to shipping without
copper bottoms.
Esculent vegetables are various: Rice, which forms the chief part of the
African's sustenance. The rice-fields or _lugars_ are prepared during the
dry season, and the seed is sown in the tornado season, requiring about
four or five months growth to bring it to perfection.
Yams, a nutritious substance, known in the West Indies.
_Cassada_ or _cassava_, a root, of a pleasant taste when roasted or boiled,
and makes an excellent cake, superior in whiteness to flour.
Papaw, of a deep green in its growth, but yellqw when ripe, and is an
excellent dish when boiled; its leaves are frequently used by the natives
for soap; ropes are made of the bark.
Oranges and limes are in great abundance, and of superior quality,
throughout the year; but lemons degenerate much in their growth, and in a
few years are scarcely to be distinguished from the latter. Guavas,
pumpkins, or pumpions, squash water mellons, musk mellons, and cucumbers,
grow in the greatest perfection. The pumpkins grow in wild exuberance
throughout the year, and make a good pudding or pie.
Indian corn, or maize, may be reaped several times throughout the year,
only requiring about three months growth.
Millet, with a multiplicity too tedious to enumerate.
Sugar canes are not very abundant, but are of a good quality, which, under
careful management and industry, would, no doubt, yield productive returns.
Coffee trees, of different nondescript species, only requiring the same
interference.
Dyes, of infinite variety and superior texture: yellow is procured from the
butter and tallow tree, producing a juice resembling gamboge, but more
cohesive, and of a darker colour; the wood of this tree is firm, and
adapted to a variety of purposes; its fruit is about the size of a tennis
ball, nearly oval, thick in the rind, and of a pleasant acid taste,
containing several seeds about the size of a walnut, and yielding a viscous
substance used by the natives in their food. Red and black are procured
from a variety of other trees and plants; and indigo growing in wild
exuberance, particularly in the rivers more to the northward.
Cotton, in great varieties, requiring only cultivation to raise it to
perfection and amount. The natives manufacture from it a narrow cloth,
which is made from thread, spun in a manner similar to the distaff.
A species of silk cotton, or ether down, is produced on a large tree,
called the pullam tree. The quantity which the usual size bears may be
computed at about 4 cwt. in pods of 6 to 9 inches long, 4-1/2 in
circumference, and about 1-1/2 inch in diameter, which, upon being exposed
to the heat of the sun, is distended to an incredible bulk. It is much
superior to down for the couch, and, from its elasticity, might be of great
utility in the manufacture of hats. This tree is in great estimation among
the Africans, and is frequently regarded by them as their _Fetish_. Every
town almost has a tree of this species towering over its huts, which its
chief tells the traveller with exultation he or his father planted.
Tobacco is uncertain, but I entertain very little doubt that it might be
raised upon the more luxuriant soils.
Pepper, more particularly near Cape Mount, of several sorts, Maboobo,
Massaaba, Massa, Amquona, Tosan, &c.; the three first are of a weaker
flavour, and are oblong and angular in their seeds; but the last excels in
pungency, and is the native Malaguetta pepper of Africa.
The bread-fruit tree, is similar in appearance to the apple tree, and grows
in the low sandy situations of the Boolum shore, producing a fruit
exceedingly nutritious, and larger than an apple.
Tamarinds in great variety and plenty: the velvet tamarind abounds in the
Bananas, also the white and brown; but the latter are most in esteem, and
are very fine.
Okras, the fruit of a small tree, resembling the English mallows, which put
into soup gives it a gelatine quality, highly alimental; the leaves make a
good spinage.
The palm tree, producing the oil so denominated, is one of the most useful
trees to the African, yielding him meat, drink, and raiment. Where it
grows, it is an indication of a good soil. It is remarkably tall, without
branches, having regular and gradual protuberances, from the bottom towards
the top, ending in five or six clusters of nuts, shaded by large deciduous
leaves. The nuts, which are about the size of a hazle nut, have a hard
kernel, encompassed by a clammy unctuous substance, covered by a thin skin,
and the oil is produced from them by being exposed to the sun, which, by
its influence, opens the juices; subsequent to this exposure, the nuts are
put into a boiler full of water, and a liquid, in the process of boiling,
flows upon the top, which when skimmed off, soon hardens and turns rancid;
the kernel of the nut, after this process, is taken out of the boiler, beat
in a paloon, and put into clear water, the shell of the nut sinks, and its
contents float upon the surface, which, when skimmed as before, is finally
put into a pot, fried, and carefully poured off, producing another kind of
oil, used as butter, and having in a great degree its quality.
The wine is extracted from the tree by forming an incision at the bottom of
every cluster of nuts, from each of which flows about a gallon of wine per
day, for a week, when they are closed until the ensuing season. The liquid,
when newly taken from the tree, resembles whey, and in that state has a
sweetish agreeable taste, but it soon ferments and grows sour, changing to
a strong vinegar of a disagreeable smell: in its fermented state it is most
esteemed by the natives, and is productive of inebriety.
A substance overtops the clusters about 10 or 12 inches in diameter, and 3
or 4 feet in height, in a full grown tree, from whence proceeds a stalk,
about 4 inches in length, which, on being boiled in water, makes an
excellent vegetable resembling cabbage, or rather, in taste, the
cauliflower; the leaves of the tree are converted by the natives into
baskets, fishing nets, and cloth.
MEDICINAL PLANTS. _Colla_ is highly esteemed by the natives, and they
attribute to it the virtues of Peruvian bark; the Portuguese, ascribe the
same quality to it, and dispatch from their factories small vessels to
collect all they can procure.
_Castor Oil Rhinum_.-The bush which produces the bud from which this oil
and valuable medicine is extracted, grows in great exuberance upon the
Windward Coast, and its vicinity. A species of bark is in great abundance
also, and is said to be equal in virtue to the Peruvian.
The foregoing enumeration of natural productions, is the result of
unscientific enquiry only; but unquestionably, industrious and professional
research, would discover infinitely more to philosophic and commercial
contemplation, and develope the arcana of nature, dormant here through
ignorance and barbarism.
On the 10th of May, I set out from Bance Island, with the view of exploring
the two branches of the Sierra Leone river, the Rochelle, and the Port
Logo. After rowing a few hours I arrived at the factory of Miffaré,
formerly occupied by a Mr. Berauld, a Frenchman, but now attached to Bance
Island.
Mr. Hodgkin, with his people, then in possession of the factory,
accompanied me up the Port Logo branch the following morning, taking a
number of towns in our way, and visiting the chiefs. The course of this
branch of the river is extremely serpentine, and is navigable for light
vessels to a little way from the town of Port Logo which is now the
residence of Alimami, a Mandingo chief, who assumes the title of emperor.
The banks are overgrown with the mangrove tree, interwoven together, so as
to form an almost impenetrable thicket, excluding the air, which, with the
extreme heat of the sun, and the noxious insects which are extracted by its
rays from the swamps and woods, renders this navigation intolerably
oppressive. The chief part of its trade is in slaves, camwood, and ivory,
the latter, however, being small, although Port Logo commands a very
extensive back country. When we came near the town of Port Logo, which is
extremely difficult of approach at low water, we announced our visit by
saluting in the manner of this country, which is what they call bush
firing, or in other words is a continued irregular firing of musquetry.
It was soon discovered who we were, and crowds of natives flocked down from
the upper town, which is situated on the declivity of a hill, to give us
service, or to pay their respects. Our first visit was to _Marriba_, one of
Alimami's head men, and a resident of what they consider the lower town.
Upon our arrival at Marriba's house, we found him at his devotions in the
palaver-house, a shed under which the natives daily assemble to pray, or
discuss public affairs. He received us with every demonstration of regard,
and immediately offered his services to conduct us to Alimami. The old
chief preceded us, with his long gold-headed cane, and our rear was brought
up by a number of armed men, who had assembled to give us a favourable
reception. Our salute had pleased Alimami, and being before known to him,
he was determined to shew us every respect. The heat of the sun was almost
intolerable, and before we arrived at the top of the hill where the
imperial palace stood, I was nearly exhausted. The entrance to this large
square of irregular mud buildings, is through a narrow passage or gate,
forming an oblong square of mud, covered with thatch, and facing Alimami's
house: we were ushered through this by one of his head men, and proceeded
in the order we set out to Alimami, who was seated at the top of the
square, surrounded by his chiefs, upon a mat spread upon a raised bank of
mud, dressed in a turban, after the Turkish fashion, and a loose manding,
robe, or shirt.
Several pleaders were haranguing two of his judges, who were seated at a
distance, in palaver, or council, to take cognizance of a dispute relative
to some slaves; and although our arrival had excited the-curiosity of every
inhabitant of the town, yet we passed the tribunal without interruption,
their attention being absorbed on the subject of their sitting. The whole
compass of the square was scarcely equal to contain their oratory, their
voices being so extremely loud as to be heard distinctly, without the
walls, accompanied by menacing attitudes. Passing this declamatory
assembly, we paid our obeisance to Alimami, who was graciously pleased to
receive us in the manner of his country, with great civilities, and
immediately spread mats for us with his own hands, near himself. It was
impossible, although accustomed to these people, to contemplate the
surrounding objects without interest. I had previously been acquainted with
this chief at Bance Island, where he was in a high degree restrained by
European manners; but here, every thing was native and original. All came
to give us service, which is performed as I have mentioned. A goat and a
couple of fowls were next presented for our dinners, for which an offering
more valuable was expected, and of course complied with. This mutual
interchange of civilities being fulfilled, our attention was excited by the
orators, who by this time were extremely clamorous; one of them, with an
aspect the most furious, ran up to where I was seated, and addressing
Alimami, said, "that as proof his palaver be good, white man come to give
him service while he address him on the subject of his demand;" attaching
to that circumstance, the superstitious idea that he was right, and that I
was his _fetish_ to establish that right.
I then enquired of Alimami the nature of the trial; he replied, "these men
tell their story, I appoint two judges to hear them, who are to report to
me what they say, and their opinions of the matter, but I hear all that
already and they cannot tell me wrong: I then give judgment," Or in other
words more expressive of his meaning; these men make their complaint to my
head men, or the judges I have appointed to hear it; it is their business
to make me a true report, and give me their opinion on the merits of the
case; and although I am not now supposed to hear it, yet I am so situated
as to hear the whole, and can thereby check any corrupt practices in the
judges.
I had now leisure to examine the interior of Alimami's residence; it
consisted of a square of irregular buildings, thatched with bamboo, and
covered with roofs, supported by pillars of wood, at about 6 feet distance,
projecting about the same number of feet beyond the skeleton of the fabric,
and forming a kind of palisado, which serves as a shade for retirement from
the heat of the sun, and under which, the inhabitants indulge in repose, or
sit in familiar intercourse.
During my conversation with Alimami, his brother, a fat jolly fellow, was
reposing himself upon his mat, reading his Arabic prayer book, which, upon
examination, I found executed in a neat character, and from his
interpretation, was a record of fabulous anecdotes of his family, and
containing confused extracts from the Koran.
The Mandingos are professed Mahomedans, whose influence is spreading with
so much rapidity on this part of the coast, that several of the other
tribes have submitted to their authority; so strong an impression has their
superior attainments and book-knowledge imprinted on their minds. In no
instance can their growing influence appear more conspicuous than in that
of Alimami being vested with authority over the Port Logo, of which he is
not a native, and over a people originally infidels. Formerly this tribe of
Mandingos were itinerant _fetish_ makers and priests, but now they are
numerous to the northward of Sierra Leone, from whence a wide district
receives their rulers and chieftains.
After an audience of considerable length, Alimami retired with several of
his chiefs, and soon after I had a message that he wished to see me in
another part of his dwelling. I had previously noticed to him that I
intended shortly to embark for my country. When conducted to his presence,
he very emphatically enquired "if what I tell him be true?" I replied "it
was; but that I go to do him and his countrymen good; that he know this was
the second time I look them, but never forget them." "We all know that," he
replied, "but white man that come among us, never stay long time; you be
good man, and we wish you live among us--How many moon you be gone from
us?"--"About ten moon; how would you like to go with me, Alimami?"--"I
like that much, but black man not be head enough to do what white man
does;" and putting his hand to his bosom, he took from it a piece of gold
in the form of a heart; and said, "take that for me." To have refused it
would have been an insult; I therefore accepted it; adding, "that I would
tie it to fine riband, and wear it when I look my country, to let
Englishmen see what fine present he make me." He was quite pleased with the
idea, and expressed his satisfaction with great fervency.
Soon after, I offered to take my leave, and was accompanied by him and his
chiefs to the gate, where I bade him adieu, and passed through the town,
paying my respects to its inhabitants, and among others, to the
schoolmaster, whose venerable appearance, and superior intelligence,
excited my respect and esteem.
Upon our return to Marriba's house, we were happy to partake of a country
mess of rice, boiled with fowls, palm oil, and other compounds. The chief
could not be prevailed to eat with us, but attended us with great assiduity
during our meal. The imperial guard accompanied us to our canoe, and we
returned to Miffaré without accident.
The following morning we proceeded to the branch of the Rochell, which we
found more diversified and picturesque than the Port Logo, and its borders
better inhabited.
Proceeding up this branch, and visiting the chiefs in our way, and the
inhabitants of a number of villages, we arrived at Billy Manshu's Town, a
little chief of very considerable intelligence, and who treated us with
great hospitality: here we slept.
We arose early, and pursued our course up the branch, passing one of the
most regular built towns I have observed in Africa, now Morrey Samba's, but
formerly Morrey Bunda's Town. Morrey Bunda was originally a Manding, and
_fetish_ maker to Smart, the chief who commands an extensive country on
that side of the Rochell branch towards the Sherbro, and rose into notice
and influence: he is now dead. The town is surrounded by a mud wall, and at
the entrance, and upon each angle of the oblong square which encloses it,
there are towers erected for the purposes of defence. The wall, with the
towers, completely obscures the buildings which form the town, and serve as
a guard against any depredations of enemies, while it shelters the
inhabitants from the effects of their arrows or musquetry. Morrey Bunda has
displayed in his plans of fortifications, considerable ingenuity,
considering the circumstances he had to provide against, and the predatory
nature of African wars, which are uniformly to surprise the inhabitants of
a village or town while asleep, or in any other unguarded state, seldom or
ever coming to a general engagement in the open country, but acting under
the protection of some ambush, or other place of security, which, while it
is calculated to conceal their numbers, serves as a retreat from their
successful opponents.
Leaving Morrey Samba's we passed by a number of other villages, until we
arrived at one of Smart's trading towns, called Mahera, situated upon an
eminence, and commanding a most delightful prospect of the meandering
course of the river, interspersed with islands, displaying a great
diversity of appearance.
Smart has very wisely chosen this spot, as it is not only a charming
situation, healthy, and delightful, but well situated to command a very
extensive internal trade in camwood and ivory, besides being contiguous to
the Sherbro, from whence a great portion of the camwood is procured, and
situated on the principal branch of the Sierra Leone. In addition to these
local advantages, he has recently opened a path with the interior,
communicating with the Foolah country, which is entirely under his
influence, and which he can open and shut at pleasure. It would be of
incalculable advantage to any operation to secure the friendship of this
chief: he possesses a very superior mind, and, from his connection with
Bance Island, has acquired a knowledge of European ideas and manners seldom
to be met with among any of the chiefs on this part of the coast. From the
various opportunities I have had to consult Smart on his general sentiments
relative to his country, and the freedom of intercourse I have had with
him, I am well persuaded that he would be a powerful and intelligent
auxiliary in promoting the civilization of his country, upon a liberal
principle, calculated to its condition, and having a tendency to eradicate
its barbarism; but he is one, of many more upon this quarter of the coast,
who have no reliance upon the attempts that have been made, and deplores,
with regret, that through the want of a correct knowledge of the
dispositions of his countrymen, an ignorance of the nature of the evil to
be removed, and the invidious principles which constituted the
establishments that have been formed to promote this beneficent
undertaking, his country is still excluded from the light of truth, and the
refined arts of civilized life.
From Mahera we proceeded to Rochell, another of Mr. Smart's towns, more
insular, where I expected to have met him, in conformity with an
arrangement previously made, to visit him at his towns, and see, as he
observed, his country fashion. Upon our reaching this point of our
expedition, we were saluted by a numerous assemblage of chiefs and natives,
going to join my friend Smart in one of his wars with his opposite
neighbours and rivals, the Cammarancies, inhabiting the country towards the
Port Logo. The cause of quarrel was, that these people had seized upon the
rafts and canoes which brought the camwood over the falls higher up the
river, and had demolished several storehouses belonging to Smart and his
people, engaged in that trade. Smart, with a part of his forces, had
crossed the river only an hour before, and another division were embarking
to join him at a place of rendezvous upon the enemy's territory, with the
intention of cautiously approaching during the night to some of their
towns, and surprising them before they had arisen from sleep. Nothing could
exceed the novelty of this sight; the chiefs and their followers were armed
with their bows and arrows, and other rude implements of war, and
completely in their native character; in addition to their native weapons,
some had musquets, procured from Europeans in trade, swords, and various
other manufacture, supplied by traders, exhibiting an appearance, of which
no idea can be formed, without a personal knowledge of this barbarous
people. The chiefs, in particular, were covered with _gris-gris_ and
_fetishes_, a mixture of feathers and other preposterous materials,
calculated to obliterate any trace of human appearance, and possessing the
virtue, as they conceived, of shielding them from danger. Solemn _palaver_
is always held upon these occasions, and their _gris-gris_ makers, _fetish_
men, and priests, exorcise their absurd decorations, which, in their
estimation, operate as guardian angels in the hour of difficulty and peril.
Having occasion to visit a gentleman resident at some distance, we left our
canoes at Rochell, and proceeded on foot. _Cabba_, one of the chiefs,
accompanied us with a guard, being apprehensive, as he observed, that "bad
might happen us, as war live in the country." We passed through a
remarkably fertile country, presenting an infinite variety of natural
productions. Our path was frequently lined with pine-apples, in all the
luxuriance of nature; but amidst this animating landscape, we beheld
deserted villages, ravaged by the ferocious hand of man; and all the traces
of barbarous devastation. We fell in with several armed parties, with whom
I conversed upon the subject of the war, which appeared to be of a
predatory nature, and the consequence of insatiate avarice and barbarous
habits.
At length we arrived, much fatigued, at Mr. Green's (at Massou), with whom
we rested for the night, receiving every kindness and attention in his
power to bestow. I am indebted to this gentleman for a variety of useful
information relative to a wide extent of country. His education and
acquirements are of the first class, and I could not view such a man,
insulated from polished society, which he was qualified to adorn, and shut
up in the wilds of Africa, among barbarians, without a mixture of pain and
surprise; nor did I depart from him without sympathy and regret, after he
had confided to me his motives, and the outlines of his life, which were
marked with eventful incidents, and extraordinary occurrences.
It was my object to have proceeded from Massou to Rocond, the principal
town of Smart's residence, and from thence to penetrate to the falls of the
river, which, from every information I received, exhibit a sublime scene;
but, on account of the disturbed state of the country, and that chiefs
absence, I was obliged to give up my intention, and return to Rochell, from
whence we rowed down the river to the town of our little hospitable chief,
Billy Manshu; where we stayed the night. The following day we arrived safe
at Miffaré; and although Smart had given orders at Mahera to stop all
canoes, we were suffered to pass; the chiefs observing, "that they knew we
would not tell their enemies, when we came among them, what we saw them
do." Had we been strangers, it is more than probable we should have fallen
victims to the fury of these barbarians, who, in the towns we passed, were
excited to a savage fierceness, highly descriptive of the natural ferocity
of the African character.
At Miffaré, formerly occupied by Monsieur Berauld, as previously noticed,
who had lately paid the common debt of nature, and who was here buried by
his own desire, I had the opportunity of ascertaining a singular custom
prevalent in this country towards the dead, and which strongly elucidates
the prevailing ideas of its inhabitants, relative to the immortality of the
soul and a future state.
After Monsieur Berauld's interment, his women, and the head people of the
town, assembled round the grave occasionally, for a series of days,
requiring every evening, from Mr. Hodgkin, a candle to light his grave,
which they kept burning during the period of their mourning, under the idea
that it would light him in the other world. In addition to this, a still
more singular rite was performed on this occasion, by Alimami, of the Port
Logo, and a numerous assemblage of natives, who sacrificed a bull to the
departed spirit of Berauld, who was held in great estimation among them.
From authority I cannot doubt, I am persuaded that when slaves have been
redundant, human sacrifices have been offered to the manes of their
favourite chiefs and princes. This horrid custom, which is even extended,
in many of the districts of Africa, to the productions of the earth, is a
most serious subject to contemplate, and a feature of barbarism, pregnant
with melancholy consequences to that class of beings, whom a late
legislative act has abandoned to contingencies, and the uncontrolled power
and avarice of other nations.