R. (_Regina_) Queen; (_Rex_) King
Rem. Remark(s)
R.A. Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery
R. E. Royal Engineers
Recd. Received
Rect. Rector
Ref. Reformation; Reformed
Ref. Ch. Reformed Church
Ref. Reference
Regr. Registrar
Regt. Regiment
Rel. pron. Relative Pronoun
Rep. Representative
Repub. Republican
R.M. Royal Marines
R.N. Royal Navy
Ro. (_Recto_) right-hand page
Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic
R.P. (_Res Publica_) Republic
Ru. Runic
S. Solo (_in Italian music_); South
S. SS. Section(s), Saint(s)
S.a. (_Secundum artem_) according to art {88}
Sax. Saxon
S.C. (_Senatus consultum_) a decree of the Senate
S.C (_in law_) same case
Sch. Schooner(s)
Schol. (_Scholium_) a note
Sci. Science
Sculp. (_Sculpsit_) he engraved
S.E. Southeast
Sen. Senate; Senator
Seq. or sq. (_Sequente_) and in what follows
Seqq. or sqq. (_Sequentibus_) and in the following (places)
Ser. Series
Shak. Shakspere
Sing. Singular (number)
S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court
S. lat. South latitude
S.O.S. Marconi distress signal
S.P. (_Sine prole_) without issue
Sp. gr. Specific gravity
S.P.Q.R. (_Senatus Populusque Romanus_) the Senate and
the Roman People
S.R.I. (_Sacrum Romanum Imperium_) the Holy Roman
Empire
S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the
Royal Society
S.S. Sunday School
S.S.E. South-southeast
S.S.W. South-southwest
St. Saint; street
Stat. Statute(s)
Ster. Sterling
Subj. Subjunctive
Subst. Substantive
Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothic
Super. Superfine
Superl. Superlative
S.W. Southwest {89}
T. Tenor (_in music_); (_Tutti_) the whole
orchestra, after a solo
Ter. Territory
Term. Termination
Theor. Theorem
Tr. Translator; transpose
Um. Unmarried
Univ. University
U.S.A. United States Army
U.S.M. United States Mail
U.S.N. United States Navy
U.S.S. United States Ship
U.s. (_Ut supra_) as above
Vat. Vatican
V.a. Verb active
V. aux. Verb auxiliary
V. def. Verb defective
V. dep. Verb deponent
Ven. Venerable
V.g. (_Verbi gratiâ_) for example
V. imp. Verb impersonal
V. in Verb intransitive
V. irr. Verb irregular
V. n. Verb neuter
Vo. (_Verso_) left-hand page
Voc. Vocative
Vol. Volume
V. r. Verb reflexive
V. tr. Verb transitive
V. Vulgate (Version)
W. West; wife
W. lon. West longitude
W.N.W. West-northwest
W.S.W. West-southwest
Xmas Christmas
Zoöl. Zoölogy
[12] Erroneously _Jesus hominum Salvator_.
{90}
9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS
OLD TESTAMENT (O. T.)
Gen.
Exod.
Lev.
Num.
Deut.
Josh.
Judg.
Ruth
I and II Sam.
I and II Kings
I and II Chron.
Ezra
Neh.
Esth.
Job
Ps. (Pss.)
Prov.
Eccles.
Song of Sol. (or Cant.)
Isa.
Jer.
Lam.
Ezek.
Dan.
Hos.
Joel
Amos
Obad.
Jonah
Mic.
Nah.
Hab.
Zeph.
Hag.
Zech.
Mal.
NEW TESTAMENT (N. T.)
Matt.
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Rom.
I and II Cor.
Gal.
Eph.
Phil.
Col.
I and II Thess.
I and II Tim.
Titus
Philem.
Heb.
Jas.
I and II Pet.
I, II, and III John
Jude
Rev.
APOCRYPHA
I and II Esd.
Tob. = Tobit
Jud. = Judith
Rest of Esther
Wisd. of Sol.
Eccles.
Bar.
Song of Three Children
Sus.
Bel and Dragon
Pr. of Man.
I, II, II, and IV Macc.
10. MONETARY SIGNS
$ Dollar or dollars
cts. Cents
gn. Guinea
£ (_English_) Pound or pounds
∠ or s. Shilling or shillings {91}
d. (_Denarius_) penny or pence
fr. Franc or francs
c. (_French_) Centime or centimes
m. Mark or marks
pf. Pfennig or pfennigs
cr. (_Austrian_) Crown or crowns
hr. Heller or hellers
rub. Ruble or rubles
kop. Kopec or kopecs
kr. (_Danish_) Crown or crowns
öro, öre Oro or öre
£ (_Italian_) Lira or lire
c. (_Italian_) Centesimo or centesimi
11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS
+ Plus
− Minus
± Plus or minus
∓ Minus or plus
× Multiplied by[13]
÷ Divided by
= Equal to
≠ Not equal to
≡ Identical with
≢ Not identical with
≅ Congruent to
＞ Greater than
＜ Less than
≏ The difference between
≎ Is equivalent to
∫ Integration
∶ and ∷ Proportion
∝ Varies as
≐ Approaches as a limit
∞ Infinity
∴ Therefore {92}
∵ Because
⋯ Continuation
√ The radical sign
⊥ Perpendicular to
[∟5] Factorial sign
∥ Parallel
⌒ Arc of circle
° Degree of circle
′ Minute of circle
″ Second of circle
∠ ⦠ Angle
∟ Right angle
□ Square
▭ Rectangle
▱ Parallelogram
△ Triangle
[13] This is also indicated algebraically by a dot, as, _a_ · _b_
12. MEDICAL SIGNS
āā (ἀνά) of each
℞ (_Recipe_) take
℥, ℥i Ounce, one ounce
℥ss Half an ounce
℥iss One ounce and a half
℥ij Two ounces
Ʒ Drachm
℈ Scruple
○ (_Octavius_) Pint
℥ Fluid ounce
Ʒ Fluid drachm
_m._ Minim or drop
{93}
NUMERALS
According to Astle, the combination of Greek numerical characters was
not well known to the Latins before the thirteenth century, although
Greek numerical characters were frequently used in France and Germany
in episcopal letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all
the Greek ciphers the episemon βαῦ was most in use with the Latins; it
gradually assumed the form of _G_ with a tail, for so it appears in a
Latin inscription of the year 296. It is found to have been used in
the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for 6, and this value
has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that there is
no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with even Mabillon,
have been mistaken in estimating it as 5, but in a posthumous work he
acknowledges his error.
Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor
Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the
coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed _U_, for
the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the
Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different.
Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe
of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express
any number except 5.
The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing
them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in
the application of their letters.
The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks,
learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This
custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was
yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and
the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony
of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of
the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V
inverted (Ʌ), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but
when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only
characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven
letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and
sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that
the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want
of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their
numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make
them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they
had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of
their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as
they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over
̄X expressed 10,000, etc.
When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first
and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus _vir_ after those six
units signified _sex-vir_. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line
of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (IↃ,) without
lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In
the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CIↃ,
CD, ∞, ⅿ. The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number.
In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX,
etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth
century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was
put 102 1/2. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5.
In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90.
The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France,
Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the
fifteenth century. {96}
The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with
the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned
for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of
the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with
the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman
ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French.
The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and
never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was
first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman
characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc.
NUMERAL LETTERS
_Roman_ _Arabic_
Unus, a, um I 1
Duo, ae, o II 2
Tres, ia III 3
Quatuor IV [IIII] 4
Quinque V 5
Sex VI 6
Septem VII 7
Octo VIII 8
Novem IX 9
Decem X 10
Undecim XI 11
Duodecim XII 12
Tredecim XIII 13
Quatuordecim XIV 14
Quindecim XV 15
Se(sex)decim XVI 16
Septemdecim XVII 17 {97}
Octodecim or XVIII 18
Duodeviginti
Novemdecim or XIX 19
Undeviginti
Viginti XX 20
Triginta XXX 30
Quadraginta XL 40
Quinquaginta L 50
Sexaginta LX 60
Septuaginta LXX 70
Octoginta LXXX 80
Nonaginta XC 90
Centum C 100
Ducenti-ae-a CC 200
Trecenti-ae-a CCC 300
Quadringenti-ae-a CCCC 400
Quingenti-ae-a IↃ or D 500
Sexcenti-ae-a DC 600
Septingenti-ae-a DCC 700
Octingenti-ae-a DCCC 800
Nongenti-ae-a DCCCC or CM 900
Mille M or CIↃ 1000
Duo millia or MM 2000
Bis mille
Tria millia or MMM 3000
Ter mille
Quatuor millia or MMMM 4000
Quater mille
Quinque millia or IↃↃ or ̄V 5000
Quinquies mille
Decem millia or CCIↃↃ or ̄X 10,000
Decies mille
Quinquaginta millia or IↃↃↃ or ̄L 50,000
Quinquaquies mille
Centum millia or CCCIↃↃↃ or ̄C 100,000
Centies mille
Quingenta millia or IↃↃↃↃ or ̄D 500,000
Quingenties mille
Decies centena millia CCCCIↃↃↃↃ or ̄M 1,000,000
{98}
If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be
deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4;
IX, 9; XC, 90.
If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be
added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI,
11; CX, 110.
A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus ̄V
signifies five thousand; ̄L, fifty thousand; ̄M, a thousand times a
thousand, or a million.
I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter.
V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.
X, _ten_, because it represents two V’S.
L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.
C, _a hundred_, centum.
IↃ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIↃ.
M or CIↃ, _a thousand_, from _mille_. The latter figures joined at the
top, ⅿ, formed the ancient M. {99}
CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION
Correctness is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse.
Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the
meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who
are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following
adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago
and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:
«Canon I.» — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is
susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference
should be given to the latter: e.g., _admittance_ is better than
_admission_, as the latter word also means “confession”; _relative_ is
to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of
a story.
«Canon II.» — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy
of the language: _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_,
and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_.
«Canon III.» — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred,
other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in
expressions such as, _open_ [_up_], _meet_ [_together_], _follow_
[_after_], _examine_ [_into_], _trace_ [_out_], _bridge_ [_over_],
_crave_ [_for_], etc.
«Canon IV.» — Between two forms of expression in equally good use,
prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., _most beautiful_ is
better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to
_freer_.
«Canon V.» — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer
that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., _begin_ is better than
_commence_.
Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted
as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all
those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following
authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold,
Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving,
Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and
Thackeray.
The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words
which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of
the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful
record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong.
Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word _vim_, yet it
will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of
the definition an entry [_Colloq._] is placed, showing that it is
authorized only by colloquial use.
The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused
will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:
«Accept», see «Except»
«Admire», should not be used to express delight: e.g., _I should
admire_ [be delighted] _to go to California_
«Admit», see «Confess»
ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See
also «Infinitive»)
«Affable», means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for
_agreeable_
«Affect», should not be confused with _effect_: e.g., _She was deeply
affected by the news_; or _The news had a serious effect upon her_; or
_The effect of the news was serious_
«Aggravate», should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_. It means “to
make worse”: e.g., _His cold was aggravated by the exposure_
«Ain’t», is a contraction of _am not_. It is inelegant though
grammatically correct to say, _I ain’t_, but it is absolutely wrong to
say, _He ain’t_, etc.
«All right», should never be written _alright_
«Alternative», should not be used in speaking of one of more than two
things
«And», should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a
position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., _I acknowledge
the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial
thanks_. Omit the conjunction
«Any place», should be written _anywhere_
«Apparently», is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so;
_evidently_ of that which both seems and is real {102}
«Apt», means skilful and should not be used for _likely_. _He is apt
to be here soon_ should be _He is likely to be here soon_; _He is an
apt pupil_ is correct
ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but
it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted:
e.g., _The army and navy_ signifies a single organization. Insert _a_
before _navy_
«As», should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., _Do not expect
me (as) I am too uncertain of my time_. The word _as_ stands here as
a contraction of _inasmuch as_. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., _Do not
expect me; I am too uncertain of my time_.
«As . . . as», see «So . . . as»
«At», is often incorrectly used for _in_: e.g., _They are living at_
[in] _Florence_
«At length», does not mean the same as _at last_. Say _At length he
showed signs of relenting_, and _At last he relented_
«Aught», is frequently confused with _naught_. It means “anything,”
whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”
«Avail», should be used with _of_ only with some form of _be_;
otherwise _to_ is the proper word: e.g., _He called lustily, but of_
[to] _no avail_; or _He called lustily, but_ [_it was_] _of no avail_
«Aware», is used in relation to things outside of ourselves;
_conscious_ in relation to sensations or things within ourselves
«Awful», should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To
say _I had an awfully good time_ is as ridiculous as it is meaningless
«Badly», should not be used for _very much_ or _a great deal_. The
expression, _If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very
badly_, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the
adverb. _He looks badly_ means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” _He
looks bad_ is correct
«Bank on», a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely
on_ or _trust in_ {103}
«Beg», should never be used without the word _leave_, when asking
permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, _I beg
to state_, _I beg to differ_. One should say, _I beg leave to state_,
_I beg leave to differ_
«Bring», see «Take»
«But», is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the
objective case: e.g., _The invitation included all but him_ is correct
«Can», denotes power, and should not be used for _may_, which denotes
permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both
words: _He may do it if he can_
«Cannot but», should not be used interchangeably with _can but_, as
the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., _I can but try_ means
“All I can do is to try”; _I cannot but try_ means “I cannot help
trying”
«Can’t seem», should not be used for _seem unable_: e.g., _I can’t
seem_ [seem unable] _to find it_
CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case:
e.g., _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_
«Childlike», means that belonging to the child; _childish_, means the
weakness of the child
«Come», see «Go»
«Common», see «Mutual»
«Confess», should not be used in the sense of _admit_, in cases in
which no idea of confession enters
«Conscious», see «Aware»
«Continual», meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be
confused with _continuous_ meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g.,
_Continual nagging spoils the disposition_, and _The continuous
flowing of a stream_
«Deadly», which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be
confused with _deathly_, which means “that which resembles death”:
e.g., _A deadly poison_, and _A deathly pallor_ {104}
«Decided», means “strong,” _decisive_ means “final.” _A decided
opinion_ does not mean the same as _a decisive opinion_
«Definite», means “well-defined”; _definitive_ means “final”
«Demean», which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for
_degrade_ or _debase_
«Different», should never be followed by the word _than_. Say,
_Different from_
«Directly», should not be used for _as soon as_: e.g., _Directly_ [as
soon as] _he arrived_
«Discover», is to find something which previously existed; _invent_ is
to produce something for the first time
«Don’t», is a contraction of _do not_. One may say, _I don’t_, but not
_He don’t_. Say, _He doesn’t_
«Each other», should not be misused for _one another_. One may say,
_The two cousins were devoted to each other_; or _Many suggestions
were made, following one another in rapid succession_
«Effect», see «Affect»
«Egoists», are those who made the _ego_ the basis of their philosophy;
_egotists_ are those who worship themselves
«Either», should not be used to designate more than two persons or
things. To designate one of three or more, say _Any one_
«Enormity», describes deeds of unusual horror; _enormousness_
describes things of unusual size
«Enthuse» (verb), is not recognized by good usage. _I became enthused_
should be written _I became enthusiastic_
«Every place», should be written _everywhere_
«Excellent», should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g.,
_most excellent_, _very excellent_, and the like are impossible. (See
also «Superlatives»)
«Except» (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., _Present company
excepted_. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should
not be confused with _accept_, which signifies “to receive” {105}
«Exceptional», describes a case outside the operation of a
rule; _exceptionable_ is that which is open to criticism: e.g.,
_Exceptionable_ conduct is that to which _exception_ can be taken
«Expect», should not be used as a synonym for _think_ or _suppose_
«Falseness» (of a person) is the opposite of _truthfulness_; _falsity_
(of a thing) is the opposite of _truth_
«Fix», should not be used in the sense of _repair_. It means “to
attach”
«Former», should not be used to designate one of more than two persons
or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say _The
first_
«Gentleman», should be used to designate only a person of refinement,
and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word _man_ is
never out of place
«Gentleman friend», is an expression which should be avoided, owing to
the use which has been made of it. Say _man friend_ or _man friends_,
or _gentleman of my acquaintance_
«Go», should not be confused with _come_: e.g., _I will come_ [go] _to
you when you need me_
«Got», is said to be the most misused word in the language. _I have
got to go_ should be _I am obliged to go_. _Have you got time?_ should
be _Have you time?_ etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be
used only with this meaning: e.g., _I have got the contract_
«Gotten», is an obsolete form. Say _got_
«Guess», is loosely used for _suppose_, _expect_, or _intend_, but is
avoided by the best writers
«Hanged», see «Hung»
«Hardly», should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., _That is not
hardly enough_. Omit _not_
«He», see «Him»
«Healthful», means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food;
_healthy_ is the condition of the person {106}
«Her», is often misused for _she_: e.g., _It is her_ [she]; _Such a
woman as her_ [she]
«Him», is often misused for _he_: e.g., _It is him_ [he]; _Let He_
[Him] _who made thee answer that_; _A style that belongs to no other
than he_ [him]
«Hoi polloi», should not be written _the hoi polloi_. _Hoi_ is Greek
for “the”
«Honorable», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Honorable
James Brown Smith_
«How», should not be used for _what_: e.g., _How_ [what] _did you say_?
«Hung», should be distinguished from _hanged_: e.g., _The man was
hanged_, but _The flag was hung across the street_
«I», see «Me»
«If», should never be used in the sense of _whether_ or _that_: e.g.,
_He is not sure if he remembers_ should be _He is not sure whether_
[or _that_] _he remembers_
«In», should not be used for _into_, when motion is implied: e.g., _He
stepped in_ [into] _the boat_. See also «At»
INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from _to_, the sign of
the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., _It is not possible for me to
absolutely promise_ should be _to promise absolutely_
-ING: when using verbal nouns ending in _-ing_ be careful to
distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal
noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., _That proved of as
little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there_
should be _as his trying afterward to explain_
«Inside of», is a vulgarism when used in the sense of _within_: e.g.,
_The snow will be gone inside of_ [within] _a week_
«Invent», see «Discover»
«Kind», is singular. The common expression _those kind_ is absolutely
wrong. Say _this kind_ or _these kinds_, _that kind_ or _those kinds_
«Kind of», should not be followed by the article _a_ or _an_. Say
_What kind of man is he?_ not _What kind of a man is he?_ {107}
«Lady», see «Gentleman»
«Lady friend», see «Gentleman friend»
«Last», should not be used for _latest_. “Have you read my last book?”
asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply
«Latter», signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference
to one of three or more, say _The last_
«Lay», should not be confused with _lie_. Hens _lay_, men _lie_
«Less», is a vulgarism when used for _fewer_: e.g., _There were less_
[fewer] _accidents in football this season_
«Liable», should not be used for _likely_: e.g., _It is liable_
[likely] _to rain today_. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence,
_He is liable to arrest_