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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK
* * * * * *
OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT
GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. _A Narrative History_
PRINCESS KALLISTO, _and other Tales of the Fairies_
ROBERT CAVELIER. _A Novel_
THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. _A Novel_
THE SPELL. _A Novel_
THE LEVER. _A Novel_
THE MOTH. _A Novel_
* * * * * *
The Writer’s Desk Book
_Being a reference volume upon questions of_ PUNCTUATION ·
CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING
ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER
WRITING POSTAL REGULATIONS · _Etc_ · _Etc_
_By_ WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT
_for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now
associated with_ THE PLIMPTON PRESS · _Norwood Mass._
New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII
Copyright, 1912, by
Frederick A. Stokes Co.
Second Edition
[Illustration: FAS Co. _September, 1912_]
The · Plimpton · Press
[W · D · O]
Norwood · Mass · U · S · A
CONTENTS
PAGE
PUNCTUATION 1
Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation
marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the
colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation —
the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses —
brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen
CAPITALIZATION 20
Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of
institutional terms — of references — of ordinals —
in general — use of small capitals
SPELLING 31
Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for
numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography
— accented words — participles — variable endings —
list of variable spellings
COMPOUND WORDS 45
General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and
examples
DIVISION OF WORDS 52
Rules and examples
INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING 55
Various forms used in display — en échelon —
irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked —
definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of
paragraphs — length of paragraph
SPACING 59
General principles — kerned letters — examples of
varying spaces
ITALIC 62
Its origin — its uses — when required and when not
ABBREVIATIONS 65
Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial
— of given names — geographical — miscellaneous —
scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs —
medical signs
NUMERALS 93
History of their evolution — lists
CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION 99
Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words
and phrases commonly misused
LETTER WRITING 114
Its importance — business, informal, formal — the
heading — the address — the salutation — the text
— the complimentary close — the signature — the
envelope — postal cards — in general — examples
POSTAL INFORMATION 129
Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail
matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be
mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign
rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money
order fees — registered mail — special delivery
system — postal distances and time from New York City
APPENDIX 142
Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative
thermometers — weights and measures — British weights
and measures
INDEX 163
{ 1}
THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK
{2}
PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.
, Comma
; Semicolon
: Colon
. Period
? Interrogation
! Exclamation
() Parentheses
[] Brackets
’ Apostrophe
- Hyphen
´ Acute accent
` Grave accent
^ Circumflex accent
~ Circumflex or tilde
̄ Long or macron
˘ Short or breve
¨ Dieresis
ç Cedilla
‸ Caret
“ ” Quotation-marks
{} Brace
* * * Ellipsis
. . . Ellipsis, leaders
* Asterisk
† Dagger
‡ Double dagger
§ Section
‖ Parallels
¶ Paragraph
☞ Index
* * * Asterisks
The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words _signum
sectionis_, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned _∫_ being
used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black
and white interchanged.
{3}
PUNCTUATION
In early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation
points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into
the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were
separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest
printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family
were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation.
From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved
for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final
guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing
a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of
every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of
the sentence in which it occurs.
No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively
or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform
better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given
case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should
be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more
objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of
many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and
is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids
the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now
favored by the best English writers.
THE COMMA
Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding
anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that
in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he
destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of
this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles
and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the
quotation-marks when used in connection with them.
The comma is required:
1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an
expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the
conjunction: e.g., _He suddenly started, and fell_.
2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction:
_He possessed a calm, exasperating manner_; but the comma may be
omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., _A clear
cold day_. {5}
3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in
succession: e.g., _The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating
manner_.
4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive _and_
is used before the last one: e.g., _He was tall, thin, and pale_.
5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression
which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,
_’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too._
6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., _Discouraged by constant
opposition, he resigned his position_. Short phrases of similar nature
do not require the comma: e.g., _Of his intentions there could be no
doubt_.
7. To separate the adverbs _however_, _now_, _then_, _too_, _perhaps_,
and _indeed_ from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g.,
_This idea, however, had not occurred to him_. When these words are
used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., _It must be done,
however contrary it may be to our present advantage_.
8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the
context: e.g., _His intentions, though at first concealed, became
obvious_.
9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not
connected by conjunctions: e.g., _The men, the women, the children
even, were up in arms_. {6}
10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., _I
refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management_. But when
used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g.,
_The poet Tennyson was born in 1809_.
11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g.,
_Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus_; _Woodrow Wilson, LL.D._
12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g.,
_The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it_.
13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent,
or which present an additional thought: e.g., _Her voice, which was
charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public
auditorium_. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the
antecedent (called _restrictive_) do not require the comma: e.g., _He
did that which he was obliged to do_.
14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually
introduced by _if_, _when_, _unless_, _though_, _where_, _wherever_,
etc.: e.g., _If we stand together, success is assured_. If the clauses
are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not
required: e.g., _William was ten years old when his father moved to
Boston_.
15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when
closely related and simple in construction: e.g., _He was_ {7}
_courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to
equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_.
16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., _Price, seventy-five cents_.
17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g.,
_I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong_.
18. Before _not_, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., _He
devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was
interested, but because he could not avoid the issue_.
19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required
by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., _I tell you, you are
wrong_.
20. To separate two numbers: e.g., _March 1, 1912_; _In 1911, 869 cases
were reported_.
21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the
preceding part of the sentence: e.g., _To quote the proverb, “Look
before you leap.”_
22. Before the word _of_, connecting a proper name with residence or
position: e.g., _Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts_.
23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when
informal: e.g., _My dear Mother_, but, when formal, _Gentlemen_:
The comma is not required:
1. Before or after conjunctions such as _and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_, and
_yet_ when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same
part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., _Sink or swim, live
or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.
When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., _Sink, die,
or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_.
2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two
expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same
part of speech: e.g., _The new system of management guarantees accuracy
in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them_.
3. Before the conjunction _too_ when placed at the end of a sentence:
e.g., _I hope that you will come too_.
4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction
between each two: e.g., _Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus
be false_.
5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective
together with the noun following: e.g., _He had on a pair of torn gray
corduroy breeches_.
6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., _Lafcadio
Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly_.
THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation
next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into
English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The
comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement,
but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction
of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the
quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.
Use the semicolon:
1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction
or contain commas: e.g., _He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors;
affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending,
to inferiors_.
2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., _His face never showed an
emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth
was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on
which they fixed themselves_. Shorter sentences should be divided by
commas.
3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon
words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., _The half-sick man
is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept
restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable_.
4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references:
e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. {10}
THE COLON
The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional
clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars
in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause
greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that
indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than
formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences
than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the
quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.
Use the colon:
1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words
introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with
a general term: e.g., _There are three genders in Latin: namely,
masculine, feminine, and neuter_.
2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of
two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., _Vallie was nervous in
his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the
product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world_.
3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon
the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., _Imagination_ {11} _is
essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future
development cannot intelligently be made_.
4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., _These new duties of the
management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science
for each element of a man’s work_, etc.
5. Before formal quotations: e.g., _In a recent speech attributed to
you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words:
“Good principles follow good habits.”_
6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter:
e.g., _Gentlemen_:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be
used: e.g., _My dear Mother_,
[1] See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4.
7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., _11 : 30_
A.M.
8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt.
1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_.
9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in
literary references: e.g., _“The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York:
Harpers)_.
THE PERIOD
Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the
parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and
is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}
Use the period:
1. After every abbreviation.
2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.
3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative
or exclamatory.
4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times
separated by spaces: e.g., . . .
Do not use the period:
1. After running-heads.
2. After cut-in side-notes.
3. After centered head-lines.
4. After box-heads in tables.
5. After legends beneath illustrations.
6. After subheads set in separate lines.
7. After date-lines at the top of letters.
8. After signatures at the end of letters.
9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked
headings, etc.
10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of
ordinals: e.g., _Vol. VIII_; _George V is king of England_.
[2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about
1850.
THE DASH
The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation
marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}
Use the dash:
1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or
suspended: e.g., _You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself
by asking the question_.
2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g.,
_1912–1918_.
3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “_If he is alive, I
can make him one from this time; and if — if —_”
4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., _We are ready — we are more
than ready to meet the issue_.
5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., _Matt. 1:4–8_; or to
indicate page references in a book: e.g., _See pp. 21–42_.
6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the
discourse: e.g., _Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the
horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!_
7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.
8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., _Mrs. B——_.
9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding
clause: e.g., _Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy
and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute
successful business relations_. {14}
10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed
sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g.,
_The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they
probably had heard too much_.
* * * * *
¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before
and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence
than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., _They might have
been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which
name the Jew had designated the strange man — said_, etc.
¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a
new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation
marks unless demanded by clearness.
¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for
quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the
beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.
THE EXCLAMATION
The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to
language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it
cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It
should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is
a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io,
signifying joy, written vertically ̥I.
The exclamation-point is required:
1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g.,
_God forbid! “Mind that, Fagin!”_
2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the
authenticity of a statement: e.g., “_For Brutus is an honorable man!_”
3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use
the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only
at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated
words emphatic: e.g., _“Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an
unfortunate memory you have!”_
¶ Use great care in distinguishing between _Oh!_, an interjection
expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative _O_, expressing a wish or
an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g.,
“_Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!_” and “_O that I had wings
like a dove!_”
THE INTERROGATION
The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of
the Latin word _quaestio_ (_a question_) placed one over the other; as
{16} ̥Q. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless
it is a part of the quotation itself.
1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an
interrogation-point: e.g., _When can this order be shipped? We have
received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping
these goods?”_
2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., _This volume
is said to be bound in real (?) morocco_.
3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., _He
inquired when it would be ready_.
QUOTATION-MARKS
1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., _“I
insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”_
2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run
into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.
3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from
different authors, following each other without intervening original
matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.
4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the
beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display
matter is “blocked.”
5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations;
double quotes for quotations within single quotations.
6. Quotations should always include the phrase _etc._, and other
ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.
7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or
verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each
paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.
Quote:
1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g.,
_“Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations
in roman type_.
2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer
to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., _Her
literary “salon” will long be remembered_; _This so-called “captain of
industry.”_
3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., _Longfellow’s “Belfry of
Bruges.”_
4. Serial titles: e.g., _the “Oriental Series,”_ _“Stories of Nations.”_
5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., _The
name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism._
6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.
7. The titles of works of art: e.g., _Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.”_
{18}
PARENTHESES
1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the
sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., _I
am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I
cannot now give_.
2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be
placed between parentheses: e.g., _There is a double reason for doing
this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader_.
BRACKETS
Use brackets:
1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of
the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries,
directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other
than the original writer: e.g., _Let them clamor to get them back again
[cheers]_.
2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at
foot of page).
3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.
THE APOSTROPHE
Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter _s_):
1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g.,
_The nation’s {19} hope_; _For Jesus’ sake_; _James’s apple_; _For
appearance’ sake_; _The boys’ camp_.
2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the
plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., _They
passed by in two’s and four’s_; _She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s_;
_That came from Perkins’_. Add _es_ or _s_ for monosyllabic proper
nouns: e.g., _The Fosses_. In general, the pronunciation may be taken
as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the
possessive, use the double _s_: e.g., _Sickles’ corps_, not _Sickles’s_.
3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters
in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g.,
_That’s ’ow ’twas_; _The spirit of ’76_; _High o’er our heads_; _I’ll_
for _I will_; _Don’t_ for _do not_, _sha’n’t_, etc.
4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter _e_ in
poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., _At ev’ry word a
reputation dies_. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted
for metrical reasons.
THE HYPHEN
The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become
single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily
broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables
of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.)
{20}
CAPITALIZATION
The original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose
of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject
to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain
definite rules of capitalization as follows:
RELIGIOUS TERMS
Capitalize:
1. Titles of parables: e.g., _the parable of the Prodigal Son_, etc.
2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books:
e.g., _Old Testament_, _Book of Job_, etc.
3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., _King James Version_, _Revised
Version_, etc.
4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., _the Jesuits_,
_the Black Friars_, etc.
5. The word _Church_ when it stands for the Church universal, or when
part of a name: e.g., _the Church_, _the First Congregational Church_,
_the Church of Rome_; but use lower case when referring to _church
history_.
6. The word _Gospel_ when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the
_Gospel of John_, or {21} the _Gospels_; but use lower case when
referring to the _gospel message_.
7. Pronouns referring to _God_ or _Christ_ when used in direct address,
or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.
8. General biblical terms: e.g., _Priestly Code_, _Apostles’ Creed_,
_Lord’s Prayer_, _Lord’s Supper_, _The Prophets_, and _Major and Minor
Prophets_, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but
use lower case for the adjectives _biblical_ and _scriptural_.
9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or
as a general name for any demon: e.g.,
“When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be;
When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.”
10. The word _Holy_ in the _Holy place_ and the _Holy of holies_.
11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the _Twenty-fourth Psalm_.
12. Capitalize the following:
Almighty
Authorized Version
Common Version
Creator
Deity
Father
God
Holy Bible
Holy Spirit
Holy Writ
Jehovah
Jesus Christ
King
Logos
Lord
Messiahship
Messiah
Messianic
Passover
Pentecost
Redeemer
Revised Version
Sabbath
Saviour
Scriptures
Son of Man
Son
Spirit
The Trinity
The Virgin Mary
Word
{22}
Do not capitalize:
1. Words like _epistle_, _book_ (as the _book of Ruth_), _psalm_, or
_psalms_ when not used distinctively, or _psalmist_ when the author of
a single psalm is intended.
2. Words like _heaven_, _heavenly_, _hell_.
3. The words _fatherhood_ and _sonship_, _god_ when a pagan deity is
referred to, _temple_.
PROPER NAMES
Capitalize:
1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names:
e.g., _Peter the Great_, _the Pretender_, etc.
2. The words _Pilgrim Fathers_ and _Early Fathers_ (referring to the
Early Church), etc.
3. The word _Revolutionary_ when referring to the Revolution of 1776:
e.g., _a Revolutionary soldier_.
4. The words _river_, _creek_, _brook_, _mountain_, _mine_, _district_,
_county_, _channel_, when used as a part of a title: e.g., _Hudson
River_, _Clear Brook_, _Rocky Mountains_; but use lower case when
preceded by _the_: e.g., _the Hudson river_, etc.
5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or
divisions of the world: e.g., _the North_, _the South_, _the West_,
_the Old World_; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth,
_the Northern Kingdom_, _the Southern Kingdom_. Also capitalize the
adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., _Northerner_, _Southerner_,
_Oriental_, {23} _Occidental_. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g.,
_He is now in southern California_, etc.
6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., _Pride flaunts
herself_; _Nature gives willingly of her abundance_.
7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., _Beacon
Street_, _Copley Square_, _Franklin Park_, _Tremont Building_, etc.
8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., _N.Y.C._ &
_H.R.R.R._
9. The abbreviation _Co._ (_Company_) in firm or corporation names.
10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in
all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., _Ichneumon Fly_
(_Thalessa lunator_), _Reptilia_, _Vertebrata_, etc.
11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case
for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g.,
_It was a bright spring day_; but, _Spring, beautiful Spring_; _the
Spring of 1911_, etc.
12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except _sun_,
_moon_, _stars_, _earth_): e.g., _the Dipper_, _the Milky Way_,
_Venus_, etc.
13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived
from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical
matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived
from proper names: e.g., _Clover-root Borer_, _Hylesinus trifolii_,
_Pterygomatopus schmidti_. {24}
14. Capitalize the following:
Articles of Confederation
Bill of Rights
Commonwealth (Cromwell’s)
Commune
Constitution
Crusades
Hundred Years’ War
Inquisition
Magna Charta
Middle Ages
Reformation
Renaissance
Restoration
Revolution of July
Seven Years’ War
Stone Age
Do not capitalize:
1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when
such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and
personality of their origin: e.g., _fletcherize_, _macadamize_,
_quixotic_, _italicize_, etc.
2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass:
e.g., _He came from the north_, _western New York_, _upper Canada_, etc.
3. The words _father_, _mother_, _mamma_, and all other family
appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or
without a possessive pronoun: e.g., _I expect to meet my mother_, but,
_I have received a telegram from Mother_; _My aunt gave me this_, but,
_It is a present from Aunt Mary_.
TITLES
Capitalize:
1. The word _State_ when it refers to a political division of the
Union: e.g., _the State {25} of Massachusetts_; but use lower case
when the word is employed as an adjective.
2. The words _Federal_, _Government_, _Constitution_, _Cabinet_,
_Administration_ when they refer to United States Government, and
_President_ when referring to the President of the United States.
3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., _His Excellency_,
_Her Majesty_, _Father William_, _Mother Hubbard_, _Cousin John_,
_Deacon Smith_.
4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g.,
_President Taft_, _King George_, the _Governor_, _General Grant_, etc.;
but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when
following the name: e.g., _William H. Taft, president of the United
States_.
5. The names of societies: e.g., _Young People’s Society of Christian
Endeavor_, _Boston Congregational Club_, _Second Church Parish_.
6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., _Brockton Fair_,
_Congress of Physiology_, etc.
7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., _Ph.D._, _LL.D._, _Litt.D._,
omitting space between the letters.
8. Such titles as _von_, in German, _le_, _la_, _du_, _de_, or _d’_,
in French, _da_, _della_, _di_, or _de’_, etc., in Italian, when the
forename is not given: e.g., _Von Humboldt_, _Da Ponte_; but when the
article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should
not be capitalized: e.g., _Lorenzo de’ Medici_. _Van_ in Dutch is
always capitalized.
9. After _Whereas_ and _Resolved_, followed by a comma, begin the
first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, _It has pleased Almighty
God_ . . .; _therefore be it_ Resolved, _That_ . . .
10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a
complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such
introductory phrases as _namely_, _as follows_, _for instance_, _the
point is this_, _my conclusion is this_, etc.
11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant
adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., _The Fall of the
House of Usher_.
Do not capitalize:
1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names;
e.g., _transatlantic_, _unamerican_.
2. The words _apostle_, _pope_, _bishop_, _canon_, _rector_,
_chaplain_, _minister_, etc., when separated from names or used
descriptively: e.g., _the apostle Paul_; but in direct address they
should be capitalized: e.g., “_O Apostle Paul_.”
INSTITUTIONAL TERMS
Capitalize:
1. _Thanksgiving Day_, _Lord’s Day_, _New Year’s Day_, _the Fourth_
(referring to the {27} Fourth of July), _Children’s Day_, _Easter_,
_Founder’s Day_, etc.
2. The word _College_ or _University_ only when part of the title:
e.g., _Amherst College_, _Harvard University_.
3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar
significance: e.g., _the Dreibund_, _the Insurgents_.
4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., _the Treaty of
Portsmouth_, _the Declaration of Independence_, _the Edict of Nantes_.
5. Names of political parties: e.g., _Republican_, _Democrat_, etc.;
but use lower case for _republican form of government_, _a true
democrat_, etc., where reference is not made to members of political
parties.
6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g.,
_Hottentots_, _Celestials_, etc.; but use lower case for _negro_,
_colored people_, _the blacks_, _the whites_, _poor whites_, etc.
7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (_a_) when the term is
an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g.,
_the Russian Empire_, _Norfolk County_, etc.; (_b_) when it is used
with the preposition _of_ as an integral part of the name indicating
administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., _Commonwealth
of Massachusetts_; (_c_) when it is used singly as designation for a
specific division: e.g., _the Dominion_ (_of Canada_), _the Union_;
(_d_) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real
geographical name: e.g., _the Pine Tree State_, _the Promised Land_;
but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the
specific name: e.g., _the empire of Germany_, _the county of Norfolk_.
8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., _Ward Eleven_, _Fifth Precinct_,
_Eleventh Congressional District_, etc.
Do not capitalize:
1. The words _legislature_, _circuit court_, _district court_, _city
council_, _supreme court_, _senate_, and _house of representatives_
except when specifically applied: e.g., _the legislature of the State_,
_the circuit court_, etc.; but _Congress_, _the Circuit Court of
Suffolk County_, _the House of Representatives of the United States_.
2. The words _high school_, _grammar school_, except as part of title:
e.g., the _Dorchester High School_; but the _high school of Dorchester_.
REFERENCES
Capitalize:
1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., _Act I_, _Vol.
VIII_, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often
lower-cased.
Do not capitalize:
1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references:
e.g., _line_, _verse_, _note_, _section_, _chapter_, _page_, etc. {29}
ORDINALS
Capitalize:
1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g.,
_the Fifty-fourth Congress_, _the Sixteenth Dynasty_, _the Forty-fourth
Massachusetts_.
IN GENERAL
Capitalize:
1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of
poetry.
2. The words _I_ and _O_.
3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an
independent meaning: e.g., _My explanation is: Competition forces each
manufacturer to study economies_.
4. Words having special meanings: e.g., _the Referee’s decision_, _a
Bachelor’s degree_.
5. The first word of every direct quotation.
6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.
7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address,
_sir_, _friend_, _father_, _brother_, _sister_, etc.
Do not capitalize:
1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., _The
speed of the Twentieth-century Limited_, _West Twenty-third Street_,
etc.
2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., _second_,
_minute_, _hour_, _ounce_, _pound_, _foot_, _yard_, etc.
3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (_a_) if it is
closely connected with what precedes it; (_b_) if the phrase is
dependent upon the preceding clause; or (_c_) if the words following
the colon contain comment: e.g., _These explanations occur to me:
either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have
become indifferent_.
4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers
or magazines: e.g., _the Boston Herald_, _the Review of Reviews_.
* * * * *
¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at
the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature;
caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.
¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which
in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., _Queen Maria
Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine_.
¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL
CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.
SMALL CAPITALS
1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no
spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. _480_. {31}
SPELLING
The difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored
himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have
found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To
the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words
given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has
been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling.
To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly,
but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist
in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among
bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following
rules are observed:
(_a_) Prefer the form most correct etymologically
(_b_) Prefer the shortest and simplest
(_c_) Prefer the more phonetic form
(_d_) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign.
With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:
NUMBERS
1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., _1/2 of 1 per cent_.
{32}
2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., _Back in the
eighties_.
3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., _Edward is five
years and four months old_.
4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets
and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.
5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g.,
_The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the
ream._
6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than
three digits: e.g., _We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000
volumes in all_.
7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and
others of less, use figures for all: e.g., _The packages contain,
respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets_, not _fifty, eighty-five, and
128_.
8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though
approximate statements: e.g., _The population of the United States is
about one hundred millions_; but, _The population of the United States
is 92,000,000_.
9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a
sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be
reconstructed.
10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in
enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use
figures, omitting the word _o’clock_: e.g., _The doors open at 7:30_
P.M.
DIPHTHONGS
1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially _æ_ and _œ_, but retain _æ_ and _œ_
in Latin words and in nominal English forms like _formulæ_ and other
plurals, _arbor vitæ_, etc. Established English words having now or
formerly the ligature _æ_ or _œ_ are generally written with the simple
_e_.
SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY
1. Monosyllablic words which end in _f_, _l_, or _s_, when preceded
by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., _muff_, _still_,
_lass_. Exceptions: _clef_, _of_, _if_, _bul_, _nul_, _sal_, _sol_,
_as_, _gas_, _has_, _was_, _yes_, _gris_, _is_, _his_, _this_, _pus_,
_us_, _thus_.
2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than _f_, _l_, or
_s_ do not double their final letter. Exceptions: _abb_, _add_, _ebb_,
_odd_, _mumm_, _inn_, _bunn_, _err_, _purr_, _burr_, _butt_, _mitt_,
_fizz_, _fuzz_, _buzz_.
3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following
a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter.
Exception: _guess_.
4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending
with a single consonant (excepting _h_ or _x_) preceded by a single
vowel, or by _qu_ and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before
an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of
the addition of another syllable: e.g., _stop, stopped_; _regret,
regretting_. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the
added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., _prefer´,
pref´erable_.
5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an
added termination does not double the final consonant when it is
preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., _profit, profited_;
_cancel, canceled_; _benefit, benefited_; _equal, equality_, _novel,
novelist_, and all the derivatives of _parallel_.
6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with
a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also
holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., _agreeing_,
_calling_, _recall_. Exceptions: _instalment_, _enrolment_, _skilful_,
_wilful_, _enthralment_, _pontific_, _withal_, _until_, and similar
derivatives.
7. Words ending in _-our_, the _u_ being unsounded, are spelled _-or_,
with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to
retain the _-our_ in most words having this ending.
8. Words derived from words ending in silent _e_ after a consonant
retain the _e_ when the added termination begins with a consonant:
e.g., _state, statement, stately_; _pale, paleness_; _move, movement_.
Exceptions: _abridgment_, {35} _acknowledgment_, _judgment_,
_lodgment_, _nursling_, _wholly_, _wisdom_.
When another vowel (except _e_ or _i_) immediately precedes the final
_e_, the final _e_ is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., _argue,
argument_; _awe, awful_; _true, truly_, etc. There are, however, many
exceptions to this rule: e.g., _eye_, _eyesight_, etc.
When the termination begins with a vowel, the final _e_ is omitted:
e.g., _sale, salable_; _bride, bridal_; _force, forcible_. Exceptions:
_mileage_, etc.
9. When words end in _ce_ or _ge_ the final _e_ is retained before
added terminations beginning with _a_ or _o_: e.g., _change,
changeable_; _courage, courageous_.
10. In participles the final _e_ is sometimes retained for the purpose
of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having
a different meaning: e.g., _singe, singeing_, to distinguish from
_singing_; _dye, dyeing_, to distinguish from _dying_, etc. The _e_ is
also retained in _hoeing_, _toeing_, and _shoeing_.[3]
[3] See list on page 37.
11. Words ending in _ie_ change their termination to _y_ upon adding
_ing_: e.g., _die, dying_; _vie, vying_.
12. Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change the _y_ to
_i_ before any added termination not beginning with _i_: e.g., {36}
_merry_, _merriment_; _happy_, _happiness_. Exceptions: adjectives
of one syllable: e.g., _dry_, _dryly_; _sly_, _slyness_. Also except
derivatives formed by adding _ship_ and _hood_: e.g., _suretyship_,
_babyhood_; but _hardihood_.
When the final _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is usually changed
to _i_: e.g., _gay_, _gaiety_; _day_, _daily_; _pay_, _paid_; _lay_,
_laid_, etc.
13. The French ending _-re_ in _theater_, _center_, _meager_,
_sepulcher_, etc., is not now generally considered good usage.
14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in _s_ or other sibilant is
formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the word is of one syllable:
e.g., _James’s apple_; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of
more than one syllable: e.g., For _Jesus’ sake_.[4]
15. Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_,
_-mit_, _-rt_, _-se_, _-ss_ take the ending _-sion_: e.g., _abscind_,
_abscission_; _seclude_, _seclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _admit_,
_admission_; _revert_, _reversion_; _confuse_, _confusion_; _impress_,
_impression_. Other words take the ending _-tion_.[5]
[4] See page 19.
[5] See list of irregular forms, and departures from rule on page 39.
ACCENTED WORDS
The following is a partial list of words in common use in which
accented letters occur: {37}
attaché
chargé d’affaires
confrère
coup d’état
coup de grâce
crèche
débris
en arrière
en échelon
en règle
entrée
entrepôt
exposé
façade
faïence
habitué
lèse majesté
matériel
matinée
mêlée
née
papier-maché
procès verbal
protégé
régime
résumé
rôle
señor
soirée
tête-à-tête
vis-à-vis
visé
PARTICIPLES
These participles should be spelled as follows:
acknowledging
agreeing
awing
bluing
dyeing
encouraging
gluing
grudging
hieing
hoeing
icing
judging
owing
shoeing
singeing
tingeing
trudging
truing
VARIABLE ENDINGS
1. The following words are spelled with the termination _ize_: