It is not possible, however, to decide from this point of view whether a
given skull is that of one or of the other of these Apes. Some Chimpanzees
are higher in capacity {574} than some Gorillas. But the average is
undoubtedly as stated. It is to be noted that there is a correspondence
between cranial capacity and size of palate, the correspondence being
converse, _i.e._ the greater the brain the smaller the palate. This applies
to Man as compared with his Ape-like relatives, but does not apply so
accurately to the Gorilla, which has a more extensive palate than the
Chimpanzee; its "brute development" is much greater than that of the
Chimpanzee. Not only is the palate larger, but the molar teeth, slightly
different in form, are also larger and stronger. This is so plainly marked
that "one may say almost with certainty, that any upper molar tooth over 12
mm. in length is that of a Gorilla, and under 12 mm. is that of a
Chimpanzee." In the skeleton generally it may be said that the crests for
muscular attachments upon the bones are greater in the Gorilla. The nasal
bones are more like those of lower Apes in their length, and they have a
sharp ridge more marked than in the Chimpanzee, which, however, disappears
in aged animals. It is a curious fact that Gorillas often have a "cleft
palate," owing to the failure of the palatal part of the palatine bones to
meet completely. The general conformation of the skull is less
brachycephalic in the Gorilla.
The limbs show a number of small differences, which are associated with a
more completely arboreal life in the Chimpanzee as compared with the
Gorilla. The latter is approaching the human way of life. In spite,
however, of these differences, no hard and fast lines of divergence can be
laid down between the two African Anthropoids, for it appears from the many
memoirs that have been written upon both that "there is scarcely a feature
in any muscle or bone found in one animal which is not also found in the
other." The heel of the Gorilla has already been referred to. This is, of
course, associated with a plantigrade and therefore non-arboreal mode of
progression. Certain of the muscles of the calf of the leg attached to the
heel show a more human arrangement in the Gorilla than in the Chimpanzee.
It is interesting to find that the muscles of the little toe are
diminishing in the Gorilla as in Man. This is most clearly due to
terrestrial progression and we may apply the same explanation to Man and
ignore tight boots! The arm of the Gorilla is less adapted to arboreal
progression. Its proportions differ from those of the arm of the Chimpanzee
in that the fore-arm is shorter. In {575} both animals the thumb is not of
much use, and this digit is more retrograde in the Gorilla, not only in
proportionate length but in its muscular supply. The hip girdle tells the
same tale. It is broader in the Gorilla, and the glutaei muscles are more
prominent, all these features being connected with the more erect gait.
The brain of both animals have been studied, but not in the case of the
Gorilla from a sufficiently large number of examples to make any
generalisations of great value. On the whole, the Gorilla has the larger
brain, but this must be discounted by the fact that it also has the larger
body. It is a remarkable fact that the Gorilla's liver is much more like
that of lower Apes than the liver of other Anthropoids. It has, as has the
Chimpanzee, laryngeal sacs. The general conclusion concerning the relative
position of the two African Anthropoids seems to be that the Gorilla is the
more primitive; and as thus it must approach more nearly to the original
parent than does the Chimpanzee, it may be said that it also comes rather
nearer to Man, since the Chimpanzee has travelled away from the common
stock on another line. The detailed likenesses to Man, however, are not to
be unduly dwelt upon; for they mainly come from a tendency to assume the
plantigrade mode of progression.
In mental characteristics there is the widest difference between the two
Apes that we are considering. The Chimpanzee is lively, and--at least when
young--teachable and tameable. The Gorilla, on the other hand, is gloomy
and ferocious, and quite untameable. When angry the Gorilla beats its
breast, a statement that was originally made, we believe, by M. du Chaillu,
but which has been disputed, though it appears to be perfectly true. A
young Gorilla, exhibited some time since in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society, could be observed to do so. The cry of the Chimpanzee is different
from the "howl" of the Gorilla. An immense amount has been written upon the
ways of this animal in its own home, including much that is legendary. The
Gorilla has been said to lurk in the depths of the forest, and to stretch
down a prehensile foot to grasp and strangle an unfortunate black man
passing below. It is said, too, to vanquish the Elephant by hitting it hard
upon the trunk with a stout stick, and to crumple up the barrel of a rifle
with its powerful teeth. {576}
Apart from the doubtful "Pongo" and "Engeco" of Andrew Battel, our first
intelligence concerning the Gorilla is due to Dr. Savage, after whom,
indeed, the late Sir Richard Owen called the animal _Troglodytes savagei_,
a name which has to be abandoned in favour of an earlier name.
The Gorilla is limited in its distribution to the forest tract of the
Gaboon. It goes about in families, with but one adult male, who later has
to dispute his position as leader of the band with another male, whom he
kills or drives away, or by whom he is killed or driven away. The animal is
said to make a nest in a tree like the Orang; but this statement has been
questioned.
It feeds upon the berries of various plants, and upon other vegetable
substances; there is apparently not so marked an inclination for animal
food as is exhibited by the Chimpanzee. In search of their food they wander
through the forest, walking partly upon the bent hand, and progressing with
a shuffling gait. It is noteworthy that the Gorilla has been said to walk
upon the palm of the hand and not upon the back, as is the case with the
Chimpanzee. It can readily assume the upright posture, and, in this case,
balances itself largely with its arms. Professor Hartmann, however, states
that the back of the hand is also used. Unlike most or many wild beasts,
the Gorilla exhibits no desire to run away when he views a human enemy. Dr.
Savage remarks that "when the male is first seen, he gives a terrific yell,
that resounds far and wide through the forest, something like kh-ah! kh-ah!
prolonged and shrill." This is accompanied by offensive tactics, which the
natives do not willingly encounter. When making an attack the Gorilla rises
to his feet, and as a full-grown animal reaches a height of some five feet,
he is a most formidable antagonist. The attack of one of these animals is
said to be made with the hand, with which he strikes his adversary to the
ground, and then uses the powerful canines. The beating of the breast which
heralds an attack is a statement made by M. du Chaillu. It has been denied
with a vigour and asperity quite incommensurate with the importance of the
matter.[439]
[Illustration]
FIG. 275.--A, Cerebrum of a female Chimpanzee two years old. x 1/2. (Dorsal
aspect, showing asymmetrical development.) _c.c_', _c.c_", Anterior and
posterior central convolutions; _f.i_, interparietal fissure; _f.l_, the
longitudinal fissure; _f.po_, parieto-occipital fissure; _fr_, frontal
lobes; _oc_, occipital lobes; _s.c_, sulcus centralis. B, Brain of a female
Chimpanzee two years old. x 1/2. (Lateral aspect.) _cb_, Cerebellum;
_c.c_', _c.c_", anterior and posterior central convolutions; _fr_, frontal
lobe; _f.s_, fissura Sylvii; _is_, island of Reil; _md_, medulla oblongata;
_oc_, occipital lobe; _pa_, parietal lobe; _s.c_, sulcus centralis; _tp_,
temporal lobe. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.)
The Chimpanzees, genus _Anthropopithecus_ (or _Troglodytes_), are {577} to
be distinguished from the Gorilla by the characters mentioned in the
account of the latter animal. Briefly summed up they are mainly as
follows:--The ears are large, and generally stand out from the head; but
there are exceptions to be noted {578} presently. The pigmentation of the
body is not always so pronounced as in the Gorilla. The nasal bones are
shorter. The skull as a whole is more brachycephalic, and the molar teeth
are smaller. The hands and feet are much longer, the animal being more
purely arboreal than the Gorilla. The female Chimpanzee is slightly smaller
than the male, but the great disparity observable in the Gorilla does not
characterise its ally. The animal, like the Gorilla, has large air sacs.
[Illustration]
FIG. 276.--Skull of Chimpanzee. _Anthropopithecus troglodytes._ x 1/3.
(After de Blainville.)
Chimpanzees are entirely restricted to Africa, and though they appear to
extend rather farther east than the Gorilla, the forest-clad region of the
equatorial belt is their home.
It has been mentioned in treating of the Gorilla that the main feature of
this animal, which affords a constant difference from the Chimpanzee, is
its gloomy and ferocious manner. The Chimpanzee, on the other hand, is
lively and playful, though often maliciously so, and quite tameable, as
many instances--particularly the notorious "Sally" of the Zoological
Gardens--show. The earliest mention of animals that are probably
Chimpanzees is to be found in a work upon the Kingdom of Congo, published
in 1598. In a cut illustrating that work, and of {579} which a part is
reproduced in Professor Huxley's essay referred to below,[440] the Apes,
which correspond roughly in their appearance to Chimpanzees, are
represented as being captured by the device of limed boots, which the Apes
are putting on. This idea has been subsequently imitated and acted upon. A
little later, Andrew Battel wrote of the Pongo and of another creature the
Engeco. This latter, whatever may be the case with the former, is in all
probability the Chimpanzee, since the word 'Nchego, now applied to those
creatures, seems to be the same word. From this seems also to be derived
the sailor's term "Jacko." Whether there are or are not more than one
species of Chimpanzee, is a matter which has exercised and perplexed
naturalists. That there are plain differences of external features, at any
rate between individuals, is perfectly clear. We are justified in
recognising three forms, but the question of their specific distinctness
may for the present be held in reserve. The commonest of these is the
variety known as _A. troglodytes_. This is frequent in menageries, though
the specimens on view are nearly always young and small. The face and the
hands are flesh-coloured, and the ears are very large. The black hair gets
a reddish tinge on the flanks. The second variety is that which was termed
by du Chaillu _Troglodytes kooloo-kamba_. This animal appears to be also
the _T. aubryi_ of MM. Gratiolet and Alix,[441] and to be identical with
two Apes known by the names of "Mafuca" and "Johanna."[442] The former of
these was exhibited in Dresden, the latter at Messrs. Barnum and Bailey's
show. The two animals have been carefully studied. They differ from the
common Chimpanzee by the dark colour of the face, and in the case of Mafuca
the ear was Gorilline in form. So too was the ear of _A. aubryi_, while
Johanna has a larger one. These features have led to the suggestion that
the Kooloo-kamba was the result of a mesalliance between a Gorilla and a
common Chimpanzee.
It has at any rate been stated that the two Anthropoids do go about in
company; but there seems to be little doubt that there is no question here
of a hybrid. Dr. Keith's careful studies[443] upon Johanna have
demonstrated the impossibility of {580} regarding this Ape as anything but
a Chimpanzee. The animal has the ways and manners of the Chimpanzee; has a
cry exactly like that of _A. troglodytes_; does not beat her breast like a
Gorilla when annoyed. Anatomical knowledge, however, of this specimen is at
present wanting.
[Illustration]
FIG. 277.--Young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus. Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_
(_Anthropolog. Gesellschaft_), Bd. viii. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of
Man_.)
_Anthropopithecus calvus_[444] seems to be at least as much entitled to
distinction as the last. It was originally described by du Chaillu; but Dr.
Gray who examined the skins thought that the baldness was accidental, and
then after this wise caution proceeded to describe, under the name of _A.
vellerosus_, perhaps the "worst" species of Chimpanzee that has been added
to the unnecessarily long list of "species" of Chimpanzees. To this variety
belonged "Sally"[445] of the Zoo, whose intelligence has been celebrated by
the late Dr. Romanes. The form is characterised {581} by its intense
blackness, the red reflection of other Chimpanzees not being visible; also
by the bald head, whence of course the name. The nostrils of this Ape, as
of Johanna, were somewhat expanded, and thus present a certain likeness to
the Gorilla. But there can be no suggestion that _A. calvus_ is the product
of a union between the two African Anthropoids. As is the case with
Johanna, Sally was given and enjoyed animal food on occasions. It is a
curious fact that both Sally and Johanna appear to have been colour-blind.
[Illustration]
FIG. 278.--Young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus. Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_
(_Anthropolog. Gesellschaft_), Bd. viii. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of
Man_.)
The Orang Utan, genus _Simia_, has but one definable species, viz. _S.
satyrus_. The supposed species of Owen, _S. morio_, cannot be
satisfactorily defined. Plenty of other specific names have also been given
to what is in all probability but a single species of large Anthropoid Ape
inhabiting the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. {582}
[Illustration]
FIG. 279.--Skeleton of Orang. _Simia satyrus._ (After de Blainville.)
The name Orang-Utan, now applied exclusively to the subject of the present
description, was formerly applied also to the Chimpanzee, and to that
animal, moreover, under the latinised version of _Homo sylvestris_. The
Orang is a large and heavy Ape with a particularly protuberant belly and a
melancholy expression. The face of the old male is broadened by a kind of
callous expansion of naked skin at the sides. The colour of the animal is a
yellow brown, varying in the exact shade. The ears are particularly small
and graceful in appearance, pressed closely to the sides of the head. The
head is very brachycephalic. The arms are very long, and when the animal is
in the erect posture they reach as far as the ankle. The hallux is very
short and usually destitute of a nail. It is a curious fact that the head
of the thigh bone is unattached by a ligament to the socket of the pelvis
in which it articulates, a state of affairs which may give the limb greater
freedom in movement, but does not add to its strength; {583} indeed, the
Orang has been described as moving with laborious caution.
This Ape inhabits flat and forest-clad ground, and lives mainly in the
trees. The male leads a solitary life except at the pairing season, but the
female goes about with her family. On the ground the Orang walks with no
great ease, and uses his arms as crutches to swing the body along. Even on
trees the rate of progress is not rapid, and is accomplished with careful
investigations as to the capabilities of the branches to bear his weight.
The "Man of the Woods" has been stated to build a hut in trees. This is an
exaggeration of the fact that it constructs a temporary nest.
[Illustration]
FIG. 280.--A, Skull of a young Orang-Utan. _Simia satyrus._ (One-third
natural size.) B, Skull of an adult Orang-Utan. (One-third natural size.)
(From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.)
One of these nests has lately been described elaborately by Dr. Moebius. It
was found (by Dr. Selenka) on the fork of a tree at a height of 11 metres
from the ground. Every night, as it appears, or every second night, the
animal constructs a new nest for himself, abandoning the old one. So
numerous, therefore, are these nests in localities frequented by Orangs,
that a dozen can be readily found in a day. The particular nest which Dr.
Moebius examined was 1.42 metres long, and at most .80 metre broad. It was
built of about twenty-five branches, broken off and laid for {584} the most
part parallel to each other. Above this framework a number of loose leaves
lay. There is no doubt, therefore, that these nests are not by any means
elaborate structures, and that they only serve as sleeping-places, and not
as nurseries for the upbringing of the young, as has been asserted.
The Orang seems to be usually of a fairly mild disposition; it will rarely
attack a man unprovoked. But Dr. Wallace, who has accumulated a large
number of observations upon these animals, describes a female Orang who "on
a durian tree kept up for at least ten minutes a continuous shower of
branches, and of the heavy-spined fruits as large as 32-pounders, which
most effectually kept us clear of the tree she was on. She could be seen
breaking them off and throwing them down with every appearance of rage,
uttering at intervals a loud pumping grunt, and evidently meaning
mischief." The name given by the Dyaks to the Orang is Mias Pappan.[446]
FOSSIL ANTHROPOID APES.--Undoubtedly the most interesting of fossil
Anthropoids is the now famous _Pithecanthropus erectus_. Our knowledge of
it is due in the first place to Dubois.[447] But there is hardly an
anatomist or an anthropologist who has not had his say upon this
regrettably very incomplete remnant. The creature is only known by a
calvarium, two separate teeth, and a femur. And the femur, moreover, is
diseased. M. Dubois discovered these remains in the island of Java in
andesite tufa of Pliocene or at least early Pleistocene age. The remains
were found in company with _Stegodon_, which is now extinct, and
_Hippopotamus_, which is no longer found in that part of the world. The
name _Pithecanthropus_ was given to it by the discoverer in order to
furnish with a definite habitation and a name the theoretical
_Pithecanthropus_ of Haeckel. Even the most particular of students of
mammalian nomenclature will hardly object to the utilisation of a name for
a second time which is with some clearness a _nomen nudum_! The animal when
erect must have stood 5 feet 6 inches high. The contents of the cranium
must have been 1000 cm., that is to say 400 cm. more than the cranial
capacity of any Anthropoid {585} Ape, and quite as great as or even a
trifle greater than the cranial capacity of some female Australians and
Veddahs. But as these latter are not 5 feet in height, the Ape-like man had
really a less capacious cerebral cavity. The skull in its profile outline
stands roughly midway between that of a young Chimpanzee (young in order to
do away with the secondary modifications caused by the crest) and the
lowest human skull, that of Neanderthal Man. This creature is truly, as
Professor Haeckel put it, "the long searched for 'missing link,'" in other
words represents "the commencement of humanity."
The remains of Apes, more distinctly Apes than _Pithecanthropus_, are known
from Miocene strata of France. Two genera, _Pliopithecus_ and
_Dryopithecus_, are known. The former appears to be close to _Hylobates_.
_Dryopithecus_ is more Man-like than any other, and seems to have been as
large as a Chimpanzee. The incisors are human in their relatively small
size. But it has been pointed out that the long and narrow symphysis of the
lower jaw is a point of likeness to the Cercopithecidae.
FAM. 3. HOMINIDAE.--Apart from _Pithecanthropus_, which perhaps is a member
of this family, but whose remains permit us to leave it among the Simiidae,
at least for the present, the family Hominidae contains but one genus,
_Homo_, and probably but one species, _H. sapiens_. The characters of the
family may therefore be merged in those of the genus.[448]
Though it is easy enough to distinguish a Man from an Ape, it is by no
means easy to find absolutely distinctive characters which are other than
"relative." As Professor Haeckel has pointed out, there are really only
four characters which differentiate Man: these are the erect walk, and the
consequent modification of the fore- and hind-limbs to that position; the
existence of articulate speech; the faculty of reason. Whether one body of
psychologists are right who argue that reason is a distinctive human
attribute, not to be confused with the apparent reasoning powers of lower
animals, or whether others are justified in separating Man only in degree
from the lower animals, it is clear that this very diversity of opinion
prevents us for the present from utilising such characters as absolute
differences. In any case the discussion of these matters is beyond the
scope of the present book. {586}
[Illustration]
FIG. 281.--Skull of Immanuel Kant. (After C. von Kupffer.) The great size
of the cranium is a noteworthy feature. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of
Man_.)
Anatomically there are a number of small points which distinguish Man; but
they are mainly due to the erect gait. It is sometimes attempted to divide
Man as a naked animal. But this is an apparent difference only; the hair is
not so much developed upon the body as in the Apes, save in occasional
abnormalities, such as the various hairy men and women who can be seen in
travelling shows, and to a less extent the Japanese Ainos, but it is
present everywhere, as is shown by microscopical investigation of the skin.
The skull in Man "is a smooth and imposing, rounded or oval bony case,"
which contrasts with the smaller and deeply ridged skull of the Anthropoid
Apes. The shape of the skull is largely in accord with the large brain. The
face does not project so much as in the Anthropoid Apes, though this
character must not {587} be insisted upon too strongly, as in some American
Monkeys the face is as little projecting. Still we are now comparing Man
with his undoubtedly nearest relatives the Simiidae. In the lower jaw the
anterior line at the symphysis is an approximately straight one, that is at
right angles to the long axis of the jaw, while Apes have a more retreating
chin. The "beautiful sigmoid curve formed by the lumbar and dorsal
vertebrae" is more pronounced in Man, but exists not only in the
Anthropoids, but in other Apes.[449]
[Illustration]
FIG. 282.--Foot of Man, Gorilla, and Orang of the same absolute length, to
show the difference in proportions. The line _a'a'_ indicates the boundary
between the tarsus and metatarsus; _b'b'_, that between the latter and the
proximal phalanges; and _c'c'_ bounds the ends of the distal phalanges.
_as_, Astragalus; _ca_, calcaneum; _sc_, scaphoid. (After Huxley.)
[Illustration]
FIG. 283.--Skeleton of the left pes of a Chimpanzee. (Dorsal aspect.) _as_,
Astragalus; _cb_, cuboid; _cl_, calcaneum; _ec_, ectocuneiform; _en_,
endocuneiform; _ms_, mesocuneiform; _nv_, navicular; _I-V_, digits. (From
Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.)
The fore-limbs are relatively short, the extreme length of the arm being
such that the outstretched hand does not reach the knee. The thumb is a
large and useful digit in Man, much more so than in the Anthropoids. On the
other hand the hallux is not opposable. This is, of course, correlated with
the upright attitude, as is also the greater relative thickness of that
digit, upon which {588} the greatest stress is laid in walking. As to
muscles, the glutaeus maximus is more developed in Man--the Ape which most
nearly approaches him being the Gorilla, in which animal the life is less
thoroughly arboreal than in some others. The so-called "scansorius" is only
present in Man as an occasional occurrence. The rudimentary character of
the ear muscles for the movement of the external ear in Man has often been
insisted upon, as also their occasional functional activity. But here and
elsewhere, so numerous are the abnormalities, that "the gap which usually
separates the muscular system of Man from that of the Anthropoids appears
to be completely bridged over." These are words of Professor Wiedersheim
quoted from Testut, and express a final summary of the matter of muscles in
Man and the Apes. {589}
[Illustration]
FIG. 284.--The hard palate, A, of a Caucasian; B, of a Negro; C, of an
adult Orang-Utan, showing the differences in shape of the bones. The palate
of the Negro represents a type transitional between that of the Caucasian
and that of the Orang. _mx_, Maxilla; _pl_, palatine; _p.mx_, premaxilla.
(From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.)
In his teeth Man differs by the small exaggeration of the canines, which
hardly, if at all, differ in the two sexes. There is also a complete
absence of a diastema. The teeth are also on the whole weaker than in the
Anthropoids, though _Hylobates_ is very human in this particular.
[Illustration]
FIG. 285.--Human Larynx in frontal section. _cr_, Cricoid cartilage; _sn_,
sinus of Morgagni; _t.c_, first tracheal cartilage; _th_, thyroid
cartilage. (From Wiedersheim's _Structure of Man_.)
There is a tendency in Man towards the disappearance of the upper outer
incisors, and more markedly still of the wisdom teeth, which appear very
late, and are often imperfect. In a large number of cases the tooth does
not appear at all. In the larynx there is no great development of the great
throat pouches of the Anthropoids. The minute diverticula of that organ,
known to human anatomists as the ventricles of Morgagni, alone remain to
testify to a former howling apparatus in the ancestors of Man.
* * * * *
{590}
{591}
INDEX
Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or
species; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in
following page or pages; n. = note.
{592}
Aard Vark, 187
Aard Wolf, 413
_Abderites_, 148
_Aceratherium_, 258;
_A. incisivum_, 259 n.;
_A. platycephalum_, molar teeth of, 51;
_A. tridactylum_, 259
_Achaenodon_, 279
_Acodon_, 480
_Acomys_, 472;
_A. cahirinus_, 473
_Aconaemys_, 488
_Acrobates_, 142
_Adapis_, 553
_Addax_, 315;
_A. nasomaculata_, 315
Aeluroidea, 390
_Aeluropus_, 444;
_Ae. melanoleucus_, 444
_Aelurus_, 431
_Aepyceros_, 311;
_Ae. melampus_, 311
_Aepyprymnus_, 137;
_Ae. rufescens_, 137
_Aethurus_, 463;
_A. glirinus_, 463
Agouti, 495
_Agriochoerus_, 331;
skeleton of, 332;
_A. latifrons_, 332
Ai, 171
_Alactaga_, 486;
_A. decumana_, 486;
_A. jaculus_, 486
_Alcelaphus_, 308
_Alces machlis_, 297, 298
Alimentary canal, 61
_Allodon_, 99
Allotheria, 105
_Alouatta_, 558
Alpaca, 286
Ambergris, 364
_Amblotherium_, 99
Amblydactyla, 206
Amblypoda, 205 f.
_Amblyrhiza_, 506
_Ammodorcas_, 313;
_A. clarkei_, 313
_Amorphochilus_, 531
_Amphicyon_, 423;
_A. giganteus_, 424
_Amphilestes_, 99, 100
{593}
_Amphimeryx_, 330
_Amphiproviverra_, 160
_Amphitherium_, 99;
_A. prevostii_, 100
_Amphitragulus_, 301
Anaptomorphidae, 552
_Anaptomorphus_, 552;
_A. homunculus_, 552
_Anchippodus_, 507
_Anchitherium_, 248;
_A. aureliense_, 249;
_A. equinum_, 249
_Ancodus_, 329;
_A. brachyrhynchus_, 329;
_A. velaunus_, 329
Ancylopoda, 211 f.
_Ancylotherium_, 211
Angwantibo, 547
_Anisodon_, 211
Ankle, 43
_Anoa_, 317;
_A. depressicornis_, 317
Anomaluridae, 462
_Anomalurus_, 462;
A. peli, 463
Anoplotheriidae, 332
_Anoplotherium_, 333
Ant-eater, 166
_Antechinomys_, 153;
_A. lanigera_, 153
Antelopes, 307 f.
_Anthops_, 527;
_A. ornatus_, 527
_Anthracotherium_, 328
Anthropoid Apes, 570 f.
Anthropoidea, 554 f.
_Anthropopithecus_, 580;
_A. calvus_, 580;
_A. troglodytes_, 579
_Anthropops_, 570
_Antidorcas_, 312;
_A. euchore_, 312
_Antilocapra americana_, 306
Antilocapridae, 306
_Antilope_, 311;
_A. cervicapra_, 311
Antlers; _see_ Horns
_Antrozous_, 529
_Anurosorex_, 518, 519
_Aodon dalei_, 369
_Aonyx_, 441
Apar, 177
{594}
Apes, 554 f.
_Aphelops_, 260
_Archaelurus_, 401
Archaeoceti, 384
Arctic region, mammals of, 81
_Arctictis_, 407;
_A. binturong_, 407
_Arctocebus_, 547
Arctogaea, 85
_Arctogale_, 408;
_A. leucotis_, 408;
_A. stigmatica_, 408
Arctoidea, 424
_Arctomys_, 465;
_A. bobac_, 466;
_A. caudatus_, 465;
_A. marmotta_, 466;
_A. monax_, 466
_Arctonyx_, 432;
_A. collaris_, 432
_Arctotherium_, 445
_Argyrocetus_, 383;
_A. patagonicus_, 384
Armadillo, 177
Arteries, 66
Artiodactyla, 209
_Artionyx_, 211;
five-toed, 271;
extinct;
forms of, 328
_Arviacanthis_, 473
_Arvicola_, 477
Ass, Wild, 242
_Astrapotherium_, 210, 216
_Ateles_, 557;
_A. ater_, 558
_Atelodus_, 254
Atheriogaea, 85
_Atherura_, 499;
_A. africana_, 501;
_A. fasciculata_, 501
_Auchenia_, 286
_Aulacodus_, 489
Aurochs, 318, 321
_Avahis_, 539;
_A. laniger_, 539
Aye-aye, 548;
legends relating to, 550
_Babirusa_, 277;
_B. alfurus_, 278
Baboon, 566
Badger, 432
_Balaena_, 358;
_B. australis_, 359;
_B. biscayensis_, 360;
_B. glacialis_, 359;
_B. mysticetus_, 359;
bones of hind-limbs of, 353;
cervical vertebrae of, 352;
sternum of, 352
Balaenidae, 358
_Balaenoptera_, 355;
_B. australis_, 356;
_B. borealis_, 356;
sternum of, 33;
_B. musculus_, 356;
sternum of, 352;
_B. patachonica_, 356;
_B. rostrata_, 356;
_B. sibbaldii_, 356
Balaenopteridae, 355
Baleen, 354
Bandicoot, 156
Banteng, 317, 318
_Bassaricyon_, 428;
_B. alleni_, _428_;
_B. gabbii_, 428
_Bassariscus_, 428;
_B. astutus_, 429
Bat, 521 f.; wings of, 522
_Bathyergus_, 481
_Batomys_, 473, 474;
_B. granti_, 473
_Bdeogale_, 410
{595}
Bear, 442;
Grizzly, 442;
Himalayan, 442;
Malayan, 443;
Polar, 443;
Sloth-, 443
Beatrix Antelope, 314
Beaver, 467
Behemoth, equivalent to Mammoth, 228
Beisa, 315
Beluga, 372
_Berardius_, 368;
_B. arnouxi_, 368;
_B. vegae_, 369
_Bettongia_, 137;
_B. lesueuri_, 138
Bezoar stones, 287, 325
_Bibos frontalis_, 317, 318
Binturong, 407
_Bison_, 318;
_B. americanus_, 319;
_B. europaeus_, 318
Blaaubok, 314
_Blarina_, 518
_Blarinomys_, 480
Blessbok, 309
Boar, Wild, of Europe, 275, 276
Body cavity, 69
_Bolodon_, 99
_Boneia_, 526
Bontebok, 309
_Bos_, 317;
_B. alleni_, 319;
_B. antiquus_, 319;
_B. bonasus_, 318;
_B. depressicornis_, 320;
_B. ferox_, 319;
_B. frontalis_, 318;
_B. gaurus_, 317;
_B. grunniens_, 320;
_B. latifrons_, 319;
_B. mindorensis_, 320;
_B. primigenius_, 321;
_B. sondaicus_, 318;
_B. taurus_, 320
_Boselaphus_, 316;
_B. tragocamelus_, 316
Bovidae, 307
_Brachymeryx_, 331
Brachyodont, 48
_Brachytarsomys_, 480
_Brachyuromys_, 480
_Brachyurus_, 560;
_B. calvus_, 560;
_B. melanocephalus_, 561;
_B. rubicundus_, 560
Bradypodidae, 170
_Bradypus_, 170;
_B. tridactylus_, 171;
skull of, 171;
skeleton of, 172
Brain, 75
of Dog, 76;
of Rabbit, 77;
of Echidna, 110, 117;
of Wallaby, 118
_Bramatherium_, 306
_Brontops_, 264
_Brontotherium_, 264
Bruta, 161
_Bubalis_, 308;
_B. caama_, 308
Buffalo, 321
Bunodont, 272
Bush Dog, 414
Cachalot, 363;
ferocity of, 365;
food of, 365
_Cadurcotherium_, 264
_Caenolestes_, 146;
_C. obscurus_, 146
_Caenopus_, 262
Caenotheriidae, 329
_Caenotherium_, 329
{596}
_Calamodon_, 192;
_C. simplex_, 192
_Callignathus_, 367
_Callinycteris_, 526
_Callithrix_, 559;
_C. gigot_, 560
_Caloprymnus_, 138;
_C. campestris_, 138
Camel, 285
Camelidae, 285;
ancestry of, 289
_Camelus_, 285;
_C. bactrianus_, 285, 286;
_C. dromedarius_, 285
Canidae, 413
Canine teeth, 49
_Canis_, 416;
_C. aegyptiacus_, 419;
_C. antarcticus_, 418;
_C. anthus_, 420;
_C. aureus_, 420;
_C. azarae_, 418;
_C. cancrivorus_, 414;
_C. chama_, 418;
_C. chanco_, 421;
_C. dingo_, 421, 422;
_C. familiaris_, 422;
_C. ferus_, 422;
_C. hodophylax_, 418;
_C. jubatus_, 414;
_C. lagopus_, 419;
_C. laniger_, 421;
_C. lateralis_, 420;
_C. latrans_, 417;
_C. lupus_, 420;
_C. magellanicus_, 418;
_C. mesomela_s, 420;
_C. mikii_, 422;
_C. niger_, 418;
_C. pallipes_, 418;
_C. parvidens_, 415;
_C. primaevus_, 423;
_C. rudis_, 418;
_C. urostictus_, 415;
_C. variegatus_, 420;
_C. velox_, 418;
_C. virginianus_, 418;
_C. vulpes_, 419;
_C. zerda_, 417;
_Cannabateomys_, 488;
_C. amblyonyx_, 488
_Caperea_, 358
_Capra_, 324
_C. aegagrus_, 325;
_C. falconeri_, 325;
_C. ibex_, 325;
_C. jemlaica_, 324;
_C. pyrenaica_, 325;
_C. sinaitica_, 325
_Capreolus_, 295;
_C. capraea_, 295
_Capromys_, 489, 490;
_C. melanurus_, 490;
_C. pilorides_, 490
Capuchin Monkey, 557
Capybara, 491
Cardinal vein, 68
_Cariacus_, 295;
_C. chilensis_, 296;
_C. macrotis_, 295;
_C. rufus_, 296
Carnivora, 386 f.;
C. Fissipedia, 387 f.;
C. Pinnipedia, 446 f.
_Carpomys_, 473;
_C. melanurus_, 473;
_C. phaeurus_, 473
_Carterodon_, 489
_Castor_, 467;
_C. canadensis_, 468;
_C. fiber, 468_
Castoridae, 467
_Castoroides_, 506
Cat, Domestic, 10, 14, 392, 400;
-tribe, 390;
coloration of, 392;
Wild, 399
Catarrhines, 555, 562
_Cavia_, 493;
_C. porcellus_, 493
Caviidae, 491
Cavy, 493;
Patagonian, 492
Cebidae, 557
_Cebus_, 557
_Celaenomys_, 474;
_C. silaceus_, 474
Cenoplacentalia, 103
{597}
_Centetes_, 511;
_C. ecaudatus_, 511;
skull of, 512
Centetidae, 511
_Cephalogale_, 423
_Cephalophus_, 309
_Cephalorhynchus_, 380
_Cephalotes_, 526
_Ceratorhinus_, 254, 257
_Cercocebus_, 564
_Cercolabes_, 498;
_C. villosus_, 42, 499;
_C. insidiosus_, 498
Cercolabidae, 497
_Cercoleptes_, 429;
_C. caudivolvula_, 430
_Cercomys_, 489
Cercopithecidae, 562
_Cercopithecus_, 565;
_C. diana_, 565;
_C. lalandii_, 565;
_C. moloneyi_, 565;
_C. stairsi_, 566;
_C. talapoin_, 565
_Cervicapra_, 311;
_C. isabellina_, 18
Cervidae, 291
_Cervulus_, 295
_Cervus_, 293;
_C. dama_, 293;
_C. davidianus_, 293;
_C. duvauceli_, 291;
_C. elaphus_, 293;
_C. luehdorffi_, 294;
_C. sedgwicki_, 301;
_C. sika_, 291
Cetacea, 339 f.;
primitive position of, 120
_Chaenohyus, 280_
_Chaetomys_, 499
_Chalicotherium_, 211
_Chalinolobus_, 530
Chamois, 326
Cheetah, 400
Chestnuts of Horse, 240
Chevrotain, 282
Chillingham Cattle, 321
_Chilomys_, 480
_Chimarrogale_, 518, 519
Chimpanzee, 576;
brain of, 577;
species of, 579
_Chinchilla_, 496;
_C. lanigera_, 496
Chinchillidae, 496
_Chirogale_, 543;
_C. coquereli_, 544
Chiromyidae, 548
_Chiromys_, 548;
_C. madagascariensis_, 548
_Chironectes_, 156
_Chiropodomys_, 473
Chiroptera, 521 f.
Chiru, 311
_Chiruromys_, 472
_Chlamydophorus_, 173, 176
_Choeropotamus_, 280
_Choeropsis_, 273
_Choeropus_, 158;
_C. castanotis_, 158;
manus of, 157
_Choloepus_, 170;
_C. didactylus_, 170;
_C. hoffmanni_, 171;
scapula of, 164
Chriacidae, 552
_Chriacus_, 552
_Chrotomys_, 474;
_C. whiteheadi_, 474
Chrysochloridae, 514
_Chrysochloris_, 514;
_C. trevelyani_, 515
_Chrysothrix_, 559;
_C. sciurea_, 559
{598}
Civet Cat, 406
Clavicle, 38
Claws, on tip of tail of Lion and Leopard, 41;
_see also_ Nails
Coaitas, 557
_Coassus_, 296
Coati, 430
_Cobus_, 310;
_C. ellipsiprymnus_, 310;
_C. maria_, 311;
_C. unctuosus_, 310
_Coelogenys_, 493;
_C. paca_, 493;
_C. taczanowskii_, 494
_Coelops_, 527;
_C. frithii_, 527
_Coendou_, 498
_Cogia_;
see _Kogia_
_Colobus_, 567
Condylarthra, 202 f.
_Condylura_, 518
_Conepatus_, 439
_Conilurus_, 473
_Connochaetes_, 309;
_C. albogulatus_, 309;
_C. gnu_, 309;
_C. taurinus_, 309
_Conoryctes_, 193
Conoryctidae, 193
Coracoid, 38
_Cormura_, 531
Corpus callosum, 77, 125
_Coryphodon_, 207;
_C. eocaenus_, 207;
_C. radians_, skeleton of, 208
Cotton Rats, 479
Coypu;
see _Myopotamus_
_Crateromys_, 474
_Craurothrix_, 473
Creodonta, 449, 455 f.
_Cricetomys_, 472
_Cricetus_, 479;
_C. frumentarius_, 479
_Crocidura_, 518
_Crocuta_, 411;
_C. maculata_, 412
_Crossarchus_, 410
_Crossopus_, 518;
_C. fodiens_, 519
Crumen, of Antelopes, 13;
of Deer, 299
_Crunomys_, 474;
_C. fallax_, 474
_Cryptophractus_, 178
_Cryptoprocta_, 404;
_C. ferox_, 405
Ctenodactylidae, 490
_Ctenodactylus_, 490;
_C. gundi_, 490
_Ctenomys_, 488
_Cuniculus_, 478;
_C. torquatus_, 478
_Cuscus_, 140
_Cyclopidius_, 331;
_C. simus_, 331
_Cycloturus_, 167;
_C. didactylus_, bones of manus of, 169
_Cynaelurus_, 400;
_C. brachygnatha_, 401;
_C. jubatus_, 400;
_C. lanigera_, 401
_Cynictis_, 410;
_C. penicillata_, 410
_Cynocephalus_, 566;
_C. anubis_, 566;
_C. hamadryas_, 566;
_C. maimon_, 566;
_C. mormon_, 566;
_C. porcarius_, 566;
_C. thoth_, 566
_Cynodesmus_, 424
_Cynodictis_, 423
_Cynogale_, 409
_Cynomys_, 465;
_C. ludovicianus_, 465
{599}
_Cynopithecus niger_, 566, 567
_Cynopterus_, 526
_Cyon_, 416;
_C. dukkunensis_, 416;
_C. primaevus_, 416
_Cystophora_, 453;
_C. cristata_, 453
_Dacrytherium_, 333
_Dactylomys_, 488;
_D. dactylinus_, 488
_Dactylopsila trivirgata_, 141
_Daedicurus_, 185
_Damaliscus_, 309
_Daphaenus_, 424
_Dasymys_, 472
Dasypodidae, 173
_Dasyprocta_, 494;
_D. aguti_, 495
Dasyproctidae, 493
_Dasypus_, 173;
_D. minutus_, 178;
_D. sexcinctus_, skull of, 174;
pelvis of, 176;
_D. villosus_, 178;
manus of, 175
Dasyure, 151
Dasyuridae, 149
_Dasyuroides_, 154;
_D. byrnei_, 154
_Dasyurus_, 151;
skull of, _152_;
_D. geoffroyi_, 152;
_D. hallucatus_, 153;
_D. maculatus_, 152;
_D. ursinus_, 18;
_D. viverrinus_, 152
Deer, 11, 291 f.
_Delphinapterus_, 372;
_D. kingii_, 373;
_D. leucas_, 373
Delphinidae, 372
_Delphinus_, 377;
_D. delphis_, 377;
_D. longirostris_, 377;
_D. roseiventris_, 377
_Dendrohyrax_, 234
_Dendrolagus_, 135;
_D. bennetti_, 136;
_D. inustus_, 136
_Dendromys_, 472, 476;
_D. mesomelas_, 476
_Deomys_, 476;
_D. ferrugineus_, 476
Dermal plates, in Armadillos, 173;
in Whales, 342
Dermoptera, 520
Desman, 518
_Desmatippus_, 248
_Desmodus_, 532;
_D. rufus_, 532
_Diabolus_, 151
Diaphragm, 69
_Diceratherium_, 259
_Dichobune_, 333
_Dichodon_, 330
_Diclidurus_, 531
_Dicotyles_, 279;
_D. tajacu_, 278
Dicotylidae, 278
_Dicroceras_, 301
Didelphyidae, 155
_Didelphys_, 155;
_D. crassicaudata_, 156;
_D. dimidiata_, 13;
_D. virginiana_, 155
_Dinictis_, 401
_Dinoceras_, 210
Dinocerata, 210
Dinomyidae, 495
_Dinomys_, 495;
_D. branickii_, 496
Dinotheriidae, 231
{600}
_Dinotherium_, 231;
_D. giganteum_, skull of, 231
_Diphylla_, 532
Diphyodonty, definition of, 51
_Diplobune_, 333
_Diplomesodon_, 519
Dipodidae, 484
_Dipodomys_, 484;
_D. merriami_, 484
_Diprotodon_, 146;
_D. australis_, 147
Diprotodontia, 128 f.
_Dipus_, 485;
_D. aegyptius_, 485;
pes of, 485;
_D. hirtipes_, 484
_Distaechurus_, 141
Distribution, geographical, 78;
in the past 83
Dogs, 413;
Raccoon-like, 415
_Dolichotis_, 493;
_D. patachonica_, 492
Dolphin, 372
_Dorcatherium_; see _Hyomoschus_
_Dorcopsis_, 135;
_D. luctuosa_, 135, 136;
_D. macleani_, 136;
_D. muelleri_, 136
_Dorcotragus_, 313;
_D. megalotis_, 313
Dormouse, 470
Doroucouli, 560
_Dremotherium_, 301
_Dromatherium_, 98
_Dromicia_, 141;
_D. nana_, 141
_Dromiciops_, 156
_Dryolestes_, 99
_Dryopithecus_, 585
Duck-billed Platypus; _see_ Platypus and _Ornithorhynchus_
Dugong, 336;
skeleton of, 336
Duplicidentata, 502 f.
_Dymecodon_, 518
_Echidna_, 110;
egg of, 72;
_E. aculeata_, 111;
skull of, 108;
shoulder girdle of, 109;
brain of, 110;
_E. hystrix_ (= _E. aculeata_), 15;
shoulder girdle of, 37
Echidnidae, 110
_Echinomys_, 488
_Echinops_, 512
_Echiothrix_, 473
Edentata, 161 f.
Eland, 316
_Elaphodus_, 294;
_E. cephalophus_, 294;
_E. michianus_, 294
_Elasmognathus_, 251
_Elasmotherium_, 259
Elephant, 217;
observations of Pliny and Aristotle upon, 225
Elephantidae, 217
_Elephas_, 218;
_E. africanus_, 221, 222;
skull of, 218;
_E. antiquus_, 229;
_E. falconeri_, 229;
_E. indicus_, 221, 223, 224;
foot of, 198;
_E. melitensis_, 229;
_E. meridionalis_, 229;
_E. planifrons_, 229;
_E. primigenius_, 226;
_E. priscus_, 226
_Eligmodontia_, 480
_Eliomys_, 471
_Eliurus_, 480
{601}
Elk, 297
_Ellobius_, 479
_Elotherium uintense_, 279
_Emballonura_, 530
Emballonuridae, 530
_Enhydridon_, 440
_Enhydris_, 439
_Enhydrocyon_, 423
_Eohippus_, 248
_Eonycteris_, 526;
_E. spelaea_, 526
Epanorthidae, 145
_Epanorthus_, 148
Epicondylar foramina, 39
Epipubes of Monotremes and Marsupials, 116
Episternum, 33, 34, 35
_Epomophorus_, 525
Equidae, 237
_Equus_, 239;
_E. africanus_, 243;
_E. asinus_, 243;
_E. boehmi_, 245;
_E. burchelli_, 244, 245;
_E. caballus_, 239;
_E. grevyi_, 244;
_E. hemionus_, 242;
_E. hemippus_, 242;
_E. onager_, 242;
_E. przewalskii_, 241;
_E. quagga_, 244;
_E. sivalensis_, 246;
_E. somalicus_, 244;
_E. stenonis_, 246;
_E. taeniopus_, 243;
_E. zebra_, 244
_Erethizon_, 498
Ergot, of Horse, 240
_Ericulus_, 512;
_E. setosus_, 512
Erinaceidae, 509
_Erinaceus_, 510;
_E. europaeus_, 510
Ermine, 436
_Eschatia_, 290
_Esthonyx_, 507
_Eubalaena_, 358
_Euchoreutes_, 485
_Eupetaurus_, 467;
_E. cinereus_, 467
_Euphyseter_, 367
_Eupleres_, 403;
_E. goudotii_, 403
_Euprotogonia_, 204;
_E. puercensis_, 204
_Eurhinodelphis_, 383
_Eusmilus_, 402
_Eutatus_, 179
Eutheria, 116;
earliest forms of, 102
_Evotomys_, 479
Fallow Deer, 293
Felidae, 390
_Felis_, 391;
_F. baileyi_, 397;
_F. caffra_, 400;
_F. canadensis_, 397;
_F. catus_, 399;
_F. concolor_, 399;
_F. eyra_, 399;
_F. leo_, 39;3
_F. lynx_, 397;
_F. maniculata_, 400;
_F. nebulosa_, 396;
_F. onca_, 398;
_F. pardalis_, 398, 399;
_F. pardina, 397_;
_F. pardus, 395_;
_F. rufa, 397_;
_F. tigris_, 394;
_F. uncia_ 396;
_F. viverrina_, 397
_Feresia_, 377
_Fiber_, 477;
_F. osoyoosensis_, 478;
_F. zibethicus_, 478
Flying Fox, 524;
skeleton of, 523
Flying Squirrel, 466
{602}
Fore-limb, 39
Fossa, 405
_Fossa_, 407;
_F. daubentoni_, 407
Fossil mammals, 96
Fox, 419;
Arctic, 419
Fur Seals, 451
_Furia_, 531
_Galago_, 543;
_G. crassicaudatus_, 543;
_G. garnetti_, 543;
_G. senegalensis_, 543
Galeopithecidae, 520
_Galeopithecus_, 521;
_G. volans_, 520
_Galera_, 434
_Galeriscus_, 434
_Galictis_, 433;
G. barbara, 433
_Galidia_, 404;
_G. elegans_, 404
_Galidictis_, 404;
_G. vittata_, 404
Ganodonta, 190 f.
Gaur, 317
Gayal, 318
_Gazella_, 312;
_G. loderi_, 312
_Gelada_, 566
_Gelocus_, 283
Gemsbok, 315
Genet, 406
_Genetta_, 406;
_G. vulgaris_, 406
_Geogale_, 513;
_G. aurita_, 513
Geomyidae, 483
_Geomys_, 483
_Georhychus_, 481
_Gerbillus_, 475;
_G. aegyptius_, 475;
_G. pyramidum_, 475
Gibbon, 570
_Giraffa_, 301;
_G. attica_, 305;
_G. australis_, 303;
_G. camelopardalis_, 302;
_G. sivalensis_, 305
Giraffidae, 301
Glands, of skin, 12;
of Lemurs, 12, 537;
of Marsupials, 13;
of Skunk, 13, 439;
on feet of Rhinoceros, 13, 254;
temporal,of Elephant, 12;
musk, 13, 300;
mammary, 16
_Glauconycteris_, 530
Gliridae, 470
_Globicephalus_, 374;
_G. brachypterus_, 375;
_G. indicus_, 375;
_G. melas_, 375;
_hand of_, 345;
_G. scammoni_, 375
_Glossophaga_, 531
_Glossotherium_, 180
Glutton, 435
_Glyptodon_, 184;
_G. clavipes_, skeleton of, 184
Glyptodontidae, 184
Gnu, 309
Goats, species of, 324
_Golunda_, 473
_Gomphotherium sternbergi_, foot of, 197
Goral, 327
Gorilla, 572, 573;
brain of, 575;
habits of, 576
_Gorilla_, 572;
_G. gorilla_, 572
Grampus, 375
{603}
_Grampus_, 375;
_G. griseus_, 375
_Graphiurus_, 471
Gravigrada, 179
Greenland Whale, 358
_Grisonia_, 433;
_G. allamandi_, 434;
_G. vittata_, 434
Ground Sloths, 179
_Grypotherium_, 182
Grysbok, 310
Guinea-pig, 493
_Gulo_, 435;
_G. luscus_, 435
_Gymnobelideus_, 141
_Gymnura_, 509;
_G. rafflesii_, 509
_Gymnuromys_, 480
_Habrocoma_, 487;
_H. bennetti_, 487
Hair, structure of, 6;
sensory, 10;
tuft of elongated, on wrist, 10;
of Whales, 341
_Halichoerus_, 452;
_H. grypus_, 452
_Halicore_, 336;
_H. australis_, skeleton of, 336;
_H. dugong_, 337;
_H. indicus_, 33
_Halitherium_, 335
_Hallomys_, 480
Hamster, 479
_Hapale_, 556;
_H. pygmaea_, 556
_Hapalemur_, 541;
_H. griseus_, 541;
arm of, 537;
_H. olivaceus_, 541;
_H. simus_, 541
Hapalidae, 556
_Hapalomys_, 473
_Hapalotis_, 473
_Haploceros montanus_, 326
_Haplodon_, 469;
_H. major_, 469;
_H. rufus_, 469
Haplodontidae, 469
Hare, 504;
Cape Jumping, 486;
-Kangaroo, 134;
Variable, 504
Harnessed Antelopes, 315
_Harpyia_, 526
_Harpyionycteris_, 526
Hartebeest, 309
Heart, 65;
of Monotremata, 66
Hedgehog, 510
_Helaletes_, 250
_Helictis_, 438;
_H. subaurantiaca_, 438
_Heliphobius_, 481
_Helladotherium_, 306;
_H. duvernoyi_, 306
_Helogale_, 410
_Hemicentetes_, 512
_Hemigale_, 408;
_H. hardwicki_, 408;
_H. hosei_, 408
_Hemigalidia_, 404
_Hemiganus_, 191;
_H. otariidens_, 191
_Herpestes_, 409;
_H. albicauda_, 409, 410;
_H. ichneumon_, 409;
_H. urva_, 409
_Heterocephalus_, 481;
_H. glaber_, 481;
_H. phillipsii_, 481
Heterodont, 47
Heteromyidae, 484
_Heteromys_, 484
_Hexaprotodon_, 274
{604}
Hind-limb, 42
_Hipparion_, 250
Hippopotamidae, 273
_Hippopotamus_, 273;
_H. amphibius_, 273, 274
_Hipposiderus_, 527
_Hippotigris_, 246
_Hippotragus_, 314;
_H. equinus_, 314;
_H. leucophaeus_, 314;
_H. niger_, 313 f.
_Hodomys_, 480
_Holochilus_, 480
_Holomeniscus_, 290
_Homacodon_, 280;
_H. vagans_, 280
_Homalodontotherium_, 212, 216
Hominidae, 585
_Homo_, 585;
skull of, 586;
foot of, 587;
palate of, 589;
_H. sapiens_, 585
_Homocamelus_, 290
Homodont, 47
_Homunculus_, 570
Hoolock, 571
_Hoplophoneus_, 402
Horns, 200, 307
Horse, 239;
Wild, 240;
striping of, 240;
Domestic, 241;
ancestry of, 247
Howling Monkeys, 558
Humpback Whale, 356
_Hunterius_, 358
Hunting Dog, 416
Hutia, 490
_Hyaena_, 411;
_H. crocuta_, 412;
_H. spelaea_, 413;
_H. striata_, 412
_Hyaenarctos_, 445
_Hyaenictis_, 413
Hyaenidae, 411
_Hyaenodon_, 455
Hybrid Oxen, 317
_Hydraspotherium_, 306
_Hydrochoerus_, 492;
_H. capybara_, 491
_Hydromys_, 474;
_H. chrysogaster_, 474
_Hydropotes_, 296;
_H. inermis_, 296, 297
_Hylobates_, 570;
_H. agilis_, 571;
_H. hainanus_, 571;
_H. hoolock_, 571
_Hylomys_, 509;
_H. suillus_, 509
_Hyomoschus_, 283;
_H. aquaticus_, 283
_Hyopotamus_, 329
_Hyotherium_, 280
_Hyperoodon_, 23, 41, 370;
_H. planifrons_, 371;
_H. rostratum_, 371
_Hypogeomys_, 480
Hypselodont, 48
Hypsiprymninae, 131
_Hypsiprymnodon_, 138;
_H. moschatus_, 138
Hypsiprymnodonitinae, 138
_Hyrachyus_, 262;
_H. agrarius_, 262
_Hyracodon_, 146, 262;
_H. nebrascensis_, 260
_Hyracodontotherium_, 333
Hyracoidea, 232 f.
_Hyracops_, 203
_Hyracotherium_, 247
{605}
_Hyrax_, 232;
_H. capensis_, 233;
manus of, 198
Hystricidae, 499
Hystricomorpha, 487
_Hystrix_, 499;
_H. cristata_, 499, 500
Ibex, 325
Ichneumon, 409
_Ichthyomys_, 480;
_I. hydrobates_, 480;
_I. stolzmanni_, 480
_Icticyon_, 414;
_I. venaticus_, 414
_Ictonyx_, 438
_Idiurus_, 463;
_I. macrotis_, 463;
_I. zenkeri_, 463
Incisor teeth, 48
_Indris_, 538;
_I. brevicaudata_, 538
_Indrodon_, 552;
_I. malaris_, 552
_Inia_, 381;
_I. geoffrensis_, 382
_Iniopsis caucasica_, 383
Insectivora, 508 f.
Intercentra, 24
Intestine, 62;
large and small, 64
_Isectolophus_, 250
_Isomys_, 473
Ivory, of Elephant, 227
Jackal, 420
Jaguar, 398
Jerboa, 484
Jerboa Rat, 473
Kanchil, 283
Kangaroo, 132;
Tree-, 136
_Kerivoula_, 529;
_K. picta_, 529
Kiang, 242
Kidney, 68
Killer Whale, 341, 375
Kinkajou, 430
Klipspringer, 310
Koala, 142, 143
_Kogia_, 366;
_K. breviceps_, 367;
_K. floweri_, 367;
_K. pottsi_, 367;
_K. simus_, 367
Kudu, 316
_Lagenorhynchus_, 378;
_L. acutus_, 378;
_L. albirostris_, 378
_Lagidium_, 496;
_L. cuvieri_, 496
Lagomyidae, 505
_Lagomys_, 505;
_L. ladacensis_, 505;
_L. roylei_, 505
_Lagorchestes_, 134;
_L. conspicillatus_, 134;
_L. leporoides_, 135
_Lagostomus_, 496;
_L. trichodactylus_, 496, 497
_Lagostrophus_, 137;
_L. fasciatus_, 137
_Lagothrix_, 557;
_L. humboldti_, 557
_Lagotis_, 496
_Lama_, 286;
_L. huanacos_, 286, 287;
_L. vicugna_, 286
Langur, 568
_Latax_, 439
_Leggada_, 472
{606}
Lemming, 478
_Lemur_, 541;
_L. catta_, 542;
_N. leucomystax_, 542;
_L. macaco_, 542;
_L. nigerrimus_, 542;
_L. rufipes_, 542;
_L. varius_, 12, 542
Lemur, Gentle, 540
Lemuridae, 538
Lemuroidea, 534
Leopard, 395;
Snow, 396;
Hunting, 400
_Lepilemur_, 540;
_L. mustelinus_, 540
Leporidae, 502
_Leptarctus_, 431;
_L. primaevus_, 431
_Leptauchenia_, 331
_Leptomeryx_, 284
_Leptonyx_, 453;
_L. weddelli_, 453
_Lepus_, 502;
_L. americanus_, 504;
_L. crawshayi_, 504;
_L. cuniculus_, 502;
brain of, 77;
_L. europaeus_, 504;
_L. timidus_, 504;
_L. whytei_, 504
_Lestodon_, 183
_Limacomys_, 476
_Limnofelis_, 456
_Limnogale_, 512;
_L. mergulus_, 513
_Linsang_, 406
Lion, 393
_Liponyx_, 526
_Listriodon_, 279
_Lithocranius_, 313
Litopterna, 267
Liver, 64
_Loncheres_, 489;
_L. guianae_, 489
_Lophiodon_, 250
Lophiodontidae, 247
_Lophiomys_, 476;
_L. imhausi_, 476
Lophodont teeth, definition of, 51
_Lophotragus michianus_, 294 n.
_Lophuromys_, 472
_Loris_, 23, 547;
_L. gracilis_, 547
Lungs, 69
_Lutra_, 440;
_L. vulgaris_, 441
_Lycaon_, 416;
_L. anglicus_, 416;
_L. pictus_, 416
_Lycyaena_, 413
_Lyncodon_, 437;
_L. luganensis_, 437
Lynx, 397
Lytta, a rod formed of connective tissue within the tongue, 416
_Macacus_, 563;
_M. cynomolgus_, 564;
_M. inuus_, 563;
_M. leoninus_, 564;
_M. nemestrinus_, 564;
_M. priscus_, 569;
_M. rhesus_, 564;
_M. silenus_, 564;
_M. sinicus_, 564;
_M. speciosus_, 564;
_M. tcheliensis_, 563, 564
Machaerodontidae, 401
_Machaerodus_, 402;
_M. palmidens_, 402
_Macleayius_, 358
_Macrauchenia_, 267
Macraucheniidae, 267
_Macroglossus_, 526
Macropodidae, 129
Macropodinae, 131, 132
{607}
_Macropus_, 132;
_M. brunii_, 133;
_M. giganteus_, 132;
_M. irma_, 133;
_M. rufus_, 132
_Macrorhinus_, 453;
_M. leoninus_, 454
Macroscelidae, 515
_Macroscelides_, 515
_Macrotherium_, 211
_Malacomys_, 472
_Malacothrix_, 476
Mammals, position in Vertebrate series, 1;
characters of, 3;
coloration of, 10, 11;
Reptilian ancestors of, 90;
earliest known forms, 96
Mammoth, 226
Man, 585
Manatee, 335
_Manatus_, 335;
_M. inunguis_, 336
Mandrill, 566
Mangabeys, 564
Manidae, 188
_Manis_, 188;
_M. gigantea_, 190;
_M. macrura_, 25;
_M. tricuspis_, 31
_Manteoceras_, 267
Marine Mammals; _see_ Sirenia, Cetacea
_Marmosa_, 156
Marmoset, 556
Marmot, 465;
Prairie-, 465
Marsupial Mole, 159
Marsupials, 122;
imperfectly born young of, 124
Marsupium or Pouch, 14;
of Monotremata, 15;
of Marsupials, 17;
rudiments of, in higher Mammals, 23, 18
Marten, 435
_Massoutiera_, 490
_Mastacomys_, 473
_Mastodon_, 230
Meerkat, 410, 411
Megachiroptera, 524 f.
_Megaderma_, 528;
_M. lyra_, 528
Megaladapididae, 554
_Megaladapis insignis_, 554;
_M. madagascariensis_, 554
_Megaloglossus_, 526
_Megalomys_, 480
Megalonychidae, 183
_Megalonyx_, 183
_Megamys_, 506
_Meganeuron kreffti_, 366
Megaptera, 356;
_M. capensis_, 357;
_M. indica_, 357;
_M. lalandii_, 357;
_M. longimana_, 357
_Megatherium_, 183
_Meles_, 432;
_M. anakuma_, 432 n.;
_M. taxus_, 432
_Mellivora_, 437;
_M. capensis_, 438
_Melonycteris_, 526
_Melursus_, 443;
_M. labiatus_, 443
_Meniscoessus_, 101
_Meniscotherium_, 203
_Menodus_, 264
_Mephitis_, 439
{608}
_Meriones_, 475
Mermaids, 337
_Merychyus_, 331
_Merycochoerus_, 330
_Merycopotamus_, 329;
_M. nanus_, 329
_Mesohippus_, 248
_Mesomys_, 489
_Mesonyx_, 456
_Mesopithecus pentelici_, 569
Mesoplacentalia, 103
_Mesoplodon_, 369;
_M. bidens_, 369;
_M. europaeus_, 369;
_M. hectori_, 369;
_M. layardi_, 369;
_M. stejnegeri_, 369
_Mesoreodon_, 330
_Metamynodon_, 264;
_M. planifrons_, skeleton of, 263
Metatheria, 116
_Microbiotherium_, 160
_Microcebus_, 544;
_M. smithii_, 564
Microchiroptera, 526 f.
_Microdipodops_, 484
_Microgale_, 512;
_M. longicaudata_, 25
_Microlestes_, 98;
_M. antiquus_, 98
_Microtus_, 477;
_M. agrestis_, 477;
_M. amphibius_, 477;
_M. glareolus_, 477
_Midas_, 556;
_M. bicolor_, 557;
_M. leoninus_, 556;
_M. nigricollis_, 556;
_M. rosalia_, 556
Mimicry, in _Bassaricyon_, 428;
in _Tupaia_, 511
_Minopterus_, 529;
_M. scheibersi_, 529
Mioclaenidae, 205
_Mioclaenus_, 205
_Miohippus_, 248
_Miopithecus_, 565
_Mixocebus_, 540;
_M. caniceps_, 540
Molar teeth, 51
Mole, 517;
sternum of, 31;
fore-foot of, 40;
Golden, 515
Mole Rat, 481
_Molossus_, 531
_Monachus_, 453;
_M. albiventer_, 453;
_M. tropicalis_, 453
Mongoose, 409
Monkeys, 554 f.
_Monodon_, 373;
_M. monoceros_, 373
Monophyodonty, definition of, 53
Monotremata, 105 f.
Moose, 297, 298
_Moropus_, 211
Morse, 451
Moschinae, 299
_Moschus_, 299;
_M. moschiferus_, 299, 300
Mouflon, 324;
Cyprus, 322
Mouse, 472;
Pharaoh's, 409
Multituberculata, 98
Multituberculy, definition of, 59
Muntjac, 295
Muridae, 471
_Mus_, 471;
_M. decumanus_, 472;
_M. musculus_, 472;
_M. minutus_, 472;
_M. rattus_, 472
{609}
_Muscardinus_, 470;
_M. avellanarius_, 470
Musk, 300;
Deer, 12, 13, 299;
Kangaroo, 138;
Ox, 327
Musquash, 477
_Mustela_, 435;
_M. foina_, 435;
_M. martes_, 435;
_M. putorius_ (= _Putorius foetidus_), 436;
_M. zibellina_, 435
Mustelidae, 431
_Mycetes_, 34, 558
_Mydaus_, 433;
_M. meliceps_, 433
_Mylodon_, 179;
_M. robustus_, 179;
skeleton of, 180
Mylodontidae, 179
_Myocastor_, 489
_Myodes_, 478;
_M. lemmus_, 478
_Myogale_, 518
Myomorpha, 469
_Myopotamus_, 489
_Myoscalops_, 481
_Myosorex_, 518
_Myoxus_, 470;
_M. glis_, 470
_Myrmecobius_, 154;
_M. fasciatus_, 155
_Myrmecophaga_, 166;
_M. jubata_, 166;
skull of, 167, 168;
hand of, 169;
vertebrae of, 163
Myrmecophagidae, 166
Mystacoceti, 353 f.
_Myxopoda_, 529
Nail-tailed Wallaby, 134
Nails, 14
_Nandinia_, 408
_Nannosciurus_, 464
Narwhal, 373;
"horn" of, 49
_Nasalis_, 569
_Nasua_, 430;
_N. nasica_, 431;
_N. rufa_, 430, 431
_Natalus_, 529
Native, Bear, 142;
Cat, 152
_Necrodasypus_, 164 n.
_Necrogymnura_, 510
_Nectogale_, 518;
_N. elegans_, 520
_Nectomys_, 480
_Nelomys_, 488
_Nelsonia_, 480
_Nemorrhaedus_, 326;
_N. crispus_, 326;
_N. goral_, 327
_Neobalaena_, 361;
_N. marginata_, 362
_Neofiber_, 478;
_N. alleni_, 478
Neogaea, 85
_Neomeris_, 374;
_N. phocaenoides_, 374
_Neomylodon listai_, 181
_Neotoma_, 480
_Neotragus pygmaeus_, 310
_Nesodon_, 215
_Nesokia_, 472
_Nesonycteris_, 526
_Nesopithecus_, 553;
_N. australis_, 553
New Zealand, absence of terrestrial mammals from, 85
Nilgai, 316
_Nimravus_, 401;
_N. gomphodus_, 401
{610}
_Noctilio_, 530;
_N. leporinus_, 530
Nomarthra, 186 f.
_Nothocyon_, 415
_Notiomys_, 480
_Notiosorex_, 518
Notogaea, 85
_Notopteris_, 526
_Notoryctes typhlops_, 159
Notoryctidae, 158
_Nototherium_, 148;
_N. mitchelli_, 148;
skull of, 148
_Nyctereutes_, 414;
_N. procyonides_, 415
Nycteridae, 527
_Nycteris_, 528;
_N. javanica_, 528
_Nycticebus_, 545;
_N. tardigradus_, 546;
foot of, 537
_Nycticejus_, 530
_Nyctinomus_, 531
_Nyctipithecus_, 560
_Nyctophilus_, 529