SNAKES IN RELATION TO MAN
Under this head, the question of poisonous snakes naturally occupies the
first place. In addition to what has been said above in Chapter VI.,
dealing with the anatomical and physiological aspects of the subject, we
have to allude to the accidents caused by these dangerous reptiles, and
the measures taken to combat them.
The enormous mortality for which snake-bite is responsible in India is
well known. Statistics establish the fact that an average of 20,000
human lives are thus lost annually: 24,264 is the official return for
1911. In Australia, where highly poisonous snakes of various genera and
species abound, the fatal cases are likewise very numerous, though less
in proportion than in South America, and no doubt also in Africa. In the
small island of Martinique, the Fer-de-Lance, _Lachesis lanceolatus_,
causes every year the death of about 100 human creatures. Though
numerous in species, the poisonous snakes of Ceylon cause a
comparatively small mortality--200 per annum.
Modern research has resulted in the discovery of the only effective
antidote for snake-venom intoxication: the serotherapic treatment. An
animal that has been treated over a length of time with the venom of a
poisonous snake, such as a Cobra, yields a serum which is antitoxic
towards that venom; but the great difficulty resides in the specificity
of the different poisons, which often renders the use of the serum
ineffective in countries like India and Australia, where several kinds
of poisonous snakes occur in the same district (see above, p. 67). In
India, where a special laboratory has been established for the supply of
antivenine, at the Central Institute of Kasauli, it has been found
impossible to obtain any venoms but those of the Cobra and Russell's
Viper in sufficient quantity to immunize animals, and thus produce the
serum necessary for dealing with the bite of the King Cobra, the Krait,
and the Echis Viper.
In Pondicherry the French Government places annually a sum of 200 rupees
at the disposal of the director of the hospital for obtaining Cobra
poison, the snakes, to be brought alive, being paid for to the natives
at the rate of half a rupee to one rupee each, according to size and
condition. Six hundred and fifty-three specimens were thus purchased in
less than two years (1901-1903). The poison is utilized for the
preparation of Calmette's antivenine, which, as we have said above, is
only effective against cobra poison, and, unfortunately, useless for the
cure of bites from other species.
In Brazil, where the number of accidents is estimated at 19,200 per
annum, and that of fatal cases at 4,800, over 2,000 snakes (_Lachesis_
and _Crotalus_) are brought annually to the Serotherapic Institute of
Batantan, in the province of S. Paolo, for the preparation of the
antitoxic serum, which is given in exchange for the snakes. According to
the latest report of the Institute (1911), two serums are distributed:
the anti-crotaline (for Rattlesnake bite) and the anti-bothropine (for
Lachesis bite); the third, the anti-elapine (for Coral-snake bite), is
in course of preparation.
In many countries a premium has for years been paid for the heads of
poisonous snakes, and has led to the destruction of enormous numbers of
them, without, however, resulting in a very appreciable diminution of
the dangerous reptiles. More than £12,000 has been spent for this
purpose in India alone; the numbers destroyed in 1885 and 1886
throughout British India amount to 420,044 and 417,596 respectively.
About forty years ago the Governor of St. Lucia offered a reward of 4d.
for every Fer-de-Lance's head. But the negroes caught them alive and
bred families of snakes for the sake of the reward, and thereby made
what was for them a little fortune, these snakes bringing forth up to
sixty young at a birth. The reward had to be abolished very soon.
Now about the Vipers of Europe, the only really dangerous snakes of this
part of the world.
Although the Adder, _Vipera berus_, is quite common in many parts of
England and Scotland, accidents caused by its bite are rarely heard of,
and cases of death are few and far between. It is not so, however, on
the Continent, where the same species, and especially its close ally,
the more southern _V. aspis_, are responsible for many fatalities, due
no doubt to the more virulent action of the venom in a warmer climate.
In the French Departments Loire-Inférieure and Vendée, where these
snakes are very plentiful, three or four cases of death are reported
annually. From 1860 to 1868, 370 serious accidents to man have been
carefully recorded, 53 ending in death, not only in the case of
children, but also of adults of all ages, in 10 cases within one to
twenty-four hours. In the Puy-de-Dôme cases of death are of frequent
occurrence. In Germany and in Switzerland, 12 or 13 per cent. of the
cases on record have ended fatally. Instances of death from the bite of
the south-eastern _V. ammodytes_ are also not infrequent. On the other
hand, the bite of _V. ursinii_, which is but seldom inflicted, is not
known to have ever resulted in death.
It must be borne in mind that accidents are much more frequent in
districts where the poorer classes are in the habit of going about
barefoot.
Anyhow, it is certain that Vipers are a serious danger in many parts of
Europe, not only to man, but also to horses, cattle, and dogs. And it is
not surprising that efforts have been made to reduce their numbers. The
most efficacious means, besides the protection of certain animals and
birds which feed on Vipers, appeared to be the institution of premiums
to be paid for the heads of the dangerous snakes. By offering 2-1/2d.
per head, 500,000 Vipers (_V. aspis_) were destroyed from 1864 to 1890
in three French departments, Haute-Saône, Doubs, and Jura, and in one
district (Chaumont) of the Haute-Marne 57,045 were killed from 1856 to
1861; this gives an idea of the extraordinary abundance of these snakes
in some parts of France. In the Puy-de-Dôme the premium was fixed for a
time at 5d., and one man managed to destroy in the course of seven years
9,175 Vipers (_V. berus_ and _V. aspis_). A woman in the Deux-Sèvres has
made a living for many years by catching Vipers, the heads of which were
paid to her at the rate of 5d. each. The average number of her captures
amounted to 2,062 per annum (mostly _V. aspis_). Around Oesnitz in
Saxony, 2,140 _V. berus_ were killed in 1889, and 3,335 in 1890. In a
single district in Southern Styria the heads of 4,197 _V. berus_ and
7,381 _V. ammodytes_ were sent in for the reward in the course of two
years (1892, 1893).
In spite of all this effort, the institution of the bounty has not
answered expectations, and, with the exception of a few districts,
Vipers remain as plentiful as ever, showing what little man can do in
altering the equilibrium of Nature, except by interfering with the
natural conditions under which animals live. Cultivation of the ground
or destruction by fire of the vegetation of the wilderness seems to be
the only efficacious means of getting rid of so abundant and prolific a
creature as the Viper.
A word may be said, however, in defence of Vipers: they do a great deal
of good to agriculture by the destruction of small rodents, on which
they feed chiefly, and whose multiplication they serve to keep in check.
It must be pointed out that, with the exception of the species of
_Coluber_ and _Zamenis_, other European snakes are to be regarded as
indirectly injurious to agriculture, feeding as they do mainly on
lizards or frogs and toads, which, as insectivores, deserve to be
protected.
Snakes are not of much economic value to man. Tanned skins of Boas and
Pythons are utilized for making shoes and fancy articles, such as
purses, pocket-books, blotters, etc., and the Siamese make the
drum-heads of native drums out of the skins of Pythons and
_Acrochordus_. To say nothing of savages, who seem to be partial to the
flesh of large snakes, the peasantry in some parts of France do not
disdain snakes as an article of food, the Grass-snake being occasionally
served in village inns under the name of _Anguilles de haies_, or
hedge-eels.
Viper fat has for a long time been in request as an ointment in the case
of various affections, and much used by quack doctors in the preparation
of their remedies. Some forty years ago a chemist in Challans (Vendée)
collected Vipers (_V. aspis_) for medicinal purposes, and was able to
send several thousands to Paris in the course of a few years, thus
realizing a considerable sum of money, but the demand has gradually
fallen off since.
Very frequent in the past, snake-worship is still prevalent in many
parts of India, where the Cobra is held in great veneration, and is
never willingly killed by the Hindoo. In pre-Buddhist days the gods were
represented with a canopy of five or seven Cobras over them. The North
African Cobra was sacred to the ancient Egyptians, and is profusely
represented on the monuments and tombs; it was also an emblem of the
physical sun, and, as a sign of royal power, along with the sun's disc,
formed part of the headdress of all solar deities. The Greeks and Romans
also worshipped snakes, and the god of medicine is represented holding a
snake, which is supposed to be _Coluber longissimus_, the so-called
"Æsculapian snake"; the occurrence at the present day of certain common
Italian species (_Zamenis gemonensis_, _Coluber longissimus_,
_Tropidonotus tessellatus_) in isolated localities of Central Europe,
formerly Roman settlements, has been attributed to their importation for
use in the temples.
Snake-charmers have existed from the remotest antiquity, and are still
to be found among all races of men, from the accomplished Indian juggler
down to the more commonplace European snake-catcher, who boasts of his
immunity, and of his art of attracting snakes by devices of which he has
the secret. The Libyan Psillii of the ancient Romans have handed down
their art to the present day, and their performances are to be witnessed
in most of the towns of Egypt and Tunisia. But India above all lands is
reputed for its snake-charmers, and the favourite species used by them
is the Cobra, which, by the way in which it raises the anterior part of
the body and expands the region behind the head, lends itself better
than any other to the display. Constantly facing the man before him, and
swaying the raised anterior part of the body, it seems to dance to the
music performed by the snake-man, people believing it to be charmed by
the sounds of the instrument. However, anyone sitting on the ground in
front of a Cobra, and swaying the body from side to side as does the
man, can obtain the same result without the aid of any sort of music.
The most puzzling thing about these performances is how the man can thus
play with impunity with so deadly a snake. It is a mistake to think that
the snake is rendered harmless through the poison fangs having been
extracted, although this subterfuge is frequently resorted to by the
less accomplished jugglers. The immunity of the snake-charmer is to be
explained by the fact that the man has submitted himself to a series of
successive and graduated inoculations of the venom, a process similar to
vaccination, which renders his blood proof against the venom of the
particular species of snake, and that one only, used for his
performances.
Another deadly snake shown by the snake-charmers in North Africa is the
Horned Viper, _Cerastes cornutus_. The presence of an erect spike above
the eye is, however, not a constant character in this snake, and
hornless specimens are made to look more formidable by spines of the
hedgehog being inserted in the proper place; the illusion is such that
even naturalists have been deceived by this trick.
Indian snake-charmers profess to have a belief in the efficacy of
snake-stones, or bezoar stones, as a remedy to be applied on the part
bitten by a poisonous snake, a belief shared by the natives of many
tropical countries. These stones, extracted from various reptiles,
birds, and mammals, are calcareous concretions from the stomach or
bladder, sometimes composed of superphosphate of lime, sometimes of
phosphate of ammonia or magnesia. The value of a bezoar stone being
supposed to increase with its size, the larger are sold in India at very
high prices.
In many places a popular belief prevails that such stones are found in
the heads of snakes. Mr. J. A. Bucknill, now Attorney-General at
Hong-Kong, who spent five years in Cyprus, has informed the author that
the Viper of the latter island, _Vipera lebetina_, is commonly believed
to contain a stone which, when applied to the bite of a poisonous snake,
quickly nullifies the effect; it is also believed that, when this stone
is allowed to stand in a glass of water and the water is drunk, it
endows the drinker with surprising virility. Indeed, there was an action
tried by the English judge at Larnaka in which the plaintiff claimed the
return, or damages for the non-return, of one of these "Viper-stones"
which he had lent for a monetary consideration to the defendant for the
promotion of his manly vigour, and Mr. Bucknill's recollection is that
the plaintiff recovered £10 for the loss.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE SNAKES OF EUROPE[A]
FIRST FAMILY: TYPHLOPIDÆ
Skull compact, with short, toothless lower jaw, without transverse bone;
palatine and pterygoid reduced and toothless; maxillary small, loosely
attached to lower surface of cranium and bearing a few small teeth; no
supratemporal, the quadrate articulated to the proötic; a coronoid
element in the lower jaw. Rudiments of a pelvic arch, reduced to a
single bone. Body vermiform, covered with uniform cycloid scales; head
small, not distinct from the body; mouth small, crescentic, inferior;
eyes under the more or less transparent head-shields, sometimes entirely
hidden. Worm-like, smooth, shiny snakes, of small or very small size,
the largest measuring little over 2 feet, of subterranean habits, or
found in rotten trees, under stones, or in the saw-dust of sawmills;
rarely appearing on the surface except when the ground is soaked by
heavy rains.
Inhabit the intertropical parts of the whole world, as well as South
Africa, Southern Asia, and Southern Australia. One species occurs in
South-Eastern Europe. About 120 species are known.
GENUS TYPHLOPS, SCHNEIDER
Head with large shields; nostril in a single or divided nasal. Tail
extremely short.
1. TYPHLOPS VERMICULARIS, Merrem
The Greek Blind-Snake
[Illustration: FIG. 14 (after Sordelli)]
_Form._--Slender, worm-like, the greatest diameter of the body 40 to 52
times in the total length. Tail about as long as broad, ending in a
short spine. Snout depressed, rounded, strongly projecting. Eyes
distinguishable, appearing as a small black spot surrounded by an
unpigmented circle; nostrils lateral.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral about one-third, or a little less than
one-third, the width of the head, extending on its upper surface nearly
to the level of the eyes. Nasal incompletely divided, the cleft
proceeding from the second labial. Preocular present, about as broad as
the ocular, in contact with the second and third labials. Upper
head-scales feebly enlarged and subequal. Four upper labials.
_PLATE I_
[Illustration: TYPHLOPS VERMICULARIS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: ERYX JACULUS
_After Sordelli_]
_Scales._--Equal, 22 or 24 round the body.
_Coloration._--Brown or yellowish-brown above, yellowish beneath.
_Total Length._--10 inches. A specimen from Cyprus is reported to
measure 14 inches.
_Distribution._--This species has long been known from Greece, the
Ionian Islands, and the Grecian Archipelago. It is on record from the
Eli-Deren Pass, in Bulgaria. A specimen stated to come from
Constantinople is preserved in the British Museum. The range further
extends over a considerable part of South-Western Asia, viz., Asia
Minor, Syria, Cyprus, Transcaucasia, Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan.
_Habits._--Pretty alert in its movements, this little snake has
considerable constricting powers, and coils itself fast round the
fingers when handled. It lives much after the manner of earth-worms, and
if dug out of loam or sand a specimen must be instantly grasped, as it
draws back with extraordinary quickness. Its food probably consists
mainly of earthworms and small insects. Some exotic species of the genus
are known to feed on termites, and are often dug out of their nests.
_Reproduction._--No observations have been made that I am aware of, but,
as some of the exotic species of which we know something more lay large,
elongate eggs, it is probable that this species also is oviparous.
SECOND FAMILY: BOIDÆ
Maxillary, palatine, and pterygoid bones movable; transverse bone
present; pterygoid extending to quadrate or mandible; supratemporal
present, attached scale-like to cranium, suspending quadrate; prefrontal
in contact with nasal; a coronoid element in the lower jaw. Teeth in
both jaws. Vestiges of pelvis and hind limbs, usually terminating, at
least in males, in a claw-like horny spur on each side of the vent.
This family contains, besides the gigantic Boas and Pythons, several
small more or less burrowing forms, among which the genus _Eryx_, its
only European representative, belonging to the subfamily Boinæ,
characterized by the absence of a supratemporal bone and of premaxillary
teeth. This subfamily, the largest members of which inhabit tropical
America, is distributed over the hotter parts of America, Asia west of
the Bay of Bengal, Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands, Africa north of
the equator, Papuasia, and some islands of the South Pacific. The
habitat of the European species is confined to the eastern and southern
countries of the Mediterranean district.
This very varied family, including terrestrial, arboreal, aquatic, and
burrowing forms, is a comparatively small one as regards the number of
species, viz., about sixty, of which one-third pertain to the Pythoninæ,
which inhabit tropical and South Africa, Southern Asia, Papuasia,
Australia, and Mexico.
GENUS ERYX, DAUDIN
Anterior maxillary and mandibular teeth longer than the posterior. Head
small, not distinct from neck, covered with small scales; a large
rostral shield. Eye very small, with vertical pupil. Body cylindrical;
scales small; ventral shields narrow. Tail very short; subcaudal shields
mostly single.
The range of this genus, embracing eight species, extends from
South-Eastern Europe and Africa north of the equator to Central Asia and
India.
2. ERYX JACULUS, Linnæus
The Javelin Sand-Boa
_Form._--Stout. Head small, not distinct from neck; snout projecting
beyond the mouth; eye directed upwards and outwards; a feeble mental
groove. Tail, ending very obtusely, one-tenth to one-sixteenth of the
total length. Anal spurs more or less developed, often absent in the
female.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral very large and broad, with angular horizontal
edge, followed by a pair of internasals and a second row of two or three
small shields, the rest of the upper surface of the head covered with
scale-like shields, 5 to 8 from eye to eye across the vertex, 7 to 11
round the eye; 9 to 12 upper labials, second or third deepest, separated
from the eye by one or two series of scales. Nostril between the
internasal and two nasals, the anterior of which sometimes fuses with
the former. Two or three series of scales between the nasals and the
eye.
[Illustration: FIG. 15 (after Sordelli)]
_Scales._--Smooth, feebly keeled on the posterior part of the body and
on the tail, in 40 to 51 rows. Ventrals narrow, occupying about
one-third of the ventral surface, 163 to 200; anal small, entire;
subcaudals all or greater part single, 15 to 29.
_Coloration._--Pale greyish, reddish, or yellowish-brown above, with
brown, purplish-brown, or blackish markings, which may be very irregular
or form a single or alternating series of large blotches or cross-bands
on the back; the sides with smaller spots; these markings may be
confluent and so large as to reduce the ground colour to small yellowish
spots; one, two, or three short, dark stripes often present on the nape;
a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth; sometimes a dark
curved band from eye to eye across the upper surface of the snout. Lower
parts yellowish-white, uniform or with small blackish spots.
_Size._--2-1/4 feet is the greatest length which this snake is known to
attain.
_Distribution._--Originally described from Lower Egypt, and extending
westwards to Algeria, this _Eryx_ has been found in Greece, in Corfu, in
the Cyclades, in Turkey, and in Roumania. It occurs also in Asia Minor,
in Transcaucasia, in Transcaspia, in Northern Persia, and in Syria. It
has been found at an altitude of 5,000 feet in Persia, to the west of
Lake Urmia. A closely allied form (_E. miliaris_, Pallas), which has
been confounded with this species, extends from Transcaspia to Turkestan
and Afghanistan.
The reported occurrence of this snake in Bulgaria is based on a specimen
labelled "Bulgaria (?)" in the Sofia University Museum. The species is
omitted from Kovatscheff's latest list of Bulgarian Reptiles.
_Habits._--This diminutive Boid is a burrower in arid, sandy districts,
appearing only early in the morning or towards dusk; it is as a rule
more crepuscular than nocturnal. Notwithstanding its rather heavy form,
it is capable of very quick movements, darting like an arrow upon its
prey, which consists chiefly of small mammals and lizards. A
constrictor, like all the members of the family to which it pertains, it
crushes its prey before swallowing it. If given several mice at a time,
it will catch and kill them all in succession before proceeding to feed.
Specimens recently discovered in the Danube Valley in Roumania were
found to live in the sand at the bottom of small limestone caves, going
about at night and feeding principally on slugs. Unlike other snakes, it
is said to lap dewdrops with its tongue. It is a gentle snake, seldom
attempting to bite.
Egyptian jugglers are in the habit of implanting the claw of a bird or
small mammal in the skin of the head of this snake, above each eye, in
order to give it a more formidable appearance.
_Reproduction._--Like the other species of _Eryx_, this snake is
ovoviviparous, but, beyond this fact, nothing appears to have been
observed concerning the breeding habits, although many examples have
been kept in captivity.
THIRD FAMILY: COLUBRIDÆ
Maxillary, palatine, and pterygoid bones movable; transverse bone
present; pterygoid extending to quadrate or mandible; supratemporal
present, attached scale-like to cranium, suspending quadrate; prefrontal
not in contact with nasal; maxillary horizontal, not movable
perpendicularly to the transverse bone; no coronoid bone. Teeth in both
jaws. No vestiges of pelvic arch.
An enormous group, comprising the great majority of snakes. Divided into
three parallel series:
_A._ Aglypha, with all the teeth solid.
_B._ Opisthoglypha, with one or more of the posterior maxillary teeth
grooved.
_C._ Proteroglypha, with the anterior maxillary teeth grooved or
canaliculated.
The third, which is not represented in Europe, includes some of the most
deadly snakes, such as the Cobras, Kraits, Death-adders, etc.
The European genera are thus distributed in the two other series:
AGLYPHA (COLUBRINÆ): _Tropidonotus_, _Zamenis_, _Coluber_, _Coronella_,
_Contia_.
OPISTHOGLYPHA (DIPSADOMORPHINÆ): _Coelopeltis_, _Macroprotodon_,
_Tarbophis_.
These genera give but a feeble idea of the variety of forms included in
this family, which comprises adaptations to every mode of life for which
snakes are fitted.
The distribution of the family coincides with that of the order,
extending over the whole world with the exception of the Arctic and
Antarctic regions, and Ireland and New Zealand, as well as most of the
smaller islands of the Pacific Ocean.
GENUS TROPIDONOTUS, KUHL
Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly. Head more or less
distinct from neck; eye moderate or rather small, with round pupil. Body
more or less elongate; scales keeled, with apical pits. Tail moderate.
This large genus, comprising about ninety species, and of almost
cosmopolitan distribution, with the exception of South America and the
greater part of Australia, may be divided into several subgenera, two of
which are represented in Europe--_Tropidonotus_ proper, with the common
_T. natrix_, and _Nerodia_, Baird and Girard, with two closely related
species of more thoroughly aquatic habits, _T. tessellatus_ and _T.
viperinus_.
3. TROPIDONOTUS NATRIX, Linnæus
(_Natrix vulgaris_, Laurenti; _Coluber torquatus_, Lacepède)
The Grass-Snake, or Ring-Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender; snout short, obtuse, not prominent; eyes
and nostrils lateral, the former moderately large. Tail four to six and
a half times in the total length.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal
divided, very rarely semidivided. Internasals at least as broad as long,
trapezoid, shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal broader than the
supraocular, once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as
long as or a little shorter than its distance from the end of the snout,
shorter than the parietals, not in contact with the preocular. Loreal
deeper than long. One (rarely two) pre- and three (rarely two or four)
postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials seven (rarely six or eight),
third and fourth (or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four or five
lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are
shorter than the posterior.
_Scales_ with two apical pits, in nineteen rows, strongly keeled on the
body, of outer row smooth or faintly keeled. Ventral shields 157 to 181;
anal divided; subcaudals 50 to 88.
[Illustration: FIG. 16 (after Sordelli)]
_Coloration._--Very variable. We shall first describe the typical form,
and then allude to the principal varieties and individual variations
with which we are acquainted.
Grey, bluish-grey, olive, or brown, above, usually with black spots or
narrow bars on the back, and vertical bars on the sides; upper lip
whitish or yellowish, with the sutures between the shields black; the
preocular, and sometimes the postoculars, yellow in the young; a white,
yellow, or orange collar on the nape, sometimes uninterrupted, more
often divided in the middle, bordered behind by two black subtriangular
or crescentic blotches, which usually meet on the median line; the
bright collar often becomes faint, or even entirely disappears, in large
females (Plate II., first figure); belly usually checkered black and
grey or white, more rarely grey with small black spots, or entirely
black. Iris dark brown or reddish-brown, with a golden circle round the
pupil. This is the form found in England and Central Europe and in some
parts of Southern Europe.
In Jersey, in the Spanish Peninsula, and in Cyprus, the white or yellow
collar, which is always present in the very young, soon disappears, and
so does usually the black collar, which is either much reduced or
entirely absent (var. _astreptophorus_, Seoane). Some large specimens
from the Spanish Peninsula are uniform olive, without any markings.
Another variation (Plate II., third figure), rare in France, but common
in Italy, South-Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor (var. _persa_, Pallas;
_bilineatus_, Bibr.; _murorum_, Bonap.) has the collar well marked,
though widely interrupted in the middle, and a white, yellow, or orange
streak extends along each side of the back, which may bear the usual
black markings in addition.
In some specimens from Austria and Corfu (var. _subfasciatus_, Werner)
the belly is white, with black bars occupying the free edge of each
ventral shield.
A very remarkable variety (var. _cettii_, Gené) from Corsica and
Sardinia (Plate II., second figure) is grey or olive above, with the
black markings confluent into more or less regular annuli, which are
nearly as wide as the spaces between them; these annuli are often broken
up on the middle line of the back, and alternating; the collar is
absent, or is transformed into the first annulus, and the upper surface
of the head is more or less spotted or blotched with black. This pattern
is most distinct in young and half-grown specimens; in large examples
the annuli may break up into spots, disposed with great symmetry in
transverse series. The belly is black, spotted with white.
A specimen 20 inches long, from Bona, Algeria (Lataste collection), has
the posterior half of the head, from between the eyes and behind the
postocular shields, of an intense black, followed by the usual yellow
and black collar; two light dots close together on the parietal shields.
Some specimens are entirely or nearly entirely black. In the var.
_picturatus_, Jan, from the Caucasus, the upper parts are sprinkled all
over with light dots, and the yellow collar is present; the belly is
grey, dotted with black, and with white spots on the sides. In others
the body is black above, and checkered black and white beneath (var.
_scutatus_, Pall.), or entirely black (var. _ater_, Eichw.). This
melanism never appears until the second or third year of life, the young
being marked like the typical form.
Albinos have occasionally been met with, yellowish flesh-colour with
reddish markings, and a white or yellow collar, the eye and the tongue
red. Such an albino, from Horsted Keynes, Sussex, is preserved in the
British Museum. A remarkable aberration, to be regarded as an imperfect
albino, has been found in Dorsetshire, and described as uniform whitish,
with a well-defined broad longitudinal central dorsal pale yellow-brown
band.
_Size._--May reach a length of 6 feet 8 inches. Such giants, females,
known from Sardinia, Sicily, and Istria, are, however, very exceptional,
individuals of this species seldom exceeding a length of 4 feet. The
largest British specimen on record, from Wales, is stated to measure 5
feet 10 inches. Males rarely exceed 3 feet.
_Monstrosity._--A dicephalous young, with the two well-formed heads side
by side, is preserved in the British Museum, and several others have
been described, one being reported to have lived for about a month.
_PLATE II_
[Illustration: TROPIDONOTUS NATRIX
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: T. NATRIX, VAR. CETTII
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: T. NATRIX, VAR. PERSA]
_Distribution._--_Tropidonotus natrix_ occurs all over Europe, with, of
course, the exception of Ireland, as far north as the extreme south-east
of Scotland, and the sixty-fifth degree in Scandinavia and Finland, and
as high up as 7,450 feet in the Italian Alps. With the exception of a
few districts in England and in Central Europe, as well as in the
extreme north, it is common everywhere, in the north as well as in the
south. On the Mediterranean islands it is absent from the Baleares and
Malta. In North Africa it is known from Algeria and Tunisia, north of
the Atlas, where it does not seem, however, to be at all common. It has
a wide range in Asia, extending eastwards to Lake Baikal, and southwards
to Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Northern Persia. In the south-east of its
range, the bilineated variety predominates over the typical form. The
melanistic so-called varieties are not geographically restricted, but
occur all over the habitat of the species, though not recorded from
England.
_Habits._--Although fond of water, and often seen swimming in ponds or
streams or creeping by the water's edge, this snake is far less aquatic
than its two congeners described hereafter; it often occurs on dry chalk
hills or in woods far from any water. It is moderately agile in its
movements, and easily caught, on which occasions it hisses loudly and
emits a nauseous smell from its anal glands, together with the renal
dejections, but makes no attempt to bite; exceptionally an individual
may go so far as to strike with open mouth, but cases of this snake
really biting are extremely rare. However, Gené says of the male of his
_Natrix cettii_, "iracundum et mordacissimum animal." Dr. Gadow relates
his experience with aggressive specimens which inhabited a swamp with a
little stream to the north of Oporto, close to the coast. To his utter
surprise, some of them actually made for him, swimming along rapidly
with the head erect, about 6 inches above the water, and darting
forwards with widely opened jaws; but they did not bite. According to
Professor Kathariner, this snake when caught has been observed to sham
death, lying rigid and motionless, with open gape. Some specimens do
well in captivity, and are known to have lived for many years; others
refuse all food and die of starvation. After a time they become
tolerably tame, and cease to produce the offensive odour when handled.
The food consists of frogs and toads--the latter being preferred
notwithstanding their poisonous secretion, which protects them from the
attacks of most animals--occasionally of newts, seldom of fish; these
snakes are reported to have a predilection for tree-frogs, and to feed
occasionally on mice and birds, but most observers agree that they will
not take anything higher in the zoological scale than frogs. The prey is
swallowed alive, and, if not very large, four or five frogs or toads are
often taken in succession; a case is known of a snake having swallowed
twenty very small frogs at one meal. The young feed on worms and
batrachian larvæ, in addition to very small frogs and toads.
The Grass-snake gets on very well with the Adder, to whose venom it is
immune.
It has more than once been met with swimming in the sea, and a case is
reported of one having been captured in the open sea twenty-five miles
from the nearest land, no doubt carried away by the current, but still
perfectly lively.
The hibernating season is spent in holes in walls or at the root of
trees, often under manure-heaps, and the awakening occurs in March or
April, soon to be followed by the first exuviation and the pairing.
_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place in April or in May, according to
the climate, and the eggs are laid between June and August, the young
emerging six to ten weeks later. It is probable that a second pairing
occasionally takes place in the autumn, as eggs have sometimes been
found in manure-heaps at the end of winter. Females do not breed until
about 2 feet long, males a little sooner. The eggs number 11 to 48,
according to the size of the female, and, after being produced in a
string, stick together in a mass, without any regularity.
The eggs measure 1 to 1-1/2 inches in length, and when newly laid are
about once and a half as long as broad. They often contain at the time
they are produced a more or less developed embryo. They are sometimes
laid in recesses in walls, in heaps of sawdust near sawmills, under dead
leaves, but preferably in manure, for which purpose females often
approach farms during the period of oviposition. Holes near baking ovens
at the back of village houses are sometimes selected as breeding
resorts. The female rolls herself up, and by violent contortions makes a
sort of chamber in the manure, in which she may remain for some days
after the eggs have been produced. It is not very unusual for several
females to congregate for the purpose of laying, and as many as 1,200
eggs have been found in the same hole. The young on emerging has lost
the umbilical cord, and measures 6 to 8-1/2 inches. It often remains for
a considerable time, sometimes until the following spring, in the hole
or manure-heap in which it was born, feeding principally on worms. Very
young specimens are never found in the water.
4. TROPIDONOTUS TESSELLATUS, Laurenti
(_Coluber hydrus_, Pallas)
The Tessellated Water-Snake
_Form._--Rather slender; head rather long and narrow; snout obtuse, not
prominent; eyes and nostrils directed upwards and outwards, the former
rather small, the latter somewhat valvular. Tail four to six times in
the total length.
_PLATE III_
[Illustration: TROPIDONOTUS TESSELLATUS]
[Illustration: TROPIDONOTUS VIPERINUS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: T. VIPERINUS, VAR. AUROLINEATUS
_After Sordelli_]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal
often semidivided. Internasals usually as long as broad or longer,
subtriangular, truncate in front, as long or nearly as long as the
prefrontals. Frontal a little broader than the supraocular, once and a
half to twice as long as broad, as long as or a little shorter than its
distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, not in
contact with the preocular. Loreal as deep as or deeper than long. Two
(rarely one or three) preoculars, with or without a small subocular
below; three postoculars, often with one or two suboculars below.
Temporals 1 + 2. Upper labials eight (rarely seven, nine, or ten),
fourth or fourth and fifth (rarely third or fifth) entering the eye.
Five (rarely four) lower labials in contact with the anterior
chin-shields, which are shorter than the posterior.
[Illustration: FIG. 17]
_Scales_ with two apical pits, in nineteen rows, strongly keeled, of
outer row smooth or feebly keeled. Ventrals 160 to 187; anal divided;
subcaudals 48 to 79.
_Coloration._--Olive, olive-grey, or brown above, with dark spots
usually arranged quincuncially or forming narrow bars on the back (Plate
III.); sides often with lighter vertical bars; a more or less distinct
[V]-shaped dark band on the nape, sometimes produced as a median streak
to the frontal shield; upper lip yellowish, with dark bars on the
sutures between the shields. Lower parts whitish, yellow, orange, or
red, marbled or checkered with black, or nearly entirely black. Iris
golden, bronzy, or coppery red.
Some specimens depart very strikingly from the coloration thus briefly
defined. We will now mention the principal variations which have been
described: Sides of body checkered with black and yellow or black and
red (var. _rubro-maculosus_, Dürigen). With four dark stripes along the
anterior part of the back (var. _lineaticollis_, Werner). Above with
four light streaks in addition to the dark markings. Uniform grey or
light brown above (var. _concolor_, Jan, _hagenbecki_, Werner). Uniform
black or blackish (var. _nigrescens_, De Betta). The most remarkable
variety is the var. _vosseleri_, Werner, from Asia Minor: above with
small black and yellowish spots, beneath yellowish with three blackish
stripes beginning at some distance from the head, the median much weaker
than the outer; the scales are less strongly keeled than in the typical
form. There are also specimens with two very regular black stripes along
the belly.
A case of chlorochroism, in a specimen from Dalmatia, has been observed
by Peracca. The snake was sulphur yellow with black markings; a black
band along the belly; iris golden.
An imperfect albino, which has been met with several times in Dalmatia,
has been described as var. _flavescens_, Werner. Yellowish-white or
brownish-yellow above, with small blackish spots; belly whitish in the
middle, with a series of black spots, bright yellow on the sides; eye
and tongue red.
_Size._--This snake occasionally reaches a length of 4 feet, but
specimens over 3 feet are rare. The largest specimen in the British
Museum measures 3 feet 10 inches.
_Distribution._--The Tessellated Snake has a wide range in Europe and
Asia. It is found south of the Alps, from Liguria to Naples, and
eastwards, extending northwards over the greater part of
Austria-Hungary, and even as far as Saxony, and again reappears to the
west in various localities of the Middle Rhine district (from Bingen to
Coblenz and Kreuznach, from Nassau to Lahnstein) and of the Moselle.
From Southern Russia it extends into Siberia as far as the Altai, the
extreme west of China, and the extreme north-west of India; it is also
found in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and the
neighbouring parts of Egypt. Italy and the Rhine constitute the western
limit of its range in Europe. It does not ascend to any considerable
altitude in the mountains of Europe, but it is on record from 6,000 feet
elevation in Chitral.
_Habits._--This is a far more aquatic species than the preceding, being
seldom found in summer away from the water, in which it swims and dives
to perfection; which does not prevent it from being equally agile on
land. In accordance with these thoroughly aquatic habits, it feeds
mostly on fish, although occasionally taking frogs and toads and their
tadpoles. Small fish are swallowed in the water, but large ones are
landed. This snake does not object to salt water, and it has been
observed on the seashore near Odessa, chasing small fish, mostly gobies,
in shallow water. Hibernation and pairing take place on land, and it is
not until the latter function is accomplished that the snakes of this
species resort to the water, which the females leave again for
oviposition. Like the Grass-snake, the Tessellated Snake seldom bites.
_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place in spring, when large numbers have
been observed to congregate for the purpose. As in the Viperine Snake, a
second pairing may occur in the autumn, Dr. Werner having found a pair
in copula on September 14, at Trebinje, Herzegovina, the female laying
her eggs in the following July, which with the beginning of August is
the time for oviposition. The eggs measure a little over an inch in
length and two-thirds of an inch in width, and number 5 to 25; they are
deposited under stones, in the fissures of walls and rocks, or under the
refuse of tanneries.
5. TROPIDONOTUS VIPERINUS, Latreille
The Viperine Water-Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender; head shorter than in the preceding species;
snout obtuse, not prominent; eyes and nostrils directed upwards and
outwards, the former rather small, the latter somewhat valvular; tail
four to six times in the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 18 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, visible from above. Nasal
usually semi-divided. Internasals as long as broad or longer,
subtriangular, truncate in front, as long as the prefrontals. Frontal
usually broader than the supraocular, once and a half to twice as long
as broad, as long as or slightly longer than its distance from the end
of the snout, shorter than the parietals, not in contact with the
preocular. Loreal as deep as or a little deeper than long. One or two
preoculars and two (rarely three) postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2 or 1 + 3.
Upper labials seven (rarely eight), third and fourth (or third, fourth,
or fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four (rarely five) lower labials
in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are usually shorter
than the posterior.
_Scales_ with two apical pits, in twenty-one (rarely nineteen or
twenty-three) rows, strongly keeled, of outer row smooth or feebly
keeled. Ventrals 147 to 164; anal divided; subcaudals 46 to 72.
_Coloration._--Grey, brown, or reddish above with two alternating series
of dark brown or black spots on the back, or with a black zigzag dorsal
band (Plate III., second figure), rarely with a single series of black
vertebral spots; a lateral series of black spots, usually ocellar, with
yellow centres; upper surface of head with dark symmetrical markings; a
more or less distinct dark band on the temple, and another on each side
of the nape, often edged with yellow in front; upper lip yellow, with
dark bars on the sutures between the shields, or dark with a yellow spot
on each shield. Lower parts yellow or red, checkered with black, or
entirely black; the black of the belly may be connected with the ocellar
lateral spots by black vertical bars. Iris golden, often mixed with
brown.
A specimen from Ponte Carrega, near Genoa, preserved in the Genoa
Museum, is remarkable as being of a dark olive-grey, with three series
of black and yellow ocellar spots. It is further exceptional in having
the scales in nineteen rows. A second specimen, from the same locality,
with the normal number of scales, has some of the vertebral spots
ocellar. Specimens with ocellar vertebral spots are found also in
Sardinia and in Spain.
As in _T. natrix_, there occur, in the South of France, in Sardinia, in
the Spanish Peninsula, and in North Africa, specimens with two light
yellow or reddish lines along the back (Plate III., third figure), in
addition to the usual markings (_C. aurolineatus_, Gervais, _T.
chersoides_, Duméril and Bibron).
Melanism is rare in this species, only one specimen being known, from
Nantes in Southern Brittany; uniform black, with the exception of a few
white spots on the belly. A remarkable variety (var. _incertus_, Fatio),
connecting this species with the preceding, occurs in Switzerland near
Geneva. Not only is its coloration sometimes very similar to that of _T.
tessellatus_, but it agrees with it in the scales being often disposed
in nineteen rows instead of twenty-one, and in the presence of eight
upper labials, fourth or third and fourth entering the eye; however, the
frequent presence of ocellar spots on the sides, and the low number of
ventral shields (147 to 151), show that it should be referred to _T.
viperinus_.
_Size._--Rarely reaches a length of 3 feet in Europe, the largest
specimens being from Sardinia. An Algerian specimen 3 feet 3 inches long
is on record.
_Distribution._--France as far north as Southern Brittany, the Forest of
Fontainebleau, and the Department Aube, the whole of the Spanish
Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, Southern Switzerland, north and
south of the Alps, Liguria, Piedmont, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. In
Africa in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, penetrating into the northern
parts of the Sahara.
In Liguria, Piedmont, and Ticino, _T. viperinus_ occurs alongside with
_T. tessellatus_. It reaches an altitude of nearly 4,000 feet in the
Alps.
_Habits._--Very much the same as in the preceding species, although
slightly less thoroughly aquatic, large individuals being sometimes met
with at some distance from water. Ponds and marshes are the favourite
abode of the Viperine Snake, huge numbers being often found on the
borders, diving into the water when disturbed. Frogs and toads,
tadpoles, newts, fishes, and large earthworms, are its principal food
when adult, the young feeding chiefly on batrachian larvæ, young fishes,
and earthworms. A case is known of this snake having eaten a water-shrew
(_Crossopus fodiens_). When a fish has been caught, it is usually eaten
on land; in captivity dead fish are rather readily accepted, provided
they be quite fresh. Some specimens bite when handled; others are as
gentle as the Grass-snake.
For hibernation, hollow trees, fissures in rocks, holes in the ground or
in railway embankments, are selected, and numerous individuals sometimes
congregate in the same retreat. In the mild winters of the South of
Europe they remain quiet, without being torpid, and resume activity very
early in the spring.
In the Alemtejo, according to Gadow, when during the rainless and hot
summer the small rivers have nearly dried up, these snakes collect in
great quantities in the remaining stagnant and muddy pools, and, as the
stock of suitable fish gets exhausted, are often reduced to a deplorably
emaciated condition. By the month of August they have become so
thoroughly aquatic that they cannot be kept alive in dry surroundings
for twenty-four hours, apparently dying from some kind of cutaneous
suffocation. The same observer once caught a Viperine Snake in a ditch
whilst it was swallowing an eel of nearly its own length.
Some specimens show so great a superficial resemblance to the Common
Adder, _Vipera berus_, which, however, being a more northern reptile,
very seldom occurs in the same localities--that this snake well deserves
its name _Viperinus_. A celebrated herpetologist, Constant Duméril, was
once himself deceived by this resemblance and bitten by a _Vipera berus_
which he had picked up in the Forest of Senart, near Paris, believing it
to be a _Tropidonotus viperinus_; whilst, conversely, a specimen of the
harmless snake was killed in mistake for a Viper by no less an expert
than Dr. Viaud-Grandmarais.
_Breeding._--This snake pairs in March and April, and sometimes again in
the autumn; but the eggs are only laid at one season, in June or July,
and hatch in August, September, or October. The eggs, numbering four to
twenty, are deposited in holes not far from water, often in abandoned
galleries of voles or moles. The young at birth measure 4 to 6-1/2
inches, and soon resort to the water, where, unlike those of the
Grass-snake, they are frequently met with.
GENUS ZAMENIS, WAGLER
Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly, the two last often
separated from the others by a narrow interspace. Head elongate,
distinct from neck; eye rather large, with round pupil. One or more
subocular shields. Body much elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits.
Tail long.
The species of this genus, about thirty in number, are distributed over
Europe, North Africa, Asia, and North and Central America. Three inhabit
Europe.
6. ZAMENIS GEMONENSIS, Laurenti
(_Coluber viridiflavus_, Lacepède; _C. atrovirens_, Shaw)
The European Whip-Snake
_Form._--Slender; snout rounded, with distinct canthus, moderately
prominent, concave on each side in front of the eye. Tail three and
one-third to four and one-third times in the total length.
_PLATE IV_
[Illustration: ZAMENIS GEMONENSIS
_Young, after Sordelli_]
[Illustration: Z. GEMONENSIS, VAR. PERSICUS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: Z. GEMONENSIS, VAR. VIRIDIFLAVUS]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral a little broader than deep, the portion visible
from above measuring one-fourth to two-fifths its distance from the
frontal. Frontal more or less bell-shaped, not or but little broader
than the supraocular, once and two-thirds to twice as long as broad, as
long as or a little longer than its distance from the end of the snout,
a little shorter than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep or longer.
One preocular (rarely two), extending to the upper surface of the head,
but never in contact with the frontal; a small subocular below the
preocular; two postoculars (rarely three). Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3
(rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials eight, fourth and fifth entering the eye,
fifth and seventh deepest. Five lower labials (rarely four) in contact
with the anterior chin-shields, which are usually shorter than the
posterior.
[Illustration: FIG. 19 (after Sordelli)]
_Scales_ with two apical pits, in nineteen (rarely seventeen or
twenty-one) rows. Ventral shields more or less distinctly angulate
laterally, 160 to 230 (usually under 200 in the typical form and the
var. _caspius_, 190 or more in the vars. _viridiflavus_ and _asianus_);
anal divided; subcaudals 87 to 131.
_Coloration._--In the typical _Z. gemonensis_ the upper parts are
yellowish-brown or pale olive, anteriorly with blackish cross-bars or
numerous small black spots, the black scales with a yellowish shaft, the
lower parts yellowish-white or pale yellow, rarely more orange; the
sides of the head are yellow, the shields edged with blackish. A female,
3-1/4 feet long, from Levico, Trentino, preserved in the Genoa Museum,
is uniform reddish-brown above, with mere traces of darker markings on
the head and nape. There is every gradation between this form and the
var. _viridiflavus_ or _atrovirens_ (Plate IV., third figure), which is
dark green or black above, with yellow spots forming transverse series
or bars on the anterior part of the body, and longitudinal streaks,
following the series of scales, on the posterior part and on the tail;
the yellow sometimes predominates over the black, or may appear as a
shaft along each dark scale; the preocular and postocular shields are
yellow, the labials likewise yellow, with black spots or bars. The lower
parts are yellow or greenish-white, with or without black dots, and
usually with a series of large black spots on each side.
Some specimens of both the typical form and the var. _viridiflavus_ are
entirely black or nearly black. (_Z. carbonarius_, Bonaparte; _Z.
sardus_, Suckow). In some localities and islands only black specimens
occur.
In the var. _caspius_, Iwan (_trabalis_, Pallas, Plate V., first figure;
_persicus_, Jan, Plate IV., second figure), from Hungary, Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Corfu, Bulgaria, Roumania, Greece, Turkey, Southern Russia,
Northern Asia Minor, and North-West Persia, the upper parts are pale
olive or reddish-brown, with or without brown or black spots, and each
scale bears a yellowish or pale brown longitudinal streak; there is
often a dark longitudinal streak on the nape; the belly is uniform
orange or red.
Another variety, var. _asianus_, Boettger, from Asia Minor, Rhodes,
Cyprus, and Syria, has the upper parts brown or olive, each scale with a
longitudinal light streak, and there are usually large black spots
relieved by yellowish shafts; the belly is red, spotted or dotted with
black. Melanism is frequent in this form, such specimens being entirely
black except on the chin and throat, which are yellow variegated with
red.
The very young of the typical form, as well as that of the var.
_viridiflavus_, has a striking livery (Plate IV., first figure), the
head and nape black with yellow markings, or olive with black-edged
yellow markings, contrasting sharply with the pale olive-grey of the
body; the most conspicuous and constant of the yellow markings consist
of a bar between the eyes, interrupted on the frontal shield, but
sometimes continuous with the yellow of the postoculars, five or six
small round spots on the parietal shields, and a V- or W-shaped line
just behind the parietals, followed by one or two others separating the
dark cross-bars which may be present on the nape, and occasionally even
continue some way down the anterior part of the body. This livery
persists in some half-grown specimens.
In young individuals from Syria (var. _asianus_) the head is not
differently coloured from the olive-brown body, and the markings
described above appear as mere traces; on the other hand, the whole body
has black and yellow spots or cross-bars above, and the belly is
profusely marked with round black spots.
In the new-born of the var. _caspius_, of which I have examined only one
specimen, 11 inches long, from the Crimea, the head is olive-brown like
the body, which bears dark brown spots and narrow cross-bars; and there
is a dark brown streak along the middle of the nape, as is sometimes the
case in the typical form. The belly is unspotted. A young from Malta is
intermediate in its markings between the typical form and this variety.
The young of the so-called black variety are not black at birth, but
similar to the normal young of the races to which they belong.
The four principal forms--_viridiflavus_, _gemonensis_, _caspius_, and
_asianus_--are so completely connected that I cannot regard them as more
than geographical races or varieties.
_Size._--This handsome snake grows to a length of 6 feet, the var.
_caspius_ even to 8 feet. I have seen a specimen of this variety, from
Salonica, which measures 7-2/3 feet.
_Distribution._--From the Atlantic coast of Europe to South-Western
Asia. The typical form, in its narrowest sense, inhabits the Southern
Tyrol, the north-eastern corner of Italy, and the countries to the east
of the Adriatic, as far as Greece and Crete. The specimens from France,
Switzerland, Italy, Giglio, Montecristo, Elba, Corsica, Sardinia,
Sicily, and Malta, are mostly referable to the form known as _Z.
viridiflavus_. Farther to the east the species is represented by the
vars. _caspius_ and _asianus_, of which the distribution has been
mentioned above. From Spain, this snake is only on record from
Catalonia, not far from the French frontier.
Rare or local in the north of its range (Maine-et-Loire, Vienne, Indre,
Sarthe, Haute-Saône, Yonne, Aube, in France, Switzerland north of the
Alps), it is one of the commonest snakes in Italy and on the borders and
islands of the Adriatic, as well as on practically all the islands of
the Mediterranean east of the Baleares. The highest altitudes at which
it has been met with are 3,900 feet in the Alps, 4,500 feet in the
Balkan Peninsula.
_Habits._--The name "Whip-snake," under which an American representative
of this genus (_Z. flagelliformis_) is known, like that of "Fouet" and
"Loucinglant," which have been bestowed on it in some parts of France,
expresses the quick movements with which, when captured, this snake
lashes its long, slender tail, at the same time furiously biting the
hand that has seized it. The generic term _Zamenis_, of Greek
derivation, alludes to its viciousness, which also accounts for its
German name, "Zornnatter." This snake, occurring in Malta, may well have
been the "Viper" which fastened on the hand of St. Paul. Some specimens
have been kept for months in captivity without losing their savage
temper, hissing and flying with open mouth at anyone approaching the
glass walls of their prison; others, on the other hand, become quite
tame in a very short time, such as one which I kept for nearly two
years. Except when sunning itself on a cold early morning in the spring,
this snake is always on the alert, and difficult to capture, uncoiling
itself and darting away like an arrow at the least disturbance. It lives
in preference among shrubs or on the edges of woods, avoiding damp
localities, and females at least appear to have sedentary tastes.
Lataste tells us of one, near Bordeaux, which he repeatedly met for over
two years within 20 yards of the same spot, a bush between a wood and a
meadow, without ever being able to capture it.
_PLATE V_
[Illustration: ZAMENIS GEMONENSIS, VAR. CASPIUS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: ZAMENIS DAHLII
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: ZAMENIS HIPPOCREPIS
_After Sordelli_]
The food of this snake is very varied, consisting of voles and mice,
young birds which it takes from the nests, being a good climber on
bushes and low trees, occasionally of frogs, but above all of other
reptiles: lizards, slow-worms, and snakes, which it does not attempt to
crush before deglutition. It has even been observed in Istria to eat
locusts (_Acridium ægyptium_) and sphyngid moths.
_Reproduction._--Eggs, laid at the end of June or beginning of July in a
well-sheltered hole, are a little over twice as long as broad, and
measure 1·2 to 1·4 inches in length. The number of eggs is eight to
fifteen according to Fatio, about a dozen according to Tomasini, five
according to Werner. The pairing was observed by Schreiber at the end of
May, the male and female seizing each other reciprocally by the neck
with their jaws; this mode of pairing must not, however, be regarded as
the rule in this species, for in other cases observed by Schreiber and
by Honnorat the pairs were simply entwined by their coils.
7. ZAMENIS DAHLII, Fitzinger
Dahl's Whip-Snake
_Form._--Very slender; head narrow, snout moderately prominent, obtuse.
Tail about one-third of the total length.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral a little broader than deep, just visible from
above. Frontal not or but little broader than the supraocular, once and
two-thirds to once and three-fourths as long as broad, as long as or
longer than its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the
parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One preocular, usually in contact
with the frontal, with a subocular below it; two postoculars. Temporals
2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials eight or nine, fourth and
fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in
contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are shorter than the
posterior.
_Scales_ with a single apical pit, very narrow, in nineteen rows.
Ventral shields very distinctly angulate laterally, 205 to 218; anal
divided; subcaudals 98 to 132.
[Illustration: FIG. 20 (after Sordelli)]
_Coloration._--Olive in front, with a few large black, white- or
yellow-edged spots on each side, the anterior of which is sometimes
confluent with its fellow and forms a nuchal collar, as in the specimen
figured on Plate V.; the greater part of the body and tail uniform pale
olive, yellowish, or reddish above, yellowish-white beneath. Head
uniform olive-brown above, the labial, preocular, and postocular shields
yellowish-white.
_Total Length._--3 feet, rarely nearly 4 feet.
_Distribution._--Southern Europe east of the Adriatic, as far north as
Dalmatia, Asia Minor, Cis- and Trans-Caucasia, North-Western Persia,
Cyprus, and Syria. Has also been recorded from Lower Egypt.
_Habits._--This snake is even more lively than _Z. gemonensis_, and does
not stand captivity long. It seeks dry, bushy localities, and feeds on
small lizards, occasionally on locusts. It does not seem to be very
common anywhere in Europe, except perhaps in Dalmatia, whence most of
the specimens sold by dealers are imported.
_Reproduction._--The pairing has been observed at the end of May.
According to Werner, the eggs number usually three only, measuring 1-1/2
inches by 1/2 inch.
8. ZAMENIS HIPPOCREPIS, Linnæus
The Horseshoe Whip-Snake
_Form._--Slender; snout obtuse, feebly prominent. Tail one-fifth to
one-fourth of the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 21 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral once and one-third to once and a half as broad
as deep, the portion visible from above measuring about one-fourth to
one-third its distance from the frontal. Frontal bell-shaped,
considerably broader in front than the supraocular, once and one-fourth
to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or a little longer than
its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals.
Loreal longer than deep, sometimes divided into two. One preocular
(sometimes divided into two), in contact with the frontal; two
postoculars; a series of three or four suboculars, usually completely
separating the eye from the labials. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Eight or
nine (rarely ten) upper labials, fifth or sixth very rarely entering the
eye. Four lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which
are shorter than the posterior.
_Scales_ with two apical pits, in twenty-five to twenty-nine rows,
usually twenty-seven. Ventral shields very distinctly angulate
laterally, 222 to 258; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 77 to
107.
_Coloration._--Brown, pale olive, reddish, yellow, or orange above, with
a dorsal series of large dark brown, black-edged rhomboidal spots, often
bordered with yellow, on each side of which is a series of smaller,
alternating spots (Plate V.); these spots may become entirely black in
the adult, and so large as to reduce the ground colour to a mere network
or series of X-shaped pale lines. A dark cross-band between the eyes,
and a [V]- or horseshoe-shaped band on the back of the head, which may
be confluent with an elongate spot on the nape; a light circle often
present in the middle between the parietal shields. The spots often more
or less confluent into three longitudinal streaks on the tail. Yellow,
orange, or red beneath, with or without black dots, but constantly with
a lateral series of black spots, which may be very large or unite with
the spots higher up on the sides to form vertical bars.
_Size._--Examples 5 feet long are on record; the largest examined by me
measures 4 feet 3 inches.
_Distribution._--Spain and Portugal, Sardinia, Pantellaria, Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia. Does not reach the North of Spain nor penetrate into
the Sahara.
_Habits._--This very handsome snake is as a rule as irascible as its
European congeners. In Spain as well as in Algeria it is often found
about the dwellings of man, occasionally entering houses in search of
mice, on which it principally feeds; it is also fond of birds, and,
climbing with great facility, plunders the nests of sparrows in towns
and villages. It must be regarded as a useful commensal of man, and
deserving of protection.
_Reproduction._--F. Doumergue found in a hole in a rock near Oran, in
September, the recently-laid eggs, five in number and as large as
pigeons'.
GENUS COLUBER, LINNÆUS
Maxillary teeth equal or nearly equal in length. Head elongate, distinct
from neck; eye moderately large, with round pupil. Body more or less
elongate; scales smooth or feebly keeled, with apical pits. Tail
moderate or long.
This large genus, embracing close upon fifty species, is represented in
Europe, Asia, and North and tropical America. Five species in Europe.
Very nearly allied to _Zamenis_, but distinguished principally by the
posterior teeth of the upper jaw not being at all enlarged, and,
further, in being, like _Coronella_, constrictors.
9. COLUBER QUATUORLINEATUS, Lacepède
(_Elaphis cervone_, Aldrovandi; _Coluber quatuorradiatus_,
Gmelin)
Aldrovandi's Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail
one-sixth to one-fourth of the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 22 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above.
Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long
as its distance from the rostral, shorter than the parietals. Loreal
nearly as long as deep, with one or two small shields below it. One
preocular, rarely divided, with a subocular below it; two or three
postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 4. Upper labials eight
(exceptionally nine), fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the
eye. Four or five (rarely three) lower labials in contact with the
anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the posterior.
_PLATE VI_
[Illustration: COLUBER QUATUORLINEATUS
_Young, after Sordelli_]
[Illustration: COLUBER QUATUORLINEATUS
_After Werner_]
[Illustration: COLUBER QUATUORLINEATUS, VAR. SAUROMATES
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: COLUBER DIONE
_After Sordelli_]
_Scales_ feebly but distinctly keeled, except on the outer rows, with
two apical pits, in twenty-five (rarely twenty-three or twenty-seven)
rows. Ventral shields not or but very obtusely angulate laterally, 195
to 234; anal divided; subcaudals 56 to 90.
_Coloration._--Young (Plate VI., top) with three or five alternating
longitudinal series of dark brown, black-edged spots on a yellowish,
grey, or pale brown ground, the spots of the median series largest,
transversely elliptical or rhomboidal; a dark streak across the
forehead, black bars on the labial shields, and a black oblique streak
from the eye to the angle of the mouth. In specimens from Italy and the
countries bordering the Adriatic (the typical _C. quatuorlineatus_) the
markings very gradually disappear with age, with the exception of the
temporal streak, whilst a pair of black streaks appear along each side
of the body, at a short distance from the head, the lower corresponding
to the postocular streak, the adult being brown without spots, but
four-lined (Plate VI., second figure). In more eastern specimens (_C.
sauromates_, Pallas), which may be regarded as representing the original
form, the markings of the young persist throughout life, or, if they
disappear, they are not replaced by dark streaks (Plate VI., third
figure). Lower parts pale yellow, closely spotted or marbled with brown,
these markings usually disappearing in the adult, except on the tail.
Iris dark brown.
_Size._--The largest European snake, stated to reach a length of 8 feet.
The largest specimen examined by me measures, however, only 4-1/2 feet.
_Distribution._--Aldrovandi's Snake inhabits Southern Italy and Sicily,
Istria, Croatia, Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Greece, and eastwards to
Southern Russia, Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, and Persia. It has been
observed at an altitude of 2,600 feet in Herzegovina.
All the specimens from Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and eastwards, belong
to the var. _sauromates_, which is regarded by some authors as worthy of
specific rank. The reported occurrence of _C. quatuorlineatus_ in
various parts of France is certainly due to confusion with _C. scalaris_
and _C. longissimus_.
_Habits._--Dry as well as marshy localities are the abode of this large
and handsome snake, which often approaches the dwellings of man,
attracted by the poultry. Comparatively slow in its movements, it is
more easily captured than any of the other large Colubrids of Europe,
and does well in captivity, where it should be provided with a tank, in
which it will remain for hours under water. It is as good at swimming as
at climbing. Biting readily when captured, it becomes of gentle
disposition after a short period of captivity. In consequence of its
slow, phlegmatic temperament, it often allows itself to be picked up
when surprised in liberty, but as soon as it feels the grasp it turns
round and defends itself. It appears to feed exclusively on mammals and
birds, up to the size of a rat or dove, and will readily take dead food.
It has a predilection for eggs, and has often been observed to swallow
hens' eggs.
_Reproduction._--In Herzegovina pairing takes place from the middle of
June to the middle of July, and the eggs are laid soon after, to hatch
in September or beginning of October. The eggs number six to sixteen,
and measure 2 inches by 1-1/3 inches. The young measure 8 to 14 inches
at birth.
10. COLUBER DIONE, Pallas
The Dione Snake
_Form._--Similar to the preceding. Head more convex, a little narrower;
snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth of the total
length.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above.
Frontal once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, as long
as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals.
Loreal as long as deep, or a little longer than deep. A large preocular,
with a subocular below it, the latter very exceptionally absent; two or
three postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 3 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine
(very rarely seven), fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the
eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior
chin-shields, which are nearly as long as the posterior.
_Scales_ smooth or faintly keeled, with two apical pits, in twenty-five
or twenty-seven (rarely twenty-three) rows. Ventral shields not or but
very obtusely angulate laterally, 172 to 214; anal divided; subcaudals
50 to 80.
[Illustration: FIG. 23 (after Sordelli)]
_Coloration._--Pale brown or greyish-olive above, with blackish
cross-lines or dark brown or reddish, black-edged spots, and usually two
or three more or less distinct pale longitudinal bands; two dark
longitudinal stripes on the nape, usually united on the head and
terminating on the frontal shield; a curved dark cross-band from eye to
eye, and another, oblique, from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Lower
parts yellowish, usually dotted or spotted with blackish.
_Size._--Seldom exceeds a length of 3 feet. The largest specimen
examined by me measures 37 inches.
_Distribution._--Across temperate Asia from Asia Minor, Transcaucasia,
and the southern border of the Caspian Sea, to the Amur, Corea, and
China. In Europe the habitat of this snake is restricted to the steppes
of Southern Russia, between the Caucasus and the Lower Ural. The
specimen figured on Plate VI. is from Sarepta, on the Volga.
_Habits._--This snake frequents arid, sandy localities, and is only
exceptionally found in small woods. Nothing more is known of its habits.
11. COLUBER LONGISSIMUS, Laurenti
(_Coluber æsculapii_, Lacepède; _C. flavescens_, Gmelin)
The Æsculapian Snake
_Form._--Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent; head narrow. Tail
about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 24]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above.
Frontal once and one-fourth to once and one-third as long as broad, as
long as its distance from the rostral or the end of the snout, shorter
than the parietals. Loreal as long as deep or longer than deep. One pre-
and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 3. Upper labials eight or nine,
fourth and fifth or fifth and sixth entering the eye. Four or five lower
labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as
or a little longer than the posterior.
_Scales_ smooth or feebly keeled on the posterior part of the body, with
two apical pits, in twenty-three (rarely twenty-one) rows. Ventral
shields distinctly angulate laterally, 212 to 248; anal divided;
subcaudals 60 to 91.
_Coloration._--Yellowish-grey to dark olive-brown above, some of the
scales with whitish lines on the margins occasionally forming a network;
sometimes with a yellowish vertebral stripe or with four darker stripes
along the body (var. _romanus_, Suckow); upper lip, and often also a
triangular patch on each side behind the temple, pale yellow; a more or
less distinct dark band on the temple, and a vertical dark bar below the
eye (Plate VII., first figure). Lower parts uniform pale yellow. Young
(second figure) with dark brown dorsal spots, forming four to seven
longitudinal series, a [V]-shaped black marking on the nape behind the
yellow nuchal blotches, which are brighter than in the adult, a dark
brown bar across the forehead, and a black vertical line below the eye;
belly greyish or yellowish-olive. Iris dark grey or brown. Tongue
pinkish-brown.
_PLATE VII_
[Illustration: COLUBER LONGISSIMUS]
[Illustration: COLUBER LONGISSIMUS
_Young, after Sordelli_]
[Illustration: COLUBER LEOPARDINUS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: C. LEOPARDINUS, VAR. QUADRILINEATUS
_After Sordelli_]
Melanism is rare in this snake. Such specimens are entirely black above
and beneath (var. _niger_, Nikolsky), or blackish-grey to black above,
dark grey beneath (var. _subgriseus_, Werner), the angular line on each
side of the belly often remaining light. An albino found near Vienna has
been described as pale orange-yellow above, with small white spots;
pupil and tongue red.
_Size._--Grows to 6 feet. Specimens over 4-1/2 feet are, however, very
rarely met with.
_Distribution._--Generally distributed over the greater part of Austria,
Italy, with Sardinia and Sicily, and the whole of South-Eastern Europe,
this snake has a very broken range in France, Switzerland, Germany, and
is found, quite isolated, as far north as Denmark and Poland. According
to Segerus, quoted by Lacepède, it used to be quite common near
Copenhagen at the end of the eighteenth century, but it is now much
rarer. Its northern limit in France is in Southern Brittany, the
Department Orne, and the Forest of Fontainebleau; in Germany,
Schlangenbad, near Wiesbaden, perhaps also Baden-Baden and Treves. It is
on record from Southern Spain. Its discontinuous distribution in Central
Europe, and its presence in various localities near former Roman thermal
stations, has been ascribed to its introduction from Italy as an inmate
of the temples erected to Æsculapius; but I am more inclined to look
upon its sporadic occurrence in the North as the indication of a once
more widely distributed species now in process of extinction over part
of its range.
In Asia the Æsculapian Snake is only found in Transcaucasia. It occurs
in the mountains as well as in the plain, being recorded from 5,200 feet
altitude in the Tyrol, 3,200 feet in the Apennines.
_Habits._--The Æsculapian Snake lives in woods; among shrubby
vegetation; in meadows, where it is often found under haystacks;
occasionally about old walls. It climbs well, and often ascends trees.
Although a good swimmer, it seldom enters the water of its own accord.
It feeds chiefly on small mammals, occasionally on birds and their eggs,
and lizards. Specimens which I kept in confinement fed on mice only,
refusing sparrows and lizards. Very savage when fresh caught, most
individuals soon become tame, and like being handled by people to whom
they are accustomed, although still resenting the intrusion of
strangers. However, this snake never becomes so thoroughly domesticated
as the Smooth Snake, and cannot be trained to take food from the hand,
according to R. Rollinat, who has devoted many years to experiments on
the taming of reptiles. This observer had no difficulty in feeding his
Æsculapian Snakes on mice and voles placed dead in their cage.
This snake is particularly sensitive to cold, and does not emerge until
late in the spring from the vole galleries and hollow trees which
constitute its winter-quarters. It also avoids excessive heat, never
showing itself in the daytime during the hotter months in the South of
Europe.
_Reproduction._--Pairing takes place between the middle of May and the
middle of June. The eggs are laid towards the end of June or in July, in
holes in walls or hollow trees, under moss, sometimes even in the
dung-heaps of farms, and hatch in September. According to trustworthy
observers, the eggs, which measure 1-1/2 to 2 inches in length, and less
than 1 inch in width, number only five or six, rarely up to eight.
The young on emerging are highly suggestive of young Grass-snakes in
colour and markings, as well as in their much less slender shape as
compared with the adult. They measure about 5 inches, and are at once
most ready to bite.
12. COLUBER LEOPARDINUS, Bonaparte
(_Coluber quadrilineatus_, Pallas)
The Leopard Snake
_Form._--Slender. Snout obtuse, scarcely prominent. Tail about one-fifth
of the total length.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral broader than deep, just visible from above.
Frontal once and one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long
as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals.
Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 1 + 2
or 2 + 3. Upper labials eight (rarely seven), fourth and fifth (rarely
third and fourth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials in
contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are longer than the
posterior.
_Scales_ smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-five or twenty-seven
rows. Ventral shields rounded, not angulate laterally, 222 to 260; anal
divided; subcaudals 68-90.
[Illustration: FIG. 25 (after Sordelli)]
_Coloration._--Typical form (Plate VII., third figure) greyish or pale
brown above, with one dorsal series of dark brown, reddish-brown, or
bright red, black-edged transverse spots and a lateral alternating
series of smaller black spots with or without lighter centres; usually a
[Y]-shaped dark marking on the occiput and nape; a crescentic black band
from eye to eye across the prefrontal shields, an oblique black band
from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot or
vertical bar below the eye. Lower parts white, checkered with black, or
nearly entirely black. Iris reddish-golden.
In some specimens (var. _quadrilineatus_) the dorsal spots are replaced
by two brown or red, black-edged stripes bordering a pale greyish or
yellowish vertebral stripe (Plate VII., fourth figure); such specimens
are so coloured from birth. This colour variety, which is so strikingly
different from the typical form, is connected with the latter by the
var. _schwoederi_, Werner, in which the spots form two vertebral series,
and the var. _elsneri_, Werner, in which the light vertebral band is
broken up by dark transverse bars, producing a ladder-like pattern.
_Size._--Rarely exceeding a length of 3 feet.
_Distribution._--Southern Italy, Sicily, Malta, Istria, Dalmatia, and
other parts of the Balkan Peninsula, Grecian islands, Crimea, Asia
Minor. The altitudinal range does not extend beyond 1,600 feet.
_Habits._--This is not only the prettiest European snake as regards its
markings, whether in the form of spots or of stripes, but also the most
graceful in its movements. Unless compelled to fly for safety, there is
something slow and deliberate in its behaviour which is more suggestive
of _Coronella_ than of most other species of _Coluber_. It is fond of
climbing, and if the terrarium in which it is kept be provided with a
bush or small tree, it will spend most of the time gracefully coiled
round the branches. Usually very savage when fresh caught, some
specimens become quite tame in captivity. In Dalmatia, where it is not
uncommon, this snake is found principally among prickly shrubs, in
hedges, or on old walls. It awakens from its winter slumber later than
other South European snakes. Although occasionally taking lizards, its
principal food consists of mammals and birds, which are killed before
being devoured, the Leopard Snake being, like the other members of the
genus _Coluber_, a constrictor.
_Reproduction._--According to Werner, the eggs, two to five in number,
are deposited in midsummer; they are remarkably elongate: 2-1/2 inches
long, 2/3 inch broad.
13. COLUBER SCALARIS, Schinz
The Ladder Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender. Snout pointed, strongly projecting beyond
the mouth. Tail one-sixth to one-fifth of the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 26 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral deeper than broad, forming an acute angle
above, wedged in between the internasals, the portion visible from above
nearly as long as its distance from the frontal. Frontal about once and
one-third to once and a half as long as broad, as long as or shorter
than its distance from the end of the snout, nearly as long as the
parietals. Loreal longer than deep. One pre- and two or three
post-oculars. Temporals 2 + 3 or 2 + 4. Upper labials seven or eight
(rarely nine), fourth or fourth and fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering
the eye. Four or five lower labials in contact with the anterior
chin-shields, which may be either longer or shorter than the posterior.
_PLATE VIII_
[Illustration: COLUBER SCALARIS
_After Sordelli_]
_Scales_ smooth, with two apical pits, in twenty-seven (rarely
twenty-five or twenty-nine) rows. Ventral shields not angulate
laterally, 201 to 220; anal divided, rarely entire; subcaudals 48 to 68.
_Coloration._--Young yellowish-grey, or pale brown, above, with a series
of regular H-shaped black or blackish-brown markings along the back,
forming a ladder-like pattern--whence the name _scalaris_--and small
black spots on the sides; a V-shaped black marking on the snout, a black
oblique streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a black spot
below the eye; belly yellow, spotted or checkered with black or nearly
entirely black. These dorsal markings disappear in the adult, and are
replaced by a pair of brown stripes running along the back (Plate
VIII.); the belly loses the black markings, and becomes uniform yellow.
Iris dark brown.
_Size._--Grows to a length of 3-1/2 feet, exceptionally 4-1/2 feet.
_Distribution._--The Mediterranean coast of France, Spain and Portugal,
and Minorca. Its occurrence in Algeria is very doubtful.
_Habits._--Not uncommon near the coast in France, in hedges and
vineyards, often climbing on shrubs. In the Spanish Peninsula, according
to Boscá, it is common in forests and on the sheltered side of valleys,
under stones or in holes in the ground. A specimen I kept alive for a
short time showed a more furious temper than I have ever witnessed in
any snake, repeatedly flying with open mouth against the glass of its
cage whenever I entered the room in which it was kept. Other specimens
are reported to have become quite tame after a certain time. It is one
of the quickest of European snakes, one of the most difficult to catch;
it is a good climber. The food consists of mice, birds, and lizards; the
young are said to occasionally eat grasshoppers.
_Reproduction._--According to J. von Fischer, the eggs, nine in number,
are deposited twenty-five days after the pairing, which takes place in
May or June, and measure about 2 inches by 2/3 inch.
GENUS CORONELLA, LAURENTI
Maxillary teeth increasing in size posteriorly. Head not or but slightly
distinct from neck; eye rather small, with round pupil. No subocular
shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail
moderate.
_PLATE IX_
[Illustration: CORONELLA AUSTRIACA
_After Sordelli_]
This genus, embracing about twenty species, is represented in the
different parts of the Northern Hemisphere, extending a little beyond
the Equator in East Africa. Two species are European.
14. CORONELLA AUSTRIACA, Laurenti
(_Coluber lævis_, Lacepède)
The Smooth Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender; snout more or less prominent, sometimes
decidedly pointed; tail one-fourth (males) to one-sixth (females) of the
total length. The considerable differences to be observed in the shape
of the snout are merely individual, specimens with more prominent snout
and a corresponding development of the rostral shield (_C. italica_,
Fitz., _fitzingeri_, Bonap.) occurring over the greater part of the
range of the species.
[Illustration: FIG. 27 (after Sordelli)]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral at least as deep as broad, more or less
produced posteriorly between the internasals, the portion visible from
above at least half as long (in some specimens quite as long) as its
distance from the frontal, rarely separating the internasals. Frontal
once and one-fourth to once and a half as long as broad, much broader
than the supraocular, as long as or longer than its distance from the
end of the snout, shorter than the parietals, widely separated from the
preocular. Nasal rarely undivided; loreal longer than deep. One (very
rarely two) pre- and two postoculars. Temporals 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 (very
rarely 1 + 2). Upper labials seven (rarely eight), third and fourth (or
fourth and fifth) entering the eye. Four lower labials (rarely three) in
contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or longer
than the anterior.
_Scales_ with one or two apical pits, the pit usually single on the back
and paired on the sides, in nineteen (rarely twenty-one) rows.[B]
Ventral shields 153 to 199; anal divided (rarely entire); subcaudals 41
to 70.
_Coloration._--Grey, brown, or reddish above, with small blackish, dark
brown, or brick-red spots usually disposed in pairs, sometimes forming
cross-bars; sometimes with one or three lighter stripes; one or two
black dots precede on each scale the single or paired apical pit;
frequently two blackish, dark brown, or brick-red stripes on the nape,
usually confluent with a large dark blotch on the occiput; the top of
the head occasionally nearly entirely blackish, especially in the young;
a dark streak on each side of the head, from the nostril to the angle of
the mouth, passing through the eye, sometimes extending along the side
of the neck or even of the whole body. Lower parts red, orange, brown,
grey, or black, uniform or speckled or closely spotted with black and
white, the sides often lighter (Plate IX.).
A colour variety, of which I have examined a single specimen from near
Vienna, is pale brown above, with four black lines along the anterior
part of the body, and two small, yellowish, dark-edged spots close
together on the back of the head, separated by the suture between the
parietal shields.
Werner has described another variety, also from near Vienna, which
resembles _Coluber leopardinus_, having two series of large, brown,
dark-edged spots along the back, some of the spots alternating, others
uniting across the back. Apparently very similar to the last variety,
and also said to be suggestive of _Coluber leopardinus_, is the var.
_scalaris_, Sternfeld, from Lüneburg in Hanover, reddish-brown above,
with two rows of bright red, black-edged spots, partly confluent and
connected across the spine by transverse bars producing a ladder-like
pattern. Specimens of a uniform greyish-brown, without any markings, are
very rare. The var. _veithi_, Schreiber, established on a single
specimen from Carinthia, represents a case of melanism: bluish-black,
with the normal markings of an intense black. Two specimens of a "black
variety" are said to have been found in this country, near Poole.
_Size._--Seldom exceeds a length of 2 feet, and in many districts, in
England for instance, does not appear to often reach that size. The
largest specimen, from Austria, examined by me, measures 25 inches; one
from Hampshire measures 24 inches.
_Distribution._--The range of the Smooth Snake extends over nearly the
whole of Europe, as far north as 63° in Norway; it becomes rare and more
local in the south, being absent from part of Spain and the islands of
the Mediterranean, with the exception of Sardinia. It is common in the
hilly parts of Belgium, Northern and Central France, Germany, and
Austria. In Sweden it appears to be restricted to the oak region. In
Great Britain it has been found in four counties in the South of
England: Surrey, Hampshire, Dorsetshire, and Berkshire, in some parts of
which it is less uncommon than usually supposed. Its reported occurrence
in Dumfriesshire is the result of an error; the snake figured as
_Coluber dumfriesiensis_ represents an American species. In a very
interesting article written for _Science Gossip_ in 1888, Mr. A. L.
Beldy says that about 1868, when Bournemouth was but a very small
village, surrounded by large expanses of moorland, _Coronella austriaca_
was extraordinarily abundant, and during a hot summer examples were to
be seen literally in scores and great numbers were killed. Since then,
however, their numbers have gradually decreased. About 1880 the snake
was occasionally found near Wellington College, Berks, and as many as
five were captured by one person in the course of one year; it is
believed to be now extinct in that neighbourhood. From South-Eastern
Europe the range of this species extends to South-Western Asia. The
ascertained altitudinal range is 4,000 feet in the Alps, 6,000 feet in
Bosnia, and 6,500 feet in the Caucasus.
_Habits._--The Smooth Snake lives on heathland, stony wastes, and wooded
hills, showing a preference for dry localities. Although not infrequent
on the Dorsetshire and Hampshire heaths, where it was first discovered
in 1853, it was not recorded as a British reptile until 1859; it was
discovered much later on the sandy heaths between Haslemere and Farnham,
where it occurs in small numbers, and in Berkshire. These localities are
likewise inhabited by the rarer British lizard, the Sand Lizard.
Notwithstanding its gentle, timid appearance, this snake when fresh
caught is usually very ready to bite; either it snaps angrily, or,
without hissing or other warning, it suddenly fastens its jaws into the
finger of its captor, even if it be gently handled. The food consists
mostly of lizards, occasionally of slow-worms or small snakes, more
rarely of voles or mice, even shrews, which are seized,
constrictor-like, and crushed by the coils of the body. O. von Tomasini
has observed one swallowing a _Coluber longissimus_ as large as itself.
In Central Europe this snake becomes active towards the end of March or
beginning of April, and retires in September or October. It does well in
captivity, and becomes very tame. It is one of the most intelligent of
snakes, second to none in educability; it can be trained to feed in the
hand of its master.
_Reproduction._--The Smooth Snake pairs in early spring, and is
ovoviviparous. The young, two to fifteen in number, are born late in
August or in September, enveloped by a thin membrane which they tear
immediately; they measure 5 to 6 inches. Embryos 3-1/2 or 4 inches long
have the scaling and the characteristic markings fully developed, but
the scales and shields much abbreviated, the former broader than long. A
dicephalous young is preserved in the Bosnian Museum at Sarajev, and
another was caught near Karlsruhe, in Germany, in 1881, and kept alive
for some time. According to Rollinat, a second autumnal pairing
sometimes takes place in France.
15. CORONELLA GIRONDICA, Daudin
(_Coluber riccioli_, Metaxa)
The Southern Smooth Snake
Distinguished from the preceding by a somewhat more slender form, a more
obtuse, scarcely prominent snout, a much lower rostral shield, which is
considerably broader than deep and just visible from above, not
penetrating between the internasals, constantly eight upper labials,
fourth and fifth entering the eye, and the scales in twenty-one (rarely
nineteen or twenty-three) rows. Ventrals 170 to 200; anal divided;
subcaudals 49 to 72.
_PLATE X_
[Illustration: CONTIA MODESTA
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: CORONELLA GIRONDICA
_After Sordelli_]
_Coloration._--Brown, greyish, yellowish, or reddish above, with dark
brown or black spots or transverse bars, sometimes with four dark
stripes in addition; dark dots in front of the apical pits as in the
preceding species; a pair of elongate dark spots or a U-shaped marking
on the nape; a dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and a
dark cross-bar from eye to eye, across the prefrontal shields; a dark
line below the eye. Lower parts yellow, orange, or coral red, with
large, mostly quadrangular black spots, often arranged in chess-board
fashion, or with two series of black spots (Plate X.), which may be
confluent into two longitudinal bands.
[Illustration: FIG. 28 (after Sordelli)]
_Total Length._--26 inches.
_Distribution._--South of France (as far north as the
Charente-Inférieure to the west, the Dauphiné to the east), the whole of
Spain and Portugal, Southern Tyrol, Italy, and Sicily. It has not been
recorded from higher than 2,500 feet in the Alps. Rare in Northern
Morocco and Algeria. In many localities in Europe it occurs alongside
with _C. austriaca_.
_Habits._--All that is known to me of the habits of this close ally of
the preceding species is derived from the works of Bonaparte, Gené, and
Schreiber, and from a note by Gachet, who observed it near Bordeaux and
described it under the name of _Coluber rubens_. According to these
authors, it frequents dry and rocky localities as well as old walls, in
which it finds a refuge and a good supply of the lizards on which it
feeds. A large specimen from Albano, near Rome, preserved in the Genoa
Museum, had swallowed a full-grown _Chalcides tridactylus_. This
_Coronella_ is crepuscular, rarely showing itself in the daytime,
leaving its retreat only after sunset, and has been observed to crawl
about by moonlight. Its movements are slow, which accounts for crushed
specimens being often met with on paths or roads. Contrary to the rule
in _C. austriaca_, it is extremely gentle, seldom attempting to bite.
_Reproduction._--Whether this species is ovoviviparous, like its
European congener, has not, I think, been ascertained. All we know on
this matter is that a female found dead on a road near Bordeaux by M.
Lataste at the end of June contained eggs which showed no trace of
embryos. This does not, however, settle the question, as the young would
not be born until at least two months later. According to Gené, pairing
takes place in May, when specimens have been observed to congregate in
considerable numbers.
GENUS CONTIA, BAIRD AND GIRARD
Maxillary teeth subequal. Head not or but slightly distinct from neck;
eye moderate or rather small, with round pupil. Nasal single; no
subocular shields. Body moderately elongate; scales smooth, with apical
pits. Tail moderate.
This genus, with certain modifications in the above definition, is made
to embrace about twenty-five species from South-Western Asia and Sind
and North and Central America. One of the species inhabiting Asia
extends into a very small part of Europe.
16. CONTIA MODESTA, Martin
The Dwarf Snake
_Form._--Moderately slender. Head small, quite flat above; snout obtuse,
feebly prominent. Length of tail four to five times in the total length.
_Head-Shields._--Rostral a little broader than deep, visible from above.
Suture between the internasals as long as or a little shorter than that
between the prefrontals. Frontal once and a half to once and two-thirds
as long as broad, as long as or longer than its distance from the end of
the snout, shorter than the parietals, as broad as or a little broader
than the supraocular, widely separated from the preocular. Nostril in
the middle or upper part of the nasal. Loreal square or longer than
deep. One (rarely two) pre- and two (rarely one) postoculars. Temporals
1 + 2; parietal sometimes nearly touching the fifth upper labial. Upper
labials seven, third and fourth entering the eye. Four (rarely five)
lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shield; posterior
chin-shields smaller than the anterior, and separated from each other by
one or two rows of scales.
[Illustration: FIG. 29 (after Sordelli)]
_Scales_ with a single apical pit, in seventeen rows. Ventral shields
150 to 191; anal divided; subcaudals 53 to 78.
_Coloration._--Not unlike that of a young _Zamenis gemonensis_.
Greyish-olive above, uniform or each scale lighter in the centre. The
greater part of the upper surface of the head behind the snout, together
with the nape, black in the young, with a yellow cross-bar or a pair of
yellow spots between the eyes, the bar sometimes confluent with the
yellow postoculars, and a horseshoe-shaped band of the same colour on
the temples and across the occiput (Plate X.); the black of the nape
again edged with yellow behind. More or less distinct traces of these
markings are preserved in adult specimens. Upper lip yellowish, with
black spots or bars on the sutures between the shields. Lower parts
uniform white or yellowish.
In the var. _semimaculata_, Boettger, from Chios, small dark spots are
scattered over the upper parts of the anterior half of the body.
_Size._--This snake rarely reaches a length of 19 inches. It is the
smallest Colubrid of Europe.
_Distribution._--The Caucasus up to about 5,000 feet, Asia Minor, Chios,
Cyprus, Syria, Mesopotamia, and North-Western Persia. The northern slope
of the Caucasus appears to be the only part of Europe included in its
habitat. The British Museum possesses two specimens labelled as from
Constantinople, but the presence of this species in European Turkey
requires confirmation.
A closely allied species, which has been confounded with _C. modesta_,
_C. collaris_ (Ménétriès), and which also inhabits the Caucasus without
having been recorded from the northern slope, is distinguished by having
the scales in fifteen rows (very rarely seventeen), and the posterior
chin-shields in contact with each other.
_Habits._--Nothing is known as regards this species, but the North
American members of the genus _Contia_ are chiefly insectivorous and
oviparous.
GENUS COELOPELTIS, WAGLER
Maxillary teeth small and subequal, followed after a short interspace by
one or two very large grooved fangs situated below the posterior border
of the eye; anterior mandibular teeth strongly enlarged. Head not very
distinct from neck, with angular canthus rostralis and projecting
supraocular; eye large, with round pupil; nostril a crescentic slit in a
single or divided nasal. Body elongate; scales smooth, more or less
distinctly grooved longitudinally in the adult, with apical pits. Tail
moderately long.
The range of this genus, which comprises only two species, extends over
Southern Europe, South-Western Asia, and North Africa.
17. COELOPELTIS MONSPESSULANA, Hermann
(_Natrix lacertina_, Wagler; _Coluber insignitus_, I. Geoffroy)
The Montpellier Snake
_Form._--Slender; head elongate, narrow, concave above on the snout and
between the eyes; snout projecting, rounded, with raised canthus and
concave loreal region. Tail about one-fifth to one-fourth of the total
length.
_PLATE XI_
[Illustration: COELOPELTIS MONSPESSULANA
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: MACROPROTODON CUCULLATUS]
[Illustration: TARBOPHIS IBERUS
_After Sordelli_]
[Illustration: TARBOPHIS FALLAX]
_Head-Shields._--Rostral nearly as deep as broad, just visible from
above. Internasals much shorter than the prefrontals. Frontal very
narrow, twice to twice and a half as long as broad, its width in the
middle not more than half that of the supraocular, widening in front and
extending beyond the supraoculars to join the preoculars, longer than
its distance from the end of snout, as long as or a little longer than
the parietals. Two loreals. One preocular, the upper portion of which is
much enlarged, and encroaches upon the area occupied in other snakes by
the prefrontal and the supraocular; two (rarely three) postoculars.
Temporals 2 + 3 or 4. Upper labials eight (rarely nine), fourth and
fifth (or fifth and sixth) entering the eye. Four or five lower labials
in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as or
shorter than the posterior.
_Scales_ with single apical pits, in seventeen or nineteen rows,
longitudinally grooved in the adult, less distinctly in the young.
Ventral shields 160 to 189; anal divided; subcaudals 68 to 102.
[Illustration: FIG. 30]
_Coloration._--The young is elegantly marked with dark brown and
yellowish-white on a pale brown ground. On the head, the principal dark
markings usually are an oblique band on the posterior half of the
supraocular shield, and another, or a large spot, on the parietal,
sometimes produced backwards, and forming with its fellow a [V]-shaped
band, separated from a large occipital blotch by a yellowish space;
anterior half of the frontal shield and shields on the snout edged with
dark brown; a dark streak, sometimes broken up into small spots, on the
temporal region; yellow spots on the pre- and post-oculars; lips brown,
with large, yellow, black-edged spots, or yellow with brown spots; chin
with three brown longitudinal streaks. Back with a vertebral series of
large roundish dark spots or narrow cross-bars; small spots on the
sides, these sometimes forming longitudinal series or accompanied by
yellowish streaks or dots; these markings often confluent into three
longitudinal streaks on the tail. Belly pale brownish, greyish, or
reddish, with numerous pale spots, sometimes with a dark brown line on
each side. The adult is greyish, reddish-brown, or olive above. Some
specimens preserve more or less the markings of the young, and the dark
dorsal markings (Plate XI.) may be edged with yellowish and ocellar in
appearance (var. _insignitus_, Geoffroy); the belly is yellowish, with
small dark spots which usually form longitudinal series, and may be
confluent into streaks. A variety common in Dalmatia (_neumayeri_,
Fitzinger) is brown or olive above, without spots, sides with a
bluish-grey lateral band, the scales on which are edged with black, the
belly uniform yellow. Other specimens are brown or reddish, with light
edges to the scales on the sides, or with yellowish lateral lines, or
dark olive or dark brown above and black on the sides, each scale with a
yellowish central spot; in the last-mentioned the second third of the
back may be almost entirely black, and the belly dark olive-grey in the
middle and yellowish on the sides. Iris brown, with a golden or coppery
circle round the pupil.
_Size._--This handsome snake grows to a length of 6-1/2 feet. Specimens
5 to 6 feet long are not uncommon.
_Distribution._--Mediterranean coast of France and Western Liguria,
Spain and Portugal, Sicily, Lampedusa, eastern coast of the Adriatic,
Greece and eastern islands of the Mediterranean, Mediterranean coast of
Asia and Sinaitic Peninsula, eastwards to the Caucasus and Persia, North
Africa from Egypt to Rio de Oro. It is not known to occur above 2,300
feet altitude in Europe.
_Habits._--A lively, swift snake, living on land and on low bushes,
often found near human habitations. Some specimens are very vicious,
whilst others show a gentle disposition after a short period of
captivity. A specimen nearly 6 feet long, which I kept for some time,
never attempted to bite when handled, and some have become so tame as to
take food from the hand. The sense of sight appears to be better
developed than in any other European snake. The food consists chiefly of
mammals, even large rats and young rabbits, birds such as chickens,
partridges, and quails, lizards, and other snakes, which, if of
considerable size, are not swallowed until paralyzed or killed by the
effect of the poison. In Eastern Europe, _Vipera ammodytes_ is said to
be the principal enemy of _Coelopeltis_, and the two snakes are
consequently seldom found together in the same locality.
Many experiments have been made on the action of the poison of this
Opisthoglyph. Peracca and Deregibus, as well as, later, Phisalix, found
a striking similarity with the symptoms of Cobra poison in their
experiments on small animals, the suspension of the respiration
occurring in a few minutes, the blood being otherwise unaffected. It has
been stated by some authors that _Coelopeltis_ poison has little or no
action on man, but a French zoologist, E. Taton-Baulmont, having been
bitten in the index-finger by a four-foot-long specimen at Algiers, the
swelling extended within thirty hours up to the shoulder, and was
accompanied by fever and nervous troubles. As a rule, however, the bite
of this snake has no poisonous effect on man, from the fact that the
fangs conveying the venom are situated so far back in the mouth as not
to come into action.
_Reproduction._--According to Werner, the eggs, four to twelve in
number, are laid in July, and measure 2 inches in length and 1/2 inch in
width.
GENUS MACROPROTODON, GUICHENOT
Maxillary teeth few and very unequal in size, fourth and fifth or fifth
and sixth enlarged and followed by an interspace, the two last teeth
fang-like and grooved, situated just behind the eye; sixth mandibular
tooth fang-like, and separated from the remainder by an interspace. Head
slightly distinct from neck; eye rather small, the pupil vertically
elliptic or subelliptic when contracted. Body moderately elongate;
scales smooth, with apical pits. Tail moderate or rather short.
A single species.
18. MACROPROTODON CUCULLATUS, I. Geoffroy
The False Smooth Snake
_Form._--Very similar to the Smooth Snakes, with which it has been
confounded, but snout broader and very strongly depressed. Tail five and
a half to six and a half times in the total length.
[Illustration: FIG. 31]