The simple cross made with two sticks or marks belongs to prehistoric
times. Its first appearance among men is lost in antiquity. One may
theorize as to its origin, but there is no historical identification of it
either in epoch or by country or people. The sign is itself so simple that
it might have originated among any people, however primitive, and in any
age, however remote. The meaning given to the earliest cross is equally
unknown. Everything concerning its beginning is in the realm of
speculation. But a differentiation grew up in early times among nations by
which certain forms of the cross have been known under certain names and
with specific significations. Some of these, such as the Maltese cross,
are historic and can be well identified.
The principal forms of the cross, known as symbols or ornaments, can be
reduced to a few classes, though when combined with heraldry its use
extends to 385 varieties.[1]
[Illustration: Fig. 1. LATIN CROSS (_Crux immissa_).]
[Illustration: Fig. 2. GREEK CROSS.]
[Illustration: Fig. 3. ST. ANDREW'S CROSS (_Crux decussata_).]
It is not the purpose of this paper to give a history of the cross, but
the principal forms are shown by way of introduction to a study of the
Swastika.
The Latin cross, _Crux immissa_, (fig. 1) is found on coins, medals, and
ornaments anterior to the Christian era. It was on this cross that Christ
is said to have been crucified, and thus it became accepted as the
Christian cross.
The Greek cross (fig. 2) with arms of equal length crossing at right
angles, is found on Assyrian and Persian monuments and tablets, Greek
coins and statues.
The St. Andrew's cross, _Crux decussata_, (fig. 3) is the same as the
Greek cross, but turned to stand on two legs.
The _Crux ansata_ (fig. 4) according to Egyptian mythology, was Ankh, the
emblem of Ka, the spiritual double of man. It was also said to indicate a
union of Osiris and Isis, and was regarded as a symbol of the generative
principle of nature.
[Illustration: Fig. 4. EGYPTIAN CROSS. (_Crux ansata_). The Key of Life.]
The Tau cross (fig. 5), so called from its resemblance to the Greek letter
of that name, is of uncertain, though ancient, origin. In Scandinavian
mythology it passed under the name of "Thor's hammer," being therein
confounded with the Swastika. It was also called St. Anthony's cross for
the Egyptian hermit of that name, and was always colored blue. Clarkson
says this mark was received by the Mithracists on their foreheads at the
time of their initiation. C. W. King, in his work entitled "Early
Christian Numismatics" (p. 214), expresses the opinion that the Tau cross
was placed on the foreheads of men who cry after abominations. (Ezekiel
ix, 4.) It is spoken of as a phallic emblem.
Another variety of the cross appeared about the second century, composed
of a union of the St. Andrew's cross and the letter P (fig. 6), being the
first two letters of the Greek word [Greek: CHRISTOS] (Christus). This,
with another variety containing all the foregoing letters, passed as the
monogram of Christ (fig. 6).
[Illustration: Fig. 5. TAU CROSS, THOR'S HAMMER, OR ST. ANTHONY'S CROSS.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6. MONOGRAM OF CHRIST. Labarum of Constantine.]
[Illustration: Fig. 7. MALTESE CROSS.]
As an instrument of execution, the cross, besides being the intersection
of two beams with four projecting arms, was frequently of compound forms
as [Y], on which the convicted person was fastened by the feet and hung
head downward. Another form [symbol], whereon he was fastened by one foot
and one hand at each upper corner; still another form [symbol], whereon
his body was suspended on the central upright with his arms outstretched
upon the cross beams.
Fig. 7 represents the sign of the military order of the Knights of Malta.
It is of medieval origin.
Fig. 8 (_a_ and _b_) represents two styles of Celtic crosses. These belong
chiefly to Ireland and Scotland, are usually of stone, and frequently set
up at marked places on the road side.
Higgins, in his "Anacalypsis," a rare and costly work, almost an
encyclopedia of knowledge,[2] says, concerning the origin of the cross,
that the official name of the governor of Tibet, Lama, comes from the
ancient Tibetan word for the cross. The original spelling was L-a-m-h.
This is cited with approval in Davenport's "Aphrodisiacs" (p. 13).
[Illustration: Fig. 8. CELTIC CROSSES.]
[Illustration: Fig. 9. NORMAL SWASTIKA.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10. SUAVASTIKA.]
[Illustration: Fig. 11. SWASTIKA. Meander.]
Of the many forms of the cross, the Swastika is the most ancient. Despite
the theories and speculations of students, its origin is unknown. It began
before history, and is properly classed as prehistoric. Its description is
as follows: The bars of the normal Swastika (frontispiece and fig. 9) are
straight, of equal thickness throughout, and cross each other at right
angles, making four arms of equal size, length, and style. Their
peculiarity is that all the ends are bent at right angles and in the same
direction, right or left. Prof. Max Müller makes the symbol different
according as the arms are bent to the right or to the left. That bent to
the right he denominates the true Swastika, that bent to the left he calls
Suavastika (fig. 10), but he gives no authority for the statement, and the
author has been unable to find, except in Burnouf, any justification for a
difference of names. Professor Goodyear gives the title of "Meander" to
that form of Swastika which bends two or more times (fig. 11).
The Swastika is sometimes represented with dots or points in the corners
of the intersections (fig. 12_a_), and occasionally the same when without
bent ends (fig. 12_b_), to which Zmigrodzki gives the name of _Croix
Swasticale_. Some Swastikas have three dots placed equidistant around each
of the four ends (fig. 12_c_).
[Illustration: Fig. 12. CROIX SWASTICALE (ZMIGRODZKI).]
There are several varieties possibly related to the Swastika which have
been found in almost every part of the globe, and though the relation may
appear slight, and at first sight difficult to trace, yet it will appear
more or less intimate as the examination is pursued through its
ramifications. As this paper is an investigation into and report upon
facts rather than conclusions to be drawn from them, it is deemed wise to
give those forms bearing even possible relations to the Swastika. Certain
of them have been accepted by the author as related to the Swastika, while
others have been rejected; but this rejection has been confined to cases
where the known facts seemed to justify another origin for the symbol.
Speculation has been avoided.
[Illustration: PECULIAR FORMS OF SWASTIKA.
Fig. 13_a_. OGEE AND SPIRAL SWASTIKAS. Tetraskelion (four-armed).
Fig. 13_b_. SPIRAL AND VOLUTE. Triskelion (three-armed).