scarcely visible from above. Internasals as long as or a little shorter
than the prefrontals. Frontal not much broader than the supraocular in
the adult, once and a half to twice as long as broad, as long as or
longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the
parietals. Nasal usually semidivided. Loreal once and a half to twice as
long as deep. One preocular, extending to the upper surface of the head,
but not reaching the frontal; two (rarely one or three) postoculars.
Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials eight, fourth and fifth entering the eye,
sixth usually in contact with the parietal. Four or five lower labials
in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or a
little shorter than the posterior.
_Scales_ with mostly single apical pits, the pits sometimes paired on
the sides of the body, in twenty-one or twenty-three rows (nineteen to
twenty-five in North African specimens). Ventral shields 153 to 192;
anal divided; subcaudals 40 to 54.
_Coloration._--Pale brown or greyish above, with small dark brown or
blackish spots or with more or less distinct darker and lighter
longitudinal streaks. Upper surface of head with dark brown
vermiculations; a dark brown or black, often light-edged occipito-nuchal
band, extending downwards to the gular region and produced forwards into
a point to between the parietal shields; a dark brown or black streak on
each side of the head from the end of the snout, through the eye, to the
last lower labial shield, traversing the four last upper labials, which
are yellowish above and below the streak (Plate XI.). Lower parts yellow
or coral red, with black spots, which may form a tessellated pattern,
two longitudinal series, or be so crowded as to fuse into a band along
the middle of the belly and tail.
The above description is taken from Spanish specimens (Badajos,
Algeciras, Andalucia), but the variations are very great when we take
North Africa into consideration. The nuchal band may be narrow or broken
up into spots, the median of which sometimes forms a longitudinal
streak, or so much enlarged as to fuse with the dark markings on the
upper surface of the head; in some specimens (from Morocco and Algeria)
the upper surface of the head and the nape may be entirely ink black, or
the whole head black above and beneath with the exception of a whitish
streak bordering the upper lip. The dark streak from the eye to the
angle of the mouth may be absent, or reduced to a short oblique streak
below the eye. Irrespective of the variations in the markings of the
upper parts, the lower parts may be more or less spotted with black, or
immaculate.
Some specimens of this small snake bear a general resemblance to
_Coronella girondica_, with which _Macroprotodon_ has sometimes been
confounded. But a careful examination of its whole structure shows it to
be more affine to _Coelopeltis_ and _Tarbophis_, the other European
representatives of the Opisthoglyphous Colubrids.
_Size._--The largest European specimen examined measures 17-1/2 inches.
Specimens up to 22 inches long occur in Algeria and Tunisia.
_Distribution._--In Europe this snake is only known from Spain
(Estremadura, New Castille, Andalucia), Portugal (Alemtejo), the
Balearic Islands (Majorca and Minorca), and the island of Lampedusa. In
North Africa it is generally distributed from the north coast of Egypt
to the Rio de Oro; in Algeria it penetrates into the northern parts of
the Sahara. The specimen figured on Plate XI. is from Algeciras.
_Habits._--Appear to be similar to those of _Coronella girondica_.
Crepuscular in its habits, it is usually found under stones or in
burrows in the ground. Unless pursued, when it darts off with great
rapidity, its movements are slow. It is very ready to bite, but no
experiments have been made on the effects of its poison. The food
consists chiefly of small lizards.
_Reproduction._--All that is known on this head is that, according to
Doumergue, eggs are laid in July in Algeria.
GENUS TARBOPHIS, FLEISCHMANN
Maxillary teeth few, anterior longest, gradually decreasing in size
posteriorly, and followed, after an interspace, by a pair of enlarged,
grooved fangs, situated below the posterior border of the eye; anterior
mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head distinct from neck; eye
moderate or rather small, with vertically elliptic pupil. Body
moderately elongate; scales smooth, oblique, with apical pits. Tail
moderate or rather short.
The eight species of this genus inhabit South-Eastern Europe,
South-Western Asia, and Africa. Two are dealt with here.
19. TARBOPHIS FALLAX, Fleischmann
(_Ailurophis vivax_, Bonaparte)
The Cat-Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender. Head much depressed. Tail five and a half
to seven times in the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 32]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above.
Internasals shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal much broader than the
supraocular, once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as
long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the
parietals. Nasal divided or semidivided. Loreal twice and a half to
thrice as long as deep, entering the eye below the preocular, which is
in contact with the frontal. Two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals
small, scale-like, 2 or 3 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely seven or
nine), third, fourth, and fifth (rarely fourth and fifth, or fourth,
fifth, and sixth) entering the eye. Three or four lower labials in
contact with the anterior chin-shields; posterior chin-shields very
small and widely separated from each other by scales.
_Scales_ with single or paired apical pits, in nineteen or twenty-one
rows, usually nineteen in European specimens. Ventral shields 186 to
222; anal divided; subcaudals 48 to 73.
_Coloration._--Greyish above, with 40 to 57 brown or black spots or bars
on the body; a lateral series of smaller spots or vertical bars,
alternating with the dorsals; the first spot, on the nape, elongate,
usually with one or three linear processes in front, extending on the
head (Plate XI.); usually a dark streak on each side of the head, from
the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lower parts whitish, speckled,
spotted, or marbled with grey or brown. Iris brown, with a golden circle
round the pupil.
_Size._--This species grows to a length of 2 feet 10 inches.
_Distribution._--From Istria and Dalmatia to Greece, the Archipelago,
Constantinople, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and Northern Syria; 2,600 feet
appears to be its altitudinal limit.
_Habits._--Although to a certain extent crepuscular or nocturnal, the
Cat-snake is often seen hunting in the daytime, its food consisting
almost exclusively of lizards, rarely of small mammals. Its movements
are rather slow. The names Katzenschlange and _Ailurophis_, translated
Cat-snake, probably originated from the way in which this snake stalks
its prey, and suddenly pounces upon it. According to Eiffe, the poison
causes the death of a _Lacerta vivipara_ in one minute, and P. de Grijs
observed the larger _Lacerta agilis_ to die in two or three minutes. As
a rule even fresh-caught specimens allow themselves to be handled
without attempting to bite; some specimens, on the other hand, are very
savage. Stony localities, old walls, and ruins, are the favourite abodes
of this snake, which does well in captivity.
_Reproduction._--Seven or eight eggs are laid in July; they measure
about 1-1/4 inches in length and 1/2 inch in width.
20. TARBOPHIS IBERUS, Eichwald
The Caucasian Cat-Snake
Very closely allied to the preceding, and differing from it only in the
following points: Parietals shorter, slightly longer than the frontal,
and anal entire. Loreal twice to twice and a half as long as deep.
Fourth and fifth, or third, fourth, and fifth, labials entering the eye.
Scales in nineteen or twenty-one rows. Ventrals 203 to 235; subcaudals
54 to 70.
Grey above, with 35 to 40 blackish spots on the body, the anterior
largest and darkest; a lateral series of smaller spots or vertical bars.
Lower parts blackish, with small whitish spots and dots. Reaches a
length of 3-1/2 feet.
This species inhabits the Caucasus, and, being on record from the
northern slope (Kuban River), has to be included in the European fauna.
It occurs also in Mesopotamia, a specimen from Bagdad being preserved in
the British Museum. The young specimen figured on Plate XI. is stated to
be from Constantinople.
Nothing is known of its habits, which are probably the same as those of
_Tarbophis fallax_.
FOURTH FAMILY: VIPERIDÆ
Maxillary, palatine, and pterygoid bones movable, the first much
abbreviated, erectile perpendicularly to the large transverse bone, and
supporting a pair of large canaliculated poison fangs; mandible without
coronoid bone. No vestiges of pelvic arch.
All more or less poisonous, some being among the most dangerous of
snakes.
Divided into two subfamilies, each of which is represented by one genus
in Europe:
_Viperinæ._--No pit on the side of the snout; maxillary bone not
hollowed out.
_Crotalinæ._--A deep pit on each side of the snout, between the nostril
and the eye; maxillary bone hollowed out above.
_PLATE XII_
[Illustration: VIPERA URSINII
_From Zoological Society's Proceedings_]
[Illustration: VIPERA RENARDI
_From Zoological Society's Proceedings_]
[Illustration: VIPERA BERUS
_After Sordelli_]
The _Viperinæ_ inhabit nearly the whole of Europe, Asia, and Africa; the
_Crotalinæ_ are Asiatic (one species extending its range into a small
part of South-Eastern Europe) and American.
GENUS VIPERA, LAURENTI
Head distinct from neck, covered with small shields or scales, with or
without distinct frontal and parietal shields; eye moderate or small,
with vertical pupil, separated from the labial shields by scales; nasal
separated from the rostral by a naso-rostral. Body short. Scales keeled,
with apical pits. Tail short.
Of the eleven species of this genus, six are found in Europe; two
inhabit South-Western Asia, one the Indo-Malay region, and two Eastern
Africa.
The distinction of the European species is one of considerable
difficulty, owing to their close relationship and the presence of
intermediate forms connecting them. Matters being so, it seems curious
that the Common Adder should have been regarded by so many authors as
generically distinct from the Asp Viper, under the name of _Pelias
berus_. It is highly probable that hybrids are produced in those
districts where two species coexist, as in some parts of France, North
Italy, and Austria.
21. VIPERA URSINII, Bonaparte
Orsini's Viper
_Form._--Short and stout. Snout obtusely pointed, flat above or with the
canthus slightly raised. Eye very small, usually smaller than the nasal
shield, its horizontal diameter usually not exceeding its distance from
the posterior border of the nostril, its vertical diameter often less
than and rarely exceeding its distance from the mouth. Length of tail
seven to eight times in total length in males, nine and a half to twelve
times in females.
[Illustration: FIG. 33 (From Proceedings of the Zoological Society,
1893)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad or slightly deeper than broad,
visible from above, in contact with one apical shield (rarely with two).
Distinct frontal and (usually) parietal shields, the former once and a
half to once and two-thirds (rarely once and one-third) as long as
broad, as long as its distance from the rostral or the end of the snout,
and nearly always longer than the parietals; the latter always in
contact with the former, rarely broken up into small shields. Four to
seven small shields on the snout between the canthals, of which there
are two on each side. Supraocular well developed, extending posteriorly
beyond the vertical of the eye, separated from the frontal by one to
three shields, very rarely in contact with it. Six to ten scales round
the eye, usually eight or nine, the upper preocular usually in contact
with the nasal; a single series of scales between the eye and the
labials. Nasal single. Temporal scales smooth. Upper labials six to
nine, usually seven or eight, usually third or third and fourth below
the eye. Three (rarely four) lower labials in contact with the
chin-shields, of which there is but one pair.
_Scales_ in nineteen (rarely twenty or twenty-one) rows, with two apical
pits, strongly keeled on the back, less strongly on the sides, outer row
smooth. Ventral shields 120 to 135 in males, 125 to 142 in females; anal
entire; subcaudals 30 to 37 in males, 20 to 28 in females. By adding the
subcaudals to the ventrals in a hundred specimens, the total numbers are
153 to 169 in males, 150 to 168 in females.
_Coloration._--Unlike its ally _V. berus_, _V. ursinii_ shows no sexual
differences in the coloration. The ground colour of the back is usually
yellowish or pale brown, sharply defined from the darker grey or brown
colour of the sides; some specimens, however, are of an almost uniform
brown ground colour. The light colour of the back is relieved by a
series of more or less regular transversely oval, elliptic, or
rhomboidal dark brown, black-edged spots, some or all of which may run
together to form a wavy or zigzag band (Plate XII.). Two or three
longitudinal series of dark brown or black spots extend along the sides,
the upper series, if present, occupying the space between the series of
spots continued from the postocular band and the large dorsal spots or
vertebral band, the lowermost following the outer row of scales. Small
dark spots and one or two [V]-shaped markings are present on the upper
surface of the head; an oblique dark band proceeds from the eye to the
angle of the mouth, and is not infrequently confluent with the branches
of the occipital [V]. The rostral and the labial shields are uniform
yellowish-white, rarely with a few small, blackish spots or with brown
borders. The chin and throat are yellowish-white, rarely with some
blackish spots. The ventral and subcaudal shields are black, with
transverse series of small white spots, or grey checkered with black and
white, or whitish with small round black spots; the tail is but rarely
(females) tipped with yellow.
The form recently described as _V. macrops_, Méhely, from Bosnia and
Herzegovina, is distinguished by a usually larger eye, the vertical
diameter of which equals or a little exceeds its distance from the
mouth, and the parietals are often broken up into small shields. The
postocular dark band is often reduced, originating at some distance from
the eye, and is not prolonged beyond the mouth. In this geographical
race melanic specimens occasionally occur, which are dark brown or
blackish above, the lower parts not differing from those of the typical
form.
_Size._--20 inches appears to be the usual maximum size reached by this
species, but, Dr. Werner informs me, a female 2 feet long has been found
in Lower Austria.
_Distribution._--First discovered in Italy in the Abruzzi, this species
has since been found in the Basses-Alpes, near Digne, in various parts
of Hungary, in Lower Austria, on the island of Veglia in Istria, and in
Bosnia, Bulgaria, Herzegovina, and Montenegro. A very broken and curious
distribution, the more so as _V. ursinii_ is essentially a form of the
plain in Lower Austria and Hungary, and an alpine form in Italy, in
France, and in the Balkan Peninsula, where it only occurs between 3,000
and 6,800 feet. In no part of its habitat does it appear ever to be
found in company with _V. berus_.
_Habits._--Only a few specimens have hitherto been found in Italy and in
France, but the species occurred up to a few years ago in extraordinary
numbers in Lower Austria, in the immediate vicinity of Laxenburg. The
intendant of the imperial castle pays a premium for the destruction of
Vipers, and in the course of one year (1892) more than 1,000 specimens
were brought to him. These snakes are found principally, though not
exclusively, in the marshy meadows around the park, where they may be
seen about in the daytime from May to September, feeding chiefly on
lizards (_Lacerta agilis_), and also on small rodents. The lizards are
swallowed as soon as seized, without the effect of the poison being
awaited as in other Viperid snakes. This Viper is as a rule of gentle
disposition, allowing itself to be handled without attempting to bite,
and village boys have been seen playing with them. Although occurring in
such enormous numbers at Laxenburg, no accident from snake-bite has ever
been heard of. The form from the Balkan Peninsula (_V. macrops_) is even
more pacific still, and is believed never to make use of its poison
apparatus, its food consisting of orthopterous insects. According to
Captain Veith, who has collected a large number of specimens of this
Southern form, the contents of the stomach as well as the excrements
show this snake to feed exclusively on grasshoppers. On one occasion a
big specimen showed such a swelling of the body as to lead to the
conclusion that it had swallowed a mouse, but it soon after disgorged
what proved to be a ball made up of the agglutinated remains of at least
a hundred grasshoppers. When handled, this Viper hisses or even pretends
to snap, but with closed mouth, never biting unless seriously hurt. The
poison appears to have little effect on man.
_Reproduction._--Nothing has been published on the breeding habits of
this species, but in a letter to the author, dated January 14, 1913,
Herr L. von Kirchroth, who has examined over 4,000 specimens since 1890,
says the young are born in July or August, exceptionally as early as
June. Young females bring forth from six to eight young, older females
from eight to eighteen; but a large female from Lower Austria is
reported to have contained as many as twenty-two. The length of the
new-born young is from 5 to 6 inches, and it grows rapidly within the
first week, probably through stretching out, without taking any food.
According to Captain Veith, the form described as _V. macrops_ brings
forth only from three to five young.
22. VIPERA RENARDI, Christoph
Renard's Viper
_Form._--Similar to the preceding species, but snout more pointed, the
raised canthi rostrales meeting at an acute angle. Eye usually as large
as in _V. berus_, nearly as large as the nasal shield; its horizontal
diameter equal to its distance from the posterior or anterior border of
the nostril, its vertical diameter equal to or a little less than its
distance from the mouth. Length of tail seven and a half to nine times
in total length in males, eight to ten times in females.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad or a little deeper than broad,
just visible from above, and in contact with a single apical shield.
Distinct frontal and (usually) parietal shields, the former once and
two-thirds to twice and one-third as long as broad, as long as or longer
than its distance from the end of the snout, usually longer than the
parietals; the latter always in contact with the former, unless broken
up into small shields. Two to six, usually three or four, small shields
on the snout between the canthals, of which there are two on each side,
the second broadly in contact with the supraocular. Supraocular well
developed, extending posteriorly beyond the vertical of the eye,
separated from the frontal by one to four shields. Nine to eleven,
usually ten, scales round the eye, the upper preocular usually in
contact with the nasal; either a single series of scales between the eye
and the labials, or two series except under the centre of the eye, which
is separated from the fourth labial by a single scale. Nasal single.
Temporal scales all smooth, or the upper faintly keeled. Upper labials,
eight or nine, fourth or fourth and fifth below the eye. Four (rarely
five) lower labials in contact with the chin-shields, of which there is
but one pair.
[Illustration: FIG. 34 (From Proceedings of the Zoological Society,
1893)]
_Scales_ in twenty-one (very rarely nineteen) rows, with two apical
pits, strongly keeled, outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral
shields 130 to 148 in males, 130 to 150 in females; anal entire;
subcaudals 31 to 37 in males, 24 to 30 in females.
_Coloration._--As in _V. ursinii_, the sexes are alike in coloration.
European specimens (Plate XII.) are very similar to _V. ursinii_, except
that the labial shields are markedly dark-edged and speckled or spotted
with brown or black. The dorsal band or series of spots is dark brown,
edged with blackish; the ground colour of the middle of the back and of
the scales of the two outer rows on each side is yellowish, of the sides
(four rows of scales) greyish-brown with two or three series of dark
brown spots; two dark [V]-shaped markings on the head; a dark postocular
streak, extending or not to the side of the neck. The lower parts are
whitish or pale greyish, with blackish dots, of which there is a series
of larger ones along each side of the belly. The tip of the tail is
never yellow.
Central Asian specimens are of a pale yellowish sand-colour, with a
brown, dark-edged dorsal zigzag band or series of spots and two series
of small spots on the sides. Belly whitish, dotted or spotted with
black, or uniform blackish.
_Size._--23 inches is the length of the largest specimen examined.
_Distribution._--In Europe _V. renardi_, which has long been confounded
with _V. berus_, is abundant in the district of Uralsk, in the steppe
around Sarepta, in Crimea, and it is also found in Cis-Caucasia and in
Bessarabia. Its range extends far into Central Asia, being known from
the Khirghiz steppes, the Emba steppes, the steppes near the Alatau, on
the borders of the Urdshar, and in the Semipolatinsk district. Around
Sarepta it is common in the bare steppe, and only exceptionally occurs
in localities overgrown with willows and small shrubs.
_Habits._--Nothing has been published concerning the habits of this
snake, except that it is more sensitive to cold than _V. berus_ and does
not appear before the middle of April, retiring to its winter-quarters
in the beginning of October. The food consists of small mammals and
lizards.
_Reproduction._--Pairs in May, and brings forth five to seven young in
August, these young at birth measuring about 5-1/2 inches.
23. VIPERA BERUS, Linnæus
The Northern Viper, or Adder
_Form._--Short and stout. Snout flat above, rarely slightly concave, the
upper contour broadly rounded or truncate in front, the canthus well
marked, sometimes slightly raised, the loreal region nearly vertical.
Eye as a rule smaller in females than in males, as large or nearly as
large as the nasal shield; its vertical diameter equals or a little
exceeds its distance from the mouth. Length of tail five and a half to
nine times in total length in males, eight to ten and three-quarter
times in females.
[Illustration: FIG. 35 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad or slightly broader than deep,
rarely once and one-third as deep as broad, not or but scarcely visible
from above. In addition to the supraoculars, three large shields, the
frontal and the parietals, are as a rule present on the top of the head.
Frontal as long as broad or a little longer than broad, rarely much
longer than broad, once and a half to twice and a half as broad as the
supraocular, from which it is as a rule separated by one to four
shields, as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the
rostral, as long as or a little shorter than the parietals. Parietals
usually in contact with the frontal and separated from the supraoculars
by small shields, but sometimes in contact with both, or separated from
the frontal. Exceptionally, in specimens from Great Britain, Germany,
and Austria, the parietals, or the frontal and the parietals, are broken
up into scales, and this is more frequently the case in specimens from
North-Western Spain (var. _seoanei_). Upper surface of snout bordered by
six (rarely by five or four) small shields, viz., two apicals (rarely
one), and on each side two canthals, the second of which is usually in
contact with the supraocular; canthals very rarely united into one
shield; the space between these shields covered by four to twenty flat
or convex, juxtaposed scales, which very exceptionally are fused into a
single large shield. Supraocular usually extending posteriorly beyond
the vertical of the eye. Six to thirteen scales round the eye, usually
eight to ten; two or three superposed scales, rarely two vertical series
of scales, separate the preoculars from the nasal, which is single. As a
rule a single series of scales intervenes between the eye and the
labials; specimens with two series are of very exceptional occurrence
(single specimens from Isle of Arran, Normandy, Southern Norway, and
Carniola, in the British Museum), but there are occasionally two series
except just below the centre of the eye. Upper labials six to ten,
usually eight or nine; fourth or fourth and fifth (rarely third and
fourth) below the eye. Temporal scales smooth, rarely feebly keeled.
Three or four (rarely five) lower labials in contact with the single
pair of chin-shields.
_Scales_ in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or twenty-three) rows, with two
apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or feebly
keeled. Ventral shields 132 to 150 (usually 137 to 147) in males, 132 to
158 (usually 140 to 150) in females; anal entire; subcaudals 32 to 46
(usually 35 to 40) in males, 24 to 38 (usually 28 to 33) in females.
_Coloration._--It is characteristic of this species, contrary to the
rule in snakes, to present such marked differences of colour, according
to the sexes, that these can be distinguished in most cases from that
character alone.
Whitish or pale grey specimens, with black belly and jet black dorsal
markings (Plate XII.), are males. Brown and brick-red specimens, with
the markings of a more or less dark brown or red, are females. There are
also brown, reddish-brown or olive males with the markings of a deep
black, and grey males with brown markings. A very pretty colour variety,
which affects only females, is olive with brick-red band and spots. Some
males, just before exuviation, have the lower surface of a pale
greyish-blue (_Coluber cæruleus_, Sheppard), with the outer ends of the
shields black. Specimens with yellowish-white chin and throat, which may
be tinged with red, are females; males have the throat black, or whitish
with the scales spotted or edged with black. Exceptional females occur
(in Carniola) which in this respect resemble the males.
The markings vary considerably. Those on the back usually consist of a
wavy or zigzag longitudinal band, flanked on each side with a series of
spots corresponding to its sinuses; but this band may be partly or even
entirely broken up into rhomboidal or transversely oval spots, or,
losing its indentations, form a straight stripe edged on each side with
a yellowish streak (as in some specimens of the var. _seoanei_, from
North-Western Spain). The markings may be absent altogether (var.
_concolor_, Jan), or reduced to a narrow straight vertebral band
(_Pelias dorsalis_, Gray). In the var. _seoanei_ the zigzag band is
often replaced by a dark brown vertebral band, three to five scales
wide, bordered on each side by a series of subtriangular or crescentic
black spots opposite to each other, as in the Pyrenean specimens of _V.
aspis_. A pair of elongate dark markings are usually present on the back
of the head, affecting the following shapes: |\,)(,)(,)(; By uniting
together, this pair of markings may form a [V] or an X. An oblique dark
streak extends on each side from the eye to the last labial shields,
being sometimes prolonged a short way down the neck. The snout and
vertex may be uniform or bear some symmetrical dark spots, or in some
males be entirely black, the black involving the apex of the [V]-shaped
marking. The labial shields are whitish or yellowish, those at least
which are anterior to the eye being more or less broadly edged with
brown or black.
The belly and the lower surface of the tail vary from grey or brown to
bluish, blackish-grey, or black, the sides usually dotted or spotted
with whitish; sometimes, especially in females, the belly is dark grey,
each shield with a white posterior border which is broken up by a series
of small roundish black spots. The end of the tail is often yellowish,
bright yellow, or pale orange below, rarely coral red, more commonly in
females than in males.
The iris is usually coppery red, more rarely golden suffused with brown.
Black specimens occur, more or less frequently, all over the habitat of
this species, and are often referred to as _V. prester_, Linnæus. A
distinction has to be made between individuals which are black through
darkening of the ground colour, and such as are thus coloured through
expansion and confluence of the markings. The latter are males, and
among them we may find intermediate stages showing how this melanism is
brought about; in one case the black of the back is separated from the
black of the sides by a narrow light brown wavy stripe, the remains of
the ground colour. When, as in all females, and occasionally in males,
the black is the result of a gradual darkening of the ground colour, the
typical markings may still be detected under certain lights. Some
specimens (from Schneeberg, Lower Austria) are black, with scattered
golden dots, or of a dark mahogany brown speckled with yellowish. In
nearly all the black specimens at least a few dots of whitish are
visible on the lips, and of yellow under the end of the tail.
Most of the variations enumerated above occur irrespective of the
geographical distribution. Two forms, however, deserve to be regarded as
ill-defined local races: the var. _seoanei_, Lataste, from North-Western
Spain, in which, in addition to the peculiarities of coloration
mentioned in the description, the canthus rostralis is frequently more
distinctly raised, and the frontal and parietal shields are often
disintegrated into scales; and the var. _bosniensis_, Boettger, from
Bosnia, Carniola, and Carinthia, which is sometimes very suggestive of,
and has been taken for, the typical form of _V. aspis_, having like it,
though not at all constantly, two series of scales between the eye and
the labials, and the zigzag band replaced by a series of dark bars
across the back. The var. _pseudaspis_, Schreiber, from the plains of
Sclavonia, described as straw yellow above, with narrow dark cross-bars,
is hardly separable from the var. _bosniensis_.
_Size._--_Vipera berus_ is said to reach very exceptionally a length of
2 feet 11 inches. The largest specimen in the British Museum (from
Belgium) measures 2 feet 3-1/2 inches: the largest British specimen 2
feet 3 inches. Both these specimens are females. The largest male
measures 2 feet 2 inches.
_Distribution._--_Vipera berus_ ranges over the whole of Northern
Europe, to the extreme north of Scotland, and the sixty-seventh degree
in Scandinavia, and right across Northern Asia as far east as the island
of Saghalien. It is generally distributed in Great Britain, occurring
also on the Isles of Arran, Islay, Skye, Lewis, and Mull, rare or absent
in some districts, common in others. Its distribution in Central and
Southern Europe is irregular. In Western France it does not extend much
beyond the Loire to the south, only isolated captures being on record
from the departments Vendée, Deux-Sèvres, Vienne, and Indre. Of rare
occurrence south of Paris, in the departments Yonne and Allier and in
the mountains of Auvergne, it is again abundant in some parts of the
Central Plateau. To the east it is recorded from the departments Aude,
Haute-Marne, and Vosges. In Belgium, it is known from Flanders, Limburg,
the Meuse Valley, and the Ardennes; in Holland it is pretty generally
distributed in the uncultivated parts. It is spread over nearly the
whole of the German Empire with the exception of the vine districts,
where it is absent or extremely rare; it is also very scarce in the
mountains of the Black Forest; it is on record from only a few
localities in Lorraine, and has never been found in Alsatia. In South
Germany it is rarely found below 1,000 feet altitude. In Switzerland it
is absent from the Jura, but occurs in the Alps chiefly between 2,500
and 9,000 feet. To the East it extends to Russia, as far north as 64°,
Austria-Hungary, confined to the hills in the south, and Roumania. In
the Balkan Peninsula it occurs in the mountains of Bosnia, of
Herzegovina, and of Bulgaria, up to 7,000 feet. Absent from the South of
France, it curiously reappears in the hills of the north coast of Spain,
even at sea-level in Galicia, and in a few localities in North Portugal.
On the southern side of the Alps it is much rarer than _V. aspis_, but
it has established itself in a few low-lying districts in Lombardy,
Venetia, and the neighbouring part of Emilia.
_Habits._--As we see from the above sketch of its distribution, the
Adder generally avoids the hotter parts of Europe; when found in the
plain in the South, as in Italy, it dwells in marshy localities, and
Bonaparte called it _Marasso palustre_ (Marsh Viper) in opposition to
his _Marasso alpino_, _Vipera ursinii_. In the North, however, it
usually selects in preference dry moors, sandy heaths, and hills well
exposed to the sun, in which, although to a certain extent a nocturnal
reptile, it delights to bask. Its food is very varied: weasels, mice,
voles, shrews, moles, birds, lizards, slow-worms, frogs, salamanders,
large slugs, have been found in the stomach, and the very young feed
also on insects and worms. Of irascible temper as a rule, Adders are
very ready to bite when fresh caught, but instances are known of their
becoming quite tame in captivity, allowing themselves to be handled. As
a rule they refuse food in captivity, but some have been known to live
for as long as five years, being fed on lizards. Accidents from their
bite, although seldom heard of in this country, are of frequent
occurrence in France and in Germany, where many cases of fatal results
on people have been recorded.
_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place in April and May, and the young,
five to twenty in number, are born in August or September, exceptionally
as early as the end of July; the young, on releasing themselves from the
thin, transparent membrane in which they are enclosed at birth, measure
6 to 8 inches. According to J. Geithe, a black female from Saxony gave
birth to seventeen young, of which only one, a male, was black.
It is probable that exceptionally some individuals pair late in the
summer or in the autumn. There is a trustworthy record, by Eiffe, of
three pregnant females having been caught near Hamburg on March 12,
1882, one of them giving birth to young on the following day.
Dicephalous young have occasionally been observed. One 6 inches long was
found crawling in a field near Hornburg in Germany in October, 1895,
and, having been kept alive for some time, was observed to hiss and open
the two mouths alternately when taking up a defensive attitude. Another
similar monster, from Cornwall, is reported to have been sent alive to
the London Zoological Gardens in 1854.
24. VIPERA ASPIS, Linnæus
The Asp Viper
_Form._--Rather more elongate than in the preceding. Snout flat above,
more or less distinctly turned up at the end, with sharp, not or but
very slightly raised canthus, and vertical or nearly vertical loreal
region. Vertical diameter of the eye equal to or a little less than its
distance from the mouth. The raised upper border of the transversely
truncate or obtusely pointed extremity of the snout, coupled with the
downward slant of the supraocular region and canthus rostralis, gives
the head, seen from the side, a peculiar expression; the eye is so
oblique that a vertical line drawn from the posterior extremity of the
supraocular shield to the lip usually passes through the eye or down its
posterior border; but the extent to which the snout is turned up at the
end varies considerably, some specimens approaching _V. berus_ in this
respect, others _V. latastii_. Length of tail five and a half to eight
times in total length in males, seven to nine times in females.
[Illustration: FIG. 36 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral deeper than broad, its width two-thirds to
seven-eighths its depth, extending to the upper edge of the snout. As a
rule, with the exception of the large supraocular, the upper surface of
the head is covered with small, subimbricate scales, which are smooth,
very rarely feebly keeled, between the eyes and on the snout; however,
an enlarged frontal shield, or even a frontal and a pair of parietals,
are sometimes present, though rarely so large as in a typical _V.
berus_; when present, the frontal is separated from the supraocular by
one or two series of scales; when the frontal is absent, four to seven
series of scales separate the supraoculars. Upper surface of snout
usually bordered by eight or nine small shields--viz., two or three
apicals, in contact with the tip of the rostral and raised to form the
turned-up nose, and, on each side, two canthals and the upper preocular,
which separates the supraocular from the canthals, or three canthals;
sometimes, however, the border is formed by six or seven small shields,
the second canthal being in contact with the supraocular, as in _V.
berus_. Supraocular usually with very convex outer border, not extending
posteriorly beyond the vertical of the eye. Eight to thirteen scales
round the eye, usually ten to twelve; one or two vertical series of
scales separate the preoculars from the nasal, which is single or
divided, and often rather deeply hollowed out. As a rule two series of
scales (very rarely three) separate the eye from the labials; sometimes,
however, there is but one scale between the eye and the fourth labial,
the second series being incomplete. Upper labials nine to thirteen,
usually nine to eleven, fourth and fifth, rarely fourth to sixth or
fifth and sixth, below the eye. Temporal scales smooth or feebly keeled.
Four (rarely five) lower labials in contact with the single pair of
chin-shields.
_PLATE XIII_
[Illustration: VIPERA ASPIS
_After Calmette_]
[Illustration: VIPERA LATASTII]
_Scales_ in twenty-one or twenty-three (rarely nineteen or twenty-five)
rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row more
or less distinctly keeled, rarely perfectly smooth. Ventral shields 134
to 158 (usually 143 to 153) in males, 141 to 169 (usually 145 to 157) in
females; anal entire; subcaudals 32 to 49 (usually 37 to 45) in males,
30 to 43 (usually 32 to 38) in females; the terminal caudal shield is
sometimes shorter and less spine-like than in _V. berus_, quite obtuse
in some specimens.
_Coloration._--Grey, greyish-brown, brown, reddish-brown, coppery red,
or orange, is the ground colour in individuals from the same district;
in this respect sexual differences are less marked than in the preceding
species, red or copper-coloured specimens being found in both sexes, and
silvery white specimens do not seem ever to occur. In rare cases
markings are entirely absent. In specimens from the greater part of
France, Italy, and the Southern Tyrol (see Plate XIII.), the dark brown
or black markings on the body are mostly in the form of narrow
cross-bars, continuous across the back or broken on the vertebral line
and often alternating with each other and with similar bars on the
sides, thus producing a pattern not unlike that frequently found in
_Tropidonotus natrix_; a narrow dark line running straight or zigzag
along the spine may connect these cross-bars, and in rare cases it is so
broad as to produce a zigzag band similar to that of _V. berus_. In
specimens from South-Western France and the Pyrenees, rarely in some
from other parts of France and Italy, there is a broad dark grey or
brown vertebral band between two series of black or blackish-brown
spots, opposite to each other or alternating; this band may be straight
or wavy, sometimes forming a regular zigzag; there is another series of
blackish spots or short bars lower down on the side, alternating with
those of the dorsal series.
The upper surface of the head may be devoid of any markings, or bear
merely the two oblique dark streaks forming the branches of a [V]; or a
dark cross-bar may be present on the snout, followed or not by smaller
spots or a pair of oblique streaks on the occiput; the [V] on the back
of the head may be united with the first cross-bar on the nape, and
enclose a cordiform figure of the lighter ground colour. A light line
sometimes borders the upper edge of the snout and the outer edge of the
supraocular shield. A blackish band or a mere line extends obliquely
from the eye to the first lateral spot; below this the upper lip is
whitish, yellowish, or pinkish, with or without dark vertical bars on
the sutures between the labial shields. The iris is golden or coppery
red.
The lower parts vary as much as the upper: sometimes black or steel
blue, with or without whitish or reddish dots or spots, sometimes
yellowish or pale reddish, with brown dots or marblings; in some young,
white with greyish dots. The throat is yellowish white or pale reddish,
uniform or speckled with blackish, sometimes (males) nearly entirely
black. The end of the tail is usually bright yellow or reddish, or at
least with a few bright spots. And finally we must mention black
specimens--some nearly black by darkening of the ground colour, others
intensely black by enlargement of the markings. A specimen from
Piedmont, in the Turin Museum, shows the ground colour reduced to mere
narrow light bars disposed in pairs. In most of these black specimens
the chin and throat remain entirely or partially yellowish or reddish,
and a few spots of the same colour are to be seen under the end of the
tail.
A remarkable form of _V. aspis_, which some herpetologists would perhaps
regard as entitled to rank as a species, is the var. _hugyi_, Schinz,
from Calabria and Sicily. It is in some respects intermediate between
_V. aspis_ and _V. latastii_. The snout is rather more pointed than
usual in the typical form, often, though not constantly, more strongly
turned up at the end, and the canthus rostralis may be distinctly
raised. Constantly two canthal shields, the second in contact with the
supraocular. Ventral shields 134 to 148; subcaudals 30 to 43. Pale
greyish, yellowish, brownish, or reddish, above, with a broad wavy dark
brown vertebral band, edged with darker; this band sometimes broken up
into transversely oval spots; a lateral series of blackish-brown spots,
each corresponding to the sinus of the dorsal band.
Specimens so completely intermediate between _Vipera aspis_ and _V.
berus_ as to render their naming arbitrary are known from parts of
France and Italy where the two species coexist, and are probably to be
regarded as hybrids.
_Size._--The largest specimen examined (St. Sever, Landes, in the
Lataste Collection) measures 2 feet 2-1/2 inches. It is a male. The
largest female in the British Museum is 2 inches shorter.
_Distribution._--_Vipera aspis_ is found over the whole of France south
of a line connecting the departments Loire-Inférieure, Orne,
Seine-et-Marne, and Meurthe-et-Moselle, and ascends the Pyrenees to the
altitude of 7,250 feet. In Germany it is known from Lorraine and the
Black Forest, in Switzerland from the western and southern parts, up to
5,000 feet on the northern side of the Alps. It occurs also in Austria,
in the Southern Tyrol and in the Karst, and is distributed over the
whole of Italy and Sicily, reaching an altitude of 9,700 feet in the
Alps. Most of the specimens from the western parts of the Balkan
Peninsula which have been referred to this species belong, apparently,
to _V. berus_, var. _bosniensis_, but one from Jahorin in Bosnia,
altitude 5,650 feet, preserved in the Bosnian Museum, is pronounced by
Werner to be an unquestionable _V. aspis_.
_Habits._--This Viper shows a predilection for hot and dry localities.
It is both diurnal and nocturnal, and does not seem to wander far from
its hole in a rock or in the earth. It is slow in its movements, but
very irascible, and innumerable accidents, in some cases fatal to man,
are caused yearly in many parts of France, where it is extremely
abundant. Its food consists principally of small mammals, young birds,
and lizards, but the very young eat insects and worms. In France it
retires into its winter-quarters at the end of October or in November,
and numerous specimens often congregate in the same hole; it resumes its
activity towards the end of March or the beginning of April, sometimes
as early as the end of February. In rare cases it will even leave its
retreat in the middle of winter, to bask in the sun. In captivity it
long retains its savage temper, and usually refuses all food.
_Reproduction._--_Vipera aspis_ pairs in April and May; the pair are
entwined in each other's coils. The young, four to eighteen in number,
but rarely more than ten, are born in August or September, and measure 7
or 8 inches.
Several cases of dicephaly in young specimens have been described.
25. VIPERA LATASTII, Bosca
Lataste's Viper
_Form._--Heavier than in the preceding. Head similar, but snout more
pointed and loreal region slanting towards the lip, well visible when
the head is viewed from above. The extent to which the snout is turned
up at the end varies considerably, sometimes similar to certain
specimens of _V. aspis_, sometimes forming an appendage which is only a
little less developed than in _V. ammodytes_. Length of tail six and a
half to seven and a half times in total length in males, seven and a
half to nine times in females.
[Illustration: FIG. 37]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral once and a half to twice as deep as broad,
nearly reaching the tip of the rostral wart. Upper surface of head
covered with small, smooth or feebly keeled, subimbricate scales, among
which a slightly enlarged frontal, or a frontal and a pair of parietals,
may sometimes be distinguished; four to seven longitudinal series of
scales between the supraoculars, which are large, and do not as a rule
extend posteriorly beyond the vertical of the eye. Five or six (rarely
three) scales on the posterior aspect of the raised part of the snout;
two canthal scales on each side, the second in contact with the
supraocular, or separated from it by the uppermost preocular. Eight to
thirteen (usually nine to twelve) scales round the eye; two or three
series of scales between the eye and the labials. Nasal hollowed out,
entire, separated from the preoculars by one or two vertical series of
scales; naso-rostral sometimes divided into two in North African
specimens. Temporal scales smooth or feebly keeled. Upper labials nine
to eleven (rarely eight), fourth and fifth (rarely third and fourth)
below the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the single
pair of chin-shields.
_Scales_ in twenty-one rows, with two apical pits, strongly keeled,
outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventral shields 125 to 146 in males,
135 to 147 in females; anal entire; subcaudals 35 to 45 in males, 32 to
38 in females.
_Coloration._--Grey or brown above, the back often paler than the sides,
with a broad darker, usually black-edged, wavy or zigzag band along the
spine, and a lateral series of spots (Plate XIII.); the band sometimes
replaced by large rhombic or transversely oval spots. Head with or
without dark markings above, sometimes with two oblique dark streaks on
the occiput; a dark streak from behind the eye to the first lateral
spot, sometimes originating at a considerable distance from the eye;
upper lip white or pale brown, more or less speckled or spotted with
black. Lower parts grey, spotted with black and white, or blackish
speckled with white, the end of the tail usually yellow or with yellow
spots.
_Size._--This Viper is not known to exceed a length of 2 feet.
_Distribution._--Locally distributed over the greater part of Spain and
Portugal, as far north as Burgos and Barcelona. Also found in Morocco
near Tangier, and in Algeria near Bona and Guyotville.
_Habits._--Lataste's Viper lives in stony and arid districts, and also
in forests. The food consists chiefly of small mammals, but remains of a
scorpion have been found in the stomach of an adult, and of a centipede
in that of a young. According to Graells, this Viper easily climbs low
trees in search of young birds, five of which have been found in the
stomach of one specimen. The bite is believed to be less dangerous than
that of _V. aspis_, and rarely causes the death of man and domestic
animals.
26. VIPERA AMMODYTES, Linnæus
The Sand-Viper, or Long-Nosed Viper
This species may be divided into several geographical forms. The typical
form will be described first.
_Form._--Short and heavy. Snout pointed, produced into an erect,
horn-like dermal appendage covered with scales; canthus rostralis
strong, sometimes slightly raised, loreal region slanting more or less
towards the lip. Vertical diameter of the eye less than its distance
from the mouth in the adult. Length of tail six to nine and a half times
in the total length in males, eight to eleven times in females.
[Illustration: FIG. 38 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral usually broader than deep. Naso-rostral (rarely
divided into two) usually reaching the canthus rostralis, and extending
considerably higher up than the upper border of the rostral. Rostral
appendage covered with ten to seventeen scales, arranged in three
(rarely two or four) transverse series between the rostral shield and
the apex. Upper surface of head covered with small smooth or faintly
keeled, subimbricate scales, among which a feebly enlarged frontal
shield or a frontal and a pair of parietals are rarely distinguishable;
when present, the frontal is separated from the supraocular by two
series of scales; on the vertex five to eight series of scales separate
the supraoculars. Two (rarely three) canthal scales, the second
separated from the supraocular by the upper preocular. Supraocular with
very convex outer border, usually not extending posteriorly beyond the
vertical of the eye. Ten to thirteen scales round the eye; one or two
vertical series of scales separate the preoculars from the nasal, which
is single or rarely divided, and hollowed out. Two series of scales
between the eye and the labials. Upper labials eight to twelve, usually
nine or ten, usually fourth and fifth below the eye. Temporal scales
smooth or feebly keeled. Four or five lower labials in contact with the
single pair of chin-shields.
_PLATE XIV_
[Illustration: VIPERA LEBETINA
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: VIPERA AMMODYTES
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: ANCISTRODON HALYS
_After Sordelli_]
_Scales_ in twenty-one or twenty-three (rarely twenty-five) rows, with
two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or
feebly keeled. Ventral shields 143 to 161 in males, 147 to 160 in
females; anal entire; subcaudals 27 to 40 in males, 24 to 37 in females.
_Coloration._--Grey, pinkish-grey, brown, yellowish-brown, or brick red
above, with a more or less distinct wavy or zigzag black or brown,
usually black-edged, band along the back, or a series of large rhombs
connected on the median line, with or without a lateral series of dark
spots; specimens with the markings of an intense black are males (Plate
XIV.). Head with or without dark markings, very variable in disposition,
sometimes forming a [V] on the occiput, or a lyre-shaped figure
confluent with the dorsal band; a dark streak or broad band from the eye
to the angle of the mouth, sometimes continued along the neck; dark
vertical bars often present on the sides of the snout and under the eye;
on the lower lip, the dark shade, if present, broken up by light bars
separated by two to four labial shields. Belly greyish or pink, powdered
with brown or black, or dark bluish-grey, with or without black and
white spots; lower surface of end of tail orange or coral red, rarely
yellow. Iris golden. Specimens with a straight brown vertebral band
flanked with triangular black spots pointing outwards (var.
_steindachneri_, Werner) are known from Hungary, and resemble certain
colour varieties of _V. berus_ and _V. aspis_. Black specimens are very
rare.
The following varieties are important geographical forms occurring in
Europe:
Var. _montandoni_, Boulenger: Naso-rostral shield never reaching the
canthus rostralis nor the summit of the rostral shield, which is deeper
than broad (once and one-seventh to once and a half); rostral appendage
clad with ten to fourteen scales, in three (rarely two or four)
transverse series between the rostral shield and the apex. Scales in
twenty-one rows. Ventral shields 149 to 158; subcaudals 30 to 38. A more
or less distinct dark blotch on the lower lip, involving five to seven
labial shields without complete interruption. Lower surface of end of
tail yellow.
[Illustration: FIG. 39--SIDE VIEWS OF HEADS OF _V. ammodytes typica_
(_a_) AND VAR. _meridionalis_ (_b_)]
[Illustration: FIG. 40--FRONT VIEWS OF END OF SNOUT, SHOWING THE
LEPIDOSIS. (From Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1903)
_a_, Form _typica_; _b_, var. _meridionalis_; _c_, var. _montandoni_]
Var. _meridionalis_, Boulenger: Naso-rostral shield never reaching the
canthus rostralis, and but rarely extending higher up than the upper
border of the rostral, which is often as deep as broad or a little
deeper than broad; rostral appendage clad with fourteen to twenty
scales, in four or five (rarely three) transverse series between the
rostral shield and the apex. Supraciliary edge usually more prominent
than in the typical form, sometimes slightly angular. Scales in
twenty-one rows (very rarely twenty-three). Ventral shields 133 to 147;
subcaudals 24 to 35. A more or less distinct dark blotch on the lower
lip, involving five or six labial shields without interruption. Lower
surface of end of tail yellow.
_Size._--This Viper exceptionally attains a length of 3 feet. The
largest male in the British Museum measures 2 feet 6 inches, the largest
female 2 feet 4 inches. In _V. berus_ females grow to a larger size than
males; in this species, as in _V. aspis_, the reverse appears to be the
rule.
_Hybrid._--A female specimen, presumed to be a hybrid between _V. berus_
and _V. ammodytes_, was obtained by Captain Veith in 1902 in Carinthia,
in a locality where both these species occur together. The shape of the
head is exactly that of a typical _V. aspis_, the snout distinctly
turned up at the end, but without wart or scaly appendage, the raised
portion being covered by the apex of the rostral shield and three apical
shields. The rostral shield, which is a little deeper than broad
(5 : 4), extends above the level of the slightly raised canthus
rostralis, which bears two shields, the second in contact with the
supraocular. The naso-rostral extends to the canthus rostralis, where it
joins the first canthal and the lateral apical shield; one series of
scales between the nasal shield and the preoculars. On the upper surface
of the head the snout is covered with fifteen subimbricate smooth
scales, in addition to the canthals and apicals. A frontal shield and a
pair of parietals are well developed, although smaller than in an
average _V. berus_; the parietals are in contact with the frontal,
between which and the supraoculars two series of scales intervene. The
supraocular, as in _V. berus_, extends backwards considerably beyond the
vertical of the eye. Eleven scales round the eye; two series of scales
between the eye and the labials. Temporal scales smooth. Upper labials
nine, fourth and fifth below the eye. Scales in twenty-one rows, outer
row smooth. Ventrals 159; subcaudals 31.
Grey-brown above, with a reddish-brown or mahogany-coloured zigzag
vertebral band and a lateral series of paler reddish-brown spots;
temporal band ill-defined in front; no markings on the upper surface of
the head; lips pinkish, with a few reddish-brown spots. Ventral shields
pale brownish, finely speckled or powdered with blackish, and with small
whitish spots on the free edge and reddish brown spots on the sides.
Tail orange red below. Iris fire red.
Total length 2 feet 2-1/3 inches; tail 2-2/3 inches.
_Distribution._--The typical form is known from Northern Venetia,
Austria-Hungary (Styria, Carinthia, Southern Tyrol, Carniola, Illyria,
Istria, Croatia, Slavonia, and eastward through Southern Hungary to
Transylvania), Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and
Servia. In the Alps up to 1,300 feet, in the Balkan Peninsula up to
7,500 feet. The var. _montandoni_ inhabits Roumania and Bulgaria. The
var. _meridionalis_ inhabits Greece, with the Archipelago, Asia Minor,
and Syria.
The specimens from Transcaucasia constitute a further variety (var.
_transcaucasiana_, Boulenger), agreeing with the var. _montandoni_ in
the rostral scutellation and in the number of ventral shields (150 to
156), but differing in the markings on the back; these consist of dark
bars or alternating paired dark spots, as in the typical form of _V.
aspis_. The dark and light markings on the lower lip are as in the
typical _V. ammodytes_, and the lower surface of the tail is pale yellow
or greenish towards the end.
_Habits._--Notwithstanding its name _ammodytes_, this Viper is by no
means restricted to sandy localities; on the contrary, it shows a
predilection for dry stony hills with low vegetation, and has often been
found climbing bushes. It avoids thick forest, but occurs on the edges
of woods and in clearings, as well as on the borders of roads through
woods. In the cooler regions of the mountains, which it ascends to a
considerable altitude, it is essentially diurnal, leaving its retreat
only when the sun shines; but in warm localities it is stated to be
principally nocturnal, appearing in numbers by moonlight. The length of
its period of hibernation depends entirely on the climate, but when the
winter is mild it may be seen about in midwinter whenever the sun
shines. The poison of this Viper is stated to be more active than that
of _V. berus_ and _V. aspis_, and, as the snake is very common in some
parts of Austria and the Balkan Peninsula, fatal accidents to man are
frequent.
The food consists of small mammals and birds, and also of lizards. _V.
ammodytes_ does much better in captivity than its European congeners,
and takes food more readily.
The hissing is louder than in _V. berus_ and _V. aspis_, and it is often
produced, on the approach of man, by specimens lying in such perfect
concealment that their presence would not otherwise be suspected; this
habit, like the rattling of the _Crotalus_, is evidently detrimental to
the species in its relation to man.
This species is extremely abundant in some parts of Austria, and over
7,000 specimens were killed in a district of Southern Styria in the
course of two years (1892, 1893). According to Werner, it is the
commonest of all snakes in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place in the spring, sooner or later
according to altitudes, and the young, five to fourteen in number, are
born in August.
27. VIPERA LEBETINA, Linnæus
The Blunt-Nosed Viper, or Kufi
_Form._--Short and heavy. Snout rounded, obtuse, usually with
well-marked canthus, and the loreal region slanting towards the mouth.
Eye small, its vertical diameter less than its distance from the mouth
in the adult. Nostril large and directed backwards. Length of tail six
(males) to ten times (females) in the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 41 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad, a little broader than deep,
or slightly deeper than broad, reaching or nearly reaching the upper
surface of the snout, and in contact with two or three apical shields.
Upper surface of head covered with small subimbricate scales, which are
all more or less distinctly keeled, or, rarely, smooth on the snout and
forehead; seven to twelve longitudinal series of scales between the eyes
(supraoculars included); two to four canthal shields, of which the
anterior is the largest, and may be regarded as a supranasal.
Supraocular narrow, usually broken up into two or more small shields.
Twelve to eighteen scales round the eye; two or three series of scales
between the eye and the labials; two or three vertical series of scales
separate the preoculars from the nasal, which is single and often
strongly hollowed out, and usually partially fused with the
naso-rostral. Upper labials nine to twelve, usually fourth and fifth
below the eye. Temporal scales keeled. Four or five lower labials in
contact with the single pair of chin-shields.
_Scales_ in twenty-three to twenty-seven rows, usually twenty-five, with
two apical pits, strongly keeled, those of the outer row smooth or
feebly keeled. Ventral shields 151 to 177 in males, 153 to 180 in
females; anal entire; subcaudals 42 to 51 in males, 38 to 49 in females.
_Coloration._--Very variable. The typical form, which alone is
represented in Europe, and was originally described from Cyprus, is
grey, greyish-buff, or pale brown, above, with two dorsal series of
darker spots, which may stand in pairs, alternate, or unite to form
cross-bars, and a lateral series of large dark spots or bars. A more or
less distinct dark band on each side of the head, passing through the
eye and often extending to the neck; a dark bar or triangular spot below
the eye, and usually another below the nostril. Lower parts
pinkish-white, powdered with grey-brown, with or without dark brown
spots; end of tail yellow. The ground colour of the young is pink or
flesh-colour. In specimens from desert sandy regions in Asia and North
Africa the markings may be very indistinct, the snake being of a nearly
uniform pale buff.
In the var. _mauritanica_, Guichenot, from Morocco and Algeria, the back
has three series of very large dark brown or reddish-brown spots,
separated by a network of the yellowish ground colour, or the middle
series may be transformed into a wavy or zigzag band. The scales in this
variety are usually in twenty-seven rows, instead of twenty-five (rarely
twenty-three) as in the typical form.
_Size._--This species, the largest of European Vipers, grows to a length
of 4-1/2 feet.
_Distribution._--The European habitat of _V. lebetina_ is restricted to
the Cyclades, where it is not uncommon on the island of Tinos, and
appears to be found also on Kimoli. It is common on Cyprus, where it is
called _Kufi_, or Deaf Snake, and extends from Syria and Asia Minor
through Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Northern Baluchistan, to
Afghanistan and Cashmere. It is further found on the Atlas of Morocco
and Algeria, near Oran and Bona, and in Tunisia. Its reported occurrence
in Egypt has not been confirmed by recent investigations.
_Habits._--According to M. Doumergue--who has had ample opportunities of
observing this Viper near Oran, where it is common--it is a nocturnal
reptile, rarely moving about in the daytime. It inhabits rocky
localities, where there is brushwood, and vineyards. During the day it
remains sluggish under large stones. It is most frequently met with in
April and May.
On Milos, Dr. de Bedriaga observed this much-dreaded snake, the bite of
which is probably as bad as that of its Indian ally, the Daboia, _V.
russelli_, to occur frequently in gardens, and to crawl about near
houses in villages after sunset. The same observer has noted a sort of
valvular closing of the nostril through raising of the posterior part of
the nasal shield when the snake prepares to strike.
The food consists principally of mammals up to the size of a rabbit.
_Reproduction._--According to Doumergue's observations in Algeria, the
young, up to thirteen in number, are born in May and June.
GENUS ANCISTRODON, PALISOT DE BEAUVOIS
Head distinct from neck, its upper surface covered with large shields,
as in the normal _Colubridæ_; a loreal pit; eye moderate or small, with
vertical pupil. Body moderately elongate or short. Scales keeled (or
smooth), with apical pits. Tail moderate or short.
This genus is distributed over nearly the whole of Asia, the eastern
parts of the United States of America, and Mexico and Central America.
One of the Asiatic species just penetrates into South-Eastern Europe,
and is the sole representative of the Crotalinæ in this part of the
world.
28. ANCISTRODON HALYS, Pallas
Pallas's Pit-Viper
_Form._--Moderately elongate. Head subtriangular, flat or slightly
concave above, swollen in the temporal region, very distinct from neck;
snout rounded or obtusely pointed, slightly turned up at the end, with
obtuse canthus and vertical or slightly oblique loreal region; eye
rather small. Tail seven to eight and a half times in the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 42]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral as deep as broad or slightly broader than deep,
just visible from above. A pair of internasals and a pair of larger
prefrontals. Frontal as broad as the supraocular, as long as or a little
longer than its distance from the end of the snout, as long as or a
little shorter than the rather short parietals. Supraocular extending
beyond the vertical of the posterior border of the eye. Loreal pit
between three shields, separated from the labials. Nostril between two
nasals, the posterior of which is separated from the upper preocular by
a loreal. Two preoculars, one or two postoculars, and a subocular. Three
large lower temporals, anterior largest. Upper labials seven or eight,
third and fourth largest, third entering the eye. A pair of small
chin-shields.
_Scales_ sharply keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-three rows.
Ventral shields 149 to 174; anal entire; subcaudals 31 to 44 pairs.
_Coloration._--Pale yellowish-grey, greyish-brown, or reddish, sometimes
greenish in young specimens, with transverse series of darker spots or
with more or less regular dark bars with serrated edges across the back
(Plate XIV.); these bars may be narrower than the interspaces between
them, or so large as to cause the back to appear brown with light
cross-bars; the bars sometimes broken up on the vertebral line, and the
two halves alternating. The sides usually paler and bearing two
alternating longitudinal series of small spots, the lower of which are
usually darker, and sometimes extend on the outer ends of the ventral
shields. Head pale above, with a dark spot on the middle of the snout, a
cross-bar or a pair of spots between the eyes, a spot or short band on
each side of the parietal region, and a horseshoe-shaped band on the
occiput, the branches of which are more or less produced on the nape;
all these markings sometimes confluent. A broad, dark, light-edged band
on the temple. Lips whitish, speckled with brown. Lower parts whitish,
more or less profusely speckled with grey or brown. The horny shield
terminating the tail usually dark brown or black at the end.
_Size._--This species rarely reaches a length of 29 inches. The largest
specimen in the British Museum measures only 19 inches.
_Distribution._--From the north and east coasts of the Caspian Sea,
across Central Asia to the Upper Yenissei, as far north as 51°. In
Europe it is only known from two arid tracts between the Volga and the
Ural, near the Caspian Sea, viz., the Saltan-Murat desert and the
Induski hills.
_Habits._--Nothing has been published on the habits of this snake, but
they are probably similar to those of its near and more eastern
relative, _A. blomhoffi_, Schlegel, which inhabits China and Japan. _A.
blomhoffi_ is said to be more or less nocturnal, although showing a
predilection for localities well exposed to the sun. It is
ovoviviparous. The symptoms of its bite, which is rarely fatal to man,
are the same as in the Vipers.
All the species of _Ancistrodon_, so far as they have been observed, are
in the habit of raising and vibrating the tail, like the Rattlesnakes,
when coiling themselves up in a defensive attitude.
INDEX
Acanthocephala, 110
_Acrochordinæ_, 5
Adder, 230
Æsculapian Snake, 187
_æsculapii_ (_Coluber_), 187
_Aglypha_, 4, 151
_Ailurophis vivax_, 217
Albinism, 39
Aldrovandi's Snake, 182
Altitudinal range, 118, 123
_Amblycephalidæ_, 5
_ammodytes_ (_Vipera_), 249
Anal pockets, 83
Anal shield, 17
_Ancistrodon_, 261
_Ancistrodon halys_, 262
Antitoxic serums, 66
Apical pits, 15, 75
Arteries, 77
Ascariasis, 111
_asianus_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 173
Asp Viper, 239
_aspis_ (_Vipera_), 239
_astreptophorus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154
_ater_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 156
_atrovirens_ (_Coluber_), 170
_aurolineatus_ (_Coluber_), 167
_austriaca_ (_Coronella_), 197
Bacteria, 113
_berus_ (_Pelias_), 221
_berus_ (_Vipera_), 230
Bezoar stones, 141
_bilineatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154
Blind Snake, 144
Blood-supply, 77
Blunt-nosed Viper, 257
Body, 8
_Boidæ_, 4, 146
_Boinæ_, 4, 146
_bosniensis_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 236
Brain, 73
Burrowing Snakes, 91
_cæruleus_ (_Coluber_), 233
Canker, 113
Canthus rostralis, 13
Captivity, 100
_carbonarius_ (_Zamenis_), 172
_caspius_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172
Cat-Snake, 217
Caucasian Cat-Snake, 219
_cervone_ (_Elaphis_), 182
Cestoda, 112
_cettii_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155
_chersoides_ (_Tropidonotus_), 167
Classification, 2
Cobra di capello, 9
_Coelopeltis_, 207
_Coelopeltis monspessulana_, 208
_collaris_ (_Contia_), 207
Coloration, 29
Colour, 29
_Coluber_, 181
_Coluber æsculapii_, 187
_Coluber atrovirens_, 170
_Coluber aurolineatus_, 167
_Coluber cæruleus_, 233
_Coluber dione_, 185
_Coluber dumfriesiensis_, 200
_Coluber flavescens_, 187
_Coluber hydrus_, 160
_Coluber insignitus_, 208
_Coluber leopardinus_, 191
_Coluber longissimus_, 187
_Coluber quadrilineatus_, 191
_Coluber quatuorradiatus_, 182
_Coluber quatuorlineatus_, 182
_Coluber riccioli_, 202
_Coluber rubens_, 204
_Coluber sauromates_, 183
_Coluber scalaris_, 194
_Coluber torquatus_, 152
_Coluber viridiflavus_, 170
_Colubridæ_, 4, 150
_Colubrinæ_, 4, 151
_concolor_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
_concolor_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 234
_Coniophis_, 7
Constriction, 96
_Contia_, 205
_Contia modesta_, 205
Coral-Snakes, 32, 34, 35
_Coronella_, 196
_Coronella austriaca_, 197
_Coronella girondica_, 202
_Coronella italica_, 197
Coryphodonts, 58
_Crotalinæ_, 5, 220
Crotalon, 20
_Crotalus_, 21
_cucullatus_ (_Macroprotodon_), 213
Dahl's Whip-Snake, 177
_dahlii_ (_Zamenis_), 177
_Dasypeltinæ_, 5
Defecation, 99
Definition, 1
Deglutition, 98
Dentition, 53
Desert Snakes, 36
Development, 88
Diacranterians, 58
Dicephalous young, 89
Digestion, 99
_dione_ (_Coluber_), 185
Dione Snake, 185
_Dipsadomorphinæ_, 5, 151
Disgorging, 99
Distribution, 118
_Dolichosauria_, 1
_dorsalis_ (_Pelias_), 234
Drinking, 101
_dumfriesiensis_ (_Coluber_), 200
Dwarf Snake, 205
Economic value, 138
Eggs, 85
Egg-eating Snakes, 53, 80
Egg-tooth, 89
_Elachistodontinæ_, 5
_Elaphis cervone_, 182
_Elapinæ_, 5
_Elaps_, 35
_elsneri_ (_Coluber leopardinus_, var.), 193
Embryo, 88
Epiglottis, 79
_Eryx_, 147
_Eryx jaculus_, 147
European Whip-Snake, 170
External characters, 8
Exuviæ, 20
Exuviation, 105
Eyes, 11, 73
False Smooth Snake, 213
_fallax_ (_Tarbophis_), 217
Fangs, 55
Fascination, 104
Fat-bodies, 81
Faunistic works, 130
Feigning death, 104
_fitzingeri_ (_Coronella_), 197
_flavescens_ (_Coluber_), 187
_flavescens_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 163
Flukes, 112
Flying Snakes, 94
Food, 95
Form, 8
Fossils, 6
Gape, 11
Gastrosteges, 15
_gemonensis_ (_Zamenis_), 170
Genital organs, 82
_girondica_ (_Coronella_), 202
_Glauconiidæ_, 4
Glottis, 79
Grass Snake, 152
Greek Blind Snake, 144
Ground Snakes, 91
Habits, 91
Hæmogregarines, 112
_hagenbecki_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
_halys_ (_Ancistrodon_), 261
Head, 10
Head-shields, 17
Hearing, 74
Heart, 77
_Helagras_, 7
Hemipenes, 82
Hibernation, 105
Hind limbs, 10
_hippocrepis_ (_Zamenis_), 179
Hissing, 102
_Homalopsinæ_, 5
Hood, 9
Horseshoe Whip-Snake, 179
_hugyi_ (_Vipera aspis_, var.), 244
Hybrids, 90
_Hydrophiinæ_, 5
_hydrus_ (_Coluber_), 160
Hyoid apparatus, 42
_iberus_ (_Tarbophis_), 219
_Iguanognathus_, 54
_Ilysiidæ_, 4
Immunity, 66, 71
_incertus_ (_Tropidonotus viperinus_, var.), 167
Incubation, 88
Intelligence, 101
_insignitus_ (_Coluber_), 208
Integument, 8
Intestines, 79
Iris, 37
Isodonts, 58
_italica_ (_Coronella_), 197
Jacobson's organ, 73
_jaculus_ (_Eryx_), 147
Javelin Sand-Boa, 147
Key to the identification, 22
Kidneys, 80
Kufi, 257
Labial pits, 76
_Lacertilia_, 1
_lacertina_ (_Natrix_), 208
Ladder Snake, 194
Largest Snakes, 21
Larynx, 79
Lataste's Viper, 247
_latastii_ (_Vipera_), 247
_lebetina_ (_Vipera_), 257
Leopard Snake, 191
_leopardinus_ (_Coluber_), 191
_lineaticollis_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
Liver, 81
Livery of the young, 38
Locomotion, 93
Long-nosed Viper, 249
_longissimus_ (_Coluber_), 187
Loreal pit, 75
Loreal region, 12
Lungs, 78
Lycodonts, 58
Lymph-hearts, 78
_Macroprotodon_, 212
_Macroprotodon cucullatus_, 213
_macrops_ (_Vipera_), 224
Marine Snakes, 92, 95
Markings, 29
_mauritanica_ (_Vipera lebetina_, var.), 259
Melanism, 39
Mental groove, 13
_meridionalis_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 253
Mimicry, 35
_modesta_ (_Contia_), 205
_monspessulana_ (_Coelopeltis_), 208
_montandoni_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 252
Montpellier Snake, 208
Mortality from Snake-bite, 133
_Mosasauria_, 1
_murorum_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154
_Natrix lacertina_, 208
_Natrix vulgaris_, 152
_natrix_ (_Tropidonotus_), 152
Neck, 9
Nematoda, 111
_Nerodia_, 152
Nervous system, 73
_neumayeri_ (_Coelopeltis monspessulana_, var.), 210
_niger_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 188
_nigrescens_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
Nocturnal Snakes, 93
Northern Viper, 230
Nostrils, 13, 74
Oesophagus, 79
Olfactory organ, 73
_Ophidia_, 1
_Opisthoglypha_, 4, 151
Organs of a sixth sense, 75
Orsini's Viper, 221
Oviparous Snakes, 86
Oviposition, 85
Ovoviviparous Snakes, 85
Pairing, 84
Pallas's Pit-Viper, 262
Parasites, 107
_Pelias berus_, 221
_Pelias dorsalis_, 234
Pelvic arch, 52
_persa_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 154
_persicus_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172
_picturatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155
Pit-Vipers, 75, 262
Poison apparatus, 62
Poison fangs, 55, 62
Poison glands, 62
Poisons, 66
_prester_ (_Vipera_), 235
_Proteroglypha_, 4, 151
Protozoa, 112
_pseudaspis_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 236
Pupil, 12
_Pythoninæ_, 4
_quadrilineatus_ (_Coluber_), 191
_quatuorradiatus_ (_Coluber_), 182
_quatuorlineatus_ (_Coluber_), 182
Rattle, 20
Rattlesnakes, 20, 103
Rattling, 103
Reflex movements, 106
Relation to man, 133
Renard's Viper, 227
_renardi_ (_Vipera_), 227
Replacement teeth, 55
Reproduction, 82
Reptation, 93
_Reptilia_, 1
_Rhiptoglossa_, 1
_riccioli_ (_Coluber_), 202
Ring-Snake, 152
_romanus_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 188
_rubens_ (_Coluber_), 204
_rubro-maculosus_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
Rustling, 102
Sand-Boa, 147
Sand-Snakes, 91
Sand-Viper, 249
_sardus_ (_Zamenis_), 172
_sauromates_ (_Coluber_), 183
_scalaris_ (_Coluber_), 194
_scalaris_ (_Coronella austriaca_, var.), 199
Scales, 14
_schwoederi_ (_Coluber leopardinus_, var.), 193
_scutatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155
_semimaculata_ (_Contia modesta_, var.), 207
Sense organs, 73
_seoanei_ (_Vipera berus_, var.), 235
Serotherapy, 66, 134
Serum treatment, 67
Shedding of the epidermis, 20
Shields, 14
Sixth sense, 75
Skeleton, 40
Skull, 40
Smallest Snakes, 21
Smooth Snake, 197
Snake-charmers, 139
Snake-stones, 141
Snake swallowing her young, 88
Snake-worship, 139
Snout, 12
Solenoglyphs, 56
Southern Smooth Snake, 202
_Squamata_, 1
_steindachneri_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 252
Stomach, 79
Subcaudal shields, 15
_subfasciatus_ (_Tropidonotus natrix_, var.), 155
_subgriseus_ (_Coluber longissimus_, var.), 189
_Symoliophis_, 7
Syncranterians, 58
Tail, 9
_Tarbophis_, 216
_Tarbophis fallax_, 217
_Tarbophis iberus_, 219
Teeth, 53
Tessellated Water-Snake, 160
_tessellatus_ (_Tropidonotus_), 160
Thymus gland, 78
Ticks, 108
Tongue, 74
Tongue-worms, 108
_torquatus_ (_Coluber_), 152
_trabalis_ (_Zamenis gemonensis_, var.), 172
Trachea, 78
_transcaucasiana_ (_Vipera ammodytes_, var.), 256
Tree-Snakes, 36, 92, 94
Trematoda, 112
_Tropidonotus_, 152
_Tropidonotus chersoides_, 167
_Tropidonotus natrix_, 152
_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, 160
_Tropidonotus viperinus_, 165
_Typhlopidæ_, 4, 143
_Typhlops_, 144
_Typhlops vermicularis_, 144
Ureters, 81
_Uropeltidæ_, 5
Urosteges, 15
_ursinii_ (_Vipera_), 221
Veins, 77
_veithi_ (_Coronella austriaca_, var.), 199
Ventral shields, 15
_vermicularis_ (_Typhlops_), 144
Vertebræ, 50
Vertebral column, 50
_Vipera_, 221
_Vipera ammodytes_, 249
_Vipera aspis_, 239
_Vipera berus_, 230
_Vipera latastii_, 247
_Vipera lebetina_, 257
_Vipera macrops_, 224
_Vipera prester_, 235
_Vipera renardi_, 227
_Vipera ursinii_, 221
_Viperidæ_, 5, 220
_Viperinæ_, 5, 220
Viperine Water-Snake, 165
_viperinus_ (_Tropidonotus_), 165
_viridiflavus_ (_Coluber_), 170
Viscera, 77
_vivax_ (_Ailurophis_), 217
_vosseleri_ (_Tropidonotus tessellatus_, var.), 162
_vulgaris_ (_Natrix_), 152
Warning coloration, 35, 36
Water-Snakes, 92, 94, 160
Whip-Snake, 170
Worms, 110
_Xenopeltidæ_, 5
_Zamenis_, 170
_Zamenis carbonarius_, 172
_Zamenis dahlii_, 177
_Zamenis gemonensis_, 170
_Zamenis hippocrepis_, 179
_Zamenis sardus_, 172
Zoogeographical Regions, 119
------------------------------------------------------------------------
PRINTED BY
BILLING AND SONS, LTD.,
GUILDFORD
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Footnote A:
For a key to the identification of the species, see above, p. 22.
Footnote B:
The only specimen with twenty-one rows I have examined is a male from
Albano, near Rome (Genoa Museum).