_Rivers_.--The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of the

colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the Orange

(q.v.), which flows from east to west nearly across the continent. For a

considerable distance, both in its upper and lower courses, the river

forms the northern frontier of Cape Colony. In the middle section, where

both banks are in the colony, the Orange receives from the north-east

its greatest tributary, the Vaal (q.v.). The Vaal, within the boundaries

of the colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and

the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony the

Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the Orange flow,

in their lower courses, through the eastern part of Griqualand West, the

only well-watered portion of the colony north of the mountains. From the

north, below the Vaal confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman,

intermittent streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional

surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves in

some _vlei_ in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob mark the frontier

between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Cape; the Kuruman lies

wholly within the colony. From the south a number of streams, the Brak

and Ongers, the Zak and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the

Hartebeest), flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for

a great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the

volume of the Orange.

South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic or

Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast rivers fall

thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and many are little

else than mountain torrents. They make their way down the mountain sides

through great gorges, and are noted in the eastern part of the country

for their extremely sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams

after heavy rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry

up altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers are

obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange river also,

they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable.

Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic are the

Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here that the same

name is repeatedly applied throughout South Africa to different streams,

Buffalo, Olifants (elephants') and Groote (great) being favourite

designations. They all occur more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west

coast rivers, the Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and

least important, flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150

m.), which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the

Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg and Olifants

ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat parallel but more easterly

course, joins the Olifants about 50 m. above its mouth, the Atlantic

being reached by a semicircular sweep to the south-west. The Berg river

(125 m.) rises in the district of French Hoek and flows through fertile

country, in a north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It

is navigable for a few miles from its mouth.

On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the Breede

(about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and broad channel.

Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the mountains by Mitchell's

Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of Ceres and Worcester, and

receives, beyond the last-named place, the waters which descend from

the famous Hex River Pass. The Breede thence follows the line of the

Langeberg mountains as far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and

traversing the coast plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From

its mouth the river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m.

East of the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the

inner mountain chain, are passed in the order named:--Gouritz (200

m.),[1] Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.), Kei (150

m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John's (140 m.).

The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the Gamka and the

Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld not far from Beaufort West,

traverses the Great Karroo from north to south, and forces a passage

through the Zwarteberg. Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from

the east by the Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great

Karroo, being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the

Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the Little

Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka. The united

stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south, and receives from

the west, a few miles above the point where it breaks through the coast

range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the common name Groote, but known in

its upper course as the Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The

Touws (90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources

of the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the Groote

the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and enters the Indian

Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel Bay.

The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams, the Kouga, an

unimportant river which rises in the coast hills, and the Groote river.

This, _the_ Groote river of Cape Colony, has its rise in the Nieuwveld

near Nels Poort, being known in its upper course as the Salt river.

Flowing south-east, it is joined by the Kariega on the left, and

breaking through the escarpment of the Great Karroo, on the lower level

changes its name to the Groote, the hills which overhang it to the

north-east being known as Groote River Heights. Bending south, the

Groote river passes through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and

being joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St

Francis Bay.

Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams, change its name

on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo and again on reaching the

coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg north-west of Graaff Reinet,

flows south-east through one of the most fertile districts of the Great

Karroo, which it pierces at the western end of the Zuurberg (of the

coast chain), and reaches the ocean in Algoa Bay.

Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with the Great

Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small streams rising in

the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form the Great Fish river

which passes through Cradock, and crossing the Karroo, changes its

general direction from south to east, and is joined by the Kooner (or

Koonap) and Kat, both of which rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the

Great Salt river, it winds south to the sea. Great Fish river is

distinguished for the sudden and great rise of its waters after heavy

rain and for its exceedingly sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway

station it makes an almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being

scarcely 2 m. apart, in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like

the other streams which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in

its upper course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000

cubic ft.

The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise in the

Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish in its many

twists, flows in a general south-east direction through mountainous

country until it reaches the coast plain. Its mouth is 40 m. in a direct

line north-east of East London. In the history of the Cape the Kei

plays an important part as long marking the boundary between the colony

and the independent Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei

rivers see KAFFRARIA.)

Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.), Kowie (40

m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be mentioned. The Knysna

rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of importance as a feeder of the

lagoon or estuary of the same name, one of the few good harbours on the

coast. The banks of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which

rises in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham's Town, is also noted for

the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The water over the

bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft. draught. The Buffalo

river rises in the hilly country north of King William's Town, past

which it flows. At the mouth of the river, where the scenery is very

fine, is East London, third in importance of the ports of Cape Colony.

The frequency of "fontein" among the place names of the colony bears

evidence of the number of springs in the country. They are often found

on the flat-topped hills which dot the Karroo. Besides the ordinary

springs, mineral and thermal springs are found in several places.

_Lakes and Caves._--Cape Colony does not possess any lakes properly so

called. There are, however, numerous natural basins which, filled after

heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an incrustation of salt on the

ground, whence their name of salt pans. The largest, Commissioner's Salt

Pan, in the arid north-west district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference.

Besides these pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools

or _vleis_ whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture of

the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore by a

sandbank only, are a series of five _vleis_, turned in flood times into

one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to the ocean. These

_vleis_ are known collectively as "the lakes." In the Zwarteberg of the

central chain are the Cango Caves, a remarkable series of caverns

containing many thousand of stalactites and stalagmites. These caves,

distant 20 m. from Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone

bed about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers, the

caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line.

_Climate_.--The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness. Its

chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness of the atmosphere

and the considerable daily range in temperature; whilst nevertheless the

extremes of heat and cold are rarely encountered. The mean annual

temperature over the greater part of the country is under 65 deg. F. The

chief agents in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in

the southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large extent

of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature of the air

in places south of the tropics compared with that experienced in

countries in the same latitude north of the equator. Thus Cape Town,

about 34 deg. S., has a mean temperature, 63 deg. F., which corresponds

with that of the French and Italian Riviera, in 41 deg. to 43 deg. N.

For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation of the country is

responsible. The east and south-east winds, which contain most moisture,

dissipate their strength against the Drakensberg and other mountain

ranges which guard the interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially

in the south-east, enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance

west and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger

part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the valley of

the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together. The drought is

increased in intensity by the occasional hot dry wind from the desert

region in the north, though this wind is usually followed by violent

thunderstorms.

Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here outlined,

in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there are many

variations in different districts. In the coast-lands the daily range of

the thermometer is less marked than in the interior and the humidity of

the atmosphere is much greater. Nevertheless, the west coast north of

the Olifants river is practically rainless and there is great difference

between day and night temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the

characteristics of the interior plateau. The division of the year into

four seasons is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where

exceptional conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but

two--summer and winter, summer lasting from September to April and

winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is experienced

in December, January and February, whilst June and July are the coldest

months. In the western part of the colony the winter is the rainy

season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in summer. A line drawn

from Port Elizabeth north-west across the Karroo in the direction of

Walfish Bay roughly divides the regions of the winter and summer rains.

All the country north of the central mountain chain and west of 23 deg.

E., including the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual

rainfall of under 12 in. East of the 23 deg. E. the plateaus have a mean

annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands and

the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.; the Cape

peninsula by exception having an average yearly rainfall of 40 in. (see

CAPE TOWN). Along the south coast and in the south-east the mean annual

rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is over 50 in. at some stations. The rain

falls, generally, in heavy and sudden storms, and frequently washes away

the surface soil. The mean annual temperature of the coast region,

which, as stated, is 63 deg. F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the

coast not only trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect

of the warm Mozambique or Agulhas current.

On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77 deg. F., the mean

minimum 49 deg., the mean daily range about 27 deg.. In summer the

drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights cool and

clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The climate of the

northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo, but the extremes of

cold and heat are greater. In the summer the shade temperature reaches

110 deg. F., whilst in winter nights 12 deg. of frost have been

registered. The hot westerly winds of summer make the air oppressive,

though violent thunderstorms, in which form the northern districts

receive most of their scanty rainfall, occasionally clear the

atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally seen. The keen air, accompanied by

the brilliant sunshine, renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow

seldom falls in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains

for three or four months in the year, and for as many days on the

Karroo. Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow

periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the climate of the

colony is the abundance of dust, which seems to be blown by every wind,

and is especially prevalent in the rainy season.

That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the history of South

Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations of settlers, from northern

Europe have been born, lived and died there, and the race is as strong

and vigorous as that from which it sprang. Malarial fever is practically

non-existent in Cape Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare.

(F. R. C.)

_Geology_.--The colony affords the typical development of the geological

succession south of the Zambezi. The following general arrangement has

been determined:--

TABLE OF FORMATIONS.

_Post-Cretaceous and Recent._

Cretaceous / Pondoland Cretaceous Series \ Cretaceous

System \ Uitenhage Series /

/ Stormberg Series \

Karroo System < Beaufort Series > Carboniferous

| Ecca Series | to Jurassic

\ Dwyka Series /

/ Witteberg Series \

Cape System < Bokkeveld Series > Devonian

| Table Mountain Sandstone |

\ Series /

/ Includes several independent \

Pre-Cape Rocks < unfossiliferous formations > Archaean to

\ of pre-Devonian age / Silurian(?)

The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be regarded as a

shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal rocks of the Karroo.

These form the plains and plateaus of the interior. Rocks of pre-Cape

age rise from beneath them on the north and west; on the south and east

the Lower Karroo and Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath

which, but in quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the

folded regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south

and east.

Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different

development in each:--

+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+

| North. | West. | South. |

+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+

| Matsap Series | Nieuwerust Beds | Cango Beds |

| Ongeluk Volcanic Series | | |

| Griquatown Series | Ibiquas Beds | |

| Campbell Rand Series | | |

| Black Reef Series | | |

| Pniel Volcanic Series | | |

| Keis Series | | |

| Namaqualand Schists | Namaqualand Schists and | Malmesbury |

| | Malmesbury Beds | Beds |

+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+

The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt represent

formations of widely different ages, but all that can be said is that

they are greatly older than the Cape System. The hope that they will

yield fossils has been held out but not yet fulfilled. Their total

thickness amounts to several thousand feet. The rocks have been greatly

changed by pressure in most cases and by the intrusion of great masses

of igneous material, the Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being

most altered.

The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse conglomerate;

the other rocks include slates, limestone and porphyroids. The Ibiquas

beds consist of conglomerates and grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas

series have been invaded by granite of older date than the Table

Mountain series. The Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and

shales. They rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury

beds.

The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell Rand,

Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in the Schuftebergen.

They contain a great variety of sediments and igneous rocks. The oldest,

or Keis, series consists of quartzites, quartz-schists, phyllites and

conglomerates. These are overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great

thickness of lavas and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer

Vley and Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites,

grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the

Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some interbedded

quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites, limestones and

shales are numerous bands of jasper and large quantities of crocidolite

(a fibrous amphibole); while at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200

ft. thick, is locally developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known

glaciations have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The

Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably

overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites and

conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great

discordance.

Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the southern and

eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member (Table Mountain

Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate bands of shale. It

forms the upper part of Table Mountain and enters largely into the

formation of the southern mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous

except for a few obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of

conglomerate is regarded as of glacial origin.

The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into a sequence of

sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well exposed in the Cold and

Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds contain many fossils, including

_Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia, Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes,

Orthoceras, Bellerophon_. Many of the species are common to the Devonian

rocks of the Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with

perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South America than

to that of any other country.

The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones,

quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far imperfect remains

of plants (_Spirophyton_) are the only fossils, and these are not

sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the Devonian or

Carboniferous System.

The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.

The Karroo System is _par excellence_ the geological formation of South

Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do large tracts

in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes the following

well-defined subdivisions:--

Feet.

/ Volcanic Beds . . . . 4000 \

Stormberg < Cave Sandstone . . . . 800 > Jurassic

Series | Red Beds . . . . . . 1400 /

\ Molteno Beds . . . . 2000 \

Beaufort / Burghersdorp Beds \ > Trias

Series < Dicynodon Beds > . . 5000 /

\ Pareiasaurus Beds / \ Permian

Ecca / Shales and Sandstones \ /

Series < Laingsburg Beds >. 2600 \

\ Shales / |

Dwyka / Upper Shales . . . . 600 > Carboniferus

Series < Conglomerates . . . . 1000 |

\ Lower Shales . . . . 700 /

In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape System

conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on very much older

rocks. The most remarkable deposits are the conglomerates of the Dwyka

series. These afford the clearest evidences of glaciation on a great

scale in early Carboniferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a

consolidated modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks,

and in different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is

remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. The

upper shales contain the small reptile _Mesosaurus tenuidens_.

Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among others

they include _Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca_. The Beaufort

series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable and often

gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and species are numerous,

_Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus_ being the best known. Among plants

_Glossopteris_ occurs for the last time. The Stormberg series occurs in

the mountainous regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno

beds contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable feature

of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an extensive

scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed by lava streams

of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, most of which end at the

folded belt, are also numerous. The age of the intrusive sheets met with

in the Beaufort series is usually attributed to the Stormberg period.

They form the kopjes, or characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great

Karroo. The Stormberg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles.

A true crocodile, _Notochampsa_, has been discovered in the Red Beds and

Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, _Thinnfeldia_ and _Taeniopteris_ are

common. Three genera of fossil fishes, _Cleithrolepis, Semionotus_ and

_Ceratodus_, ascend from the Beaufort series into the Cave Sandstone.

Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the Uitenhage

beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. The marine fauna

of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. The chief genera are

_Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus_ and certain _Trigoniae_.

The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are widely spread.

High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. above the sea. The remains

of a gigantic ox, _Bubalus Baini_, have been obtained from the alluvium

near the Modder river. The recent deposits indicate that the land has

risen for a long period. (W. G.*)

_Fauna._--The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals common

in the early days of the colony have been exterminated (e.g. quagga and

blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe) driven

beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game have been so reduced in

numbers as to require special protection. This class includes the

elephant (now found only in the Knysna and neighbouring forest regions),

buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, and confined to much the same

regions as the elephant), eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other

kinds of antelope and gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in

the mountainous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare

woolly variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs

are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other carnivora more

or less common to the colony are the spotted hyena, aard-wolf (or

_Proteles_), silver jackal, the _Otocyon_ or Cape wild dog, and various

kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a few hundreds of rare

varieties, there are the springbuck, of which great herds still wander

on the open veld, the steinbok, a small and beautiful animal which is

sometimes coursed like a hare, the klipspringer or "chamois of South

Africa," common in the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock

rabbit. There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of

jerboa and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been

introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. The

ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is found on the Karroo,

where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps which dot the plain. There is

also a scaly ant-eater and various species of pangolins, of arboreal

habit, which live on ants. Baboons are found in the mountains and

forests, otters in the rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile,

confined to the Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the

cobra di capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises,

including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental land

forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some regions. The

great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. high. Other game birds

include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild

duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, plover and rail. Birds of prey include

the bearded vulture, aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks,

falcons and owls. Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in

large variety.

Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong to the order

Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very common, the Cape canary,

long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and wagtails are fairly numerous. The

English starling is stated to be the only European bird to have

thoroughly established itself in the colony. The Cape sparrow has

completely acclimatized itself to town life and prevented the English

sparrow obtaining a footing.

Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, tarantula spiders,

butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In some districts the tsetse fly

causes great havoc. The most interesting of the endemic insectivora is

the _Chrysochloris_ or "golden mole," so called from the brilliant

yellow lustre of its fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater

fish, the commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both

are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 lb. The smallest

variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the _vleis_ and

streams in which the water is intermittent the fish preserve life by

burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been introduced into several rivers

and have become acclimatized. Of sea fish there are more than forty

edible varieties. The snock, the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in

the estuaries and bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters

of the Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.

Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed by the

natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. The various farm

animals introduced by the whites have thriven well (see below,

_Agriculture_).

_Flora_.--The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast

districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less variety.

In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted in the colony,

about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. The bush of the coast

districts and lower hills consists largely of heaths, of which there are

over 400 species. The heaths and the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a

plant 1 to 2 ft. high resembling heather, form the characteristic

features of the flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom

is pink coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry

season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the flowers are

the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, including many

varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In the eastern

coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical. Of

pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty genera: Cape

"everlasting" flowers (generally species of _Helichrysum_) are in great

numbers. Several species of aloe are indigenous to the Cape. The

so-called American aloe has also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant

and many other plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great

abundance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and structure may

be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge plants, the _Stapelia_ or

carrion flower, and the elephant's foot or Hottentots' bread, a plant of

the same order as the yam. Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic

of many South African plants.

Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges facing

south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The forests contain a great

variety of useful woods, affording excellent timber; among the commonest

trees are the yellow wood, which is also one of the largest, belonging

to the yew species; black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable

stinkhout; melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and the

assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed 30 ft. in height

and scarcely any attain a greater height than 60 ft. A characteristic

Cape tree is _Leucadendron argenteum_ or silver tree, so named from the

silver-like lustre of stem and leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the

Cedarberg got its name, exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the

Dutch or British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the

Australian blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle

grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, e.g. the

Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more rapidly and more

luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few indigenous fruits; the kei

apple is the fruit of a small tree or shrub found in Kaffraria and the

eastern districts, where also the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard

pears, gourds, water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon

are also native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been

introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of dwarf

mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the spring rains are

gorgeous in blossom (see KARROO). The grass of the interior plains is of

a coarse character and yellowish colour, very different from the meadow

grasses of England. The "Indian" doab grass is also indigenous.

With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not reach beyond

about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered with small heath,

_Bruniaceae, Rutaceae_, &c. All plants with permanent foliage are

thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over seventy species of plants

of Alpine character have been found.

_Races and Population_.--The first inhabitants of Cape Colony of whom

there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots (q.v.). The last-named

were originally called Quaequaes, and received the name Hottentots from

the Dutch. They dwelt chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of

the country; elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and

to them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered by

Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was very scanty and

it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers and a few Huguenot families

in the 17th century was followed in the 19th century by that of English

and German immigrants. The Bushmen retreated before the white races and

now few are to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the

districts bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the

Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no _pure bred_

representatives of the race survive in the colony.

Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now form the bulk

of the native population west of the Great Fish river. Of Kaffir tribes

the most important living north of the Orange river are the Bechuanas,

whilst in the eastern province and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus

and Pondos. The Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony

proper. The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot

half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. During the

slavery period many thousands of negroes were imported, chiefly from

the Guinea coast. The negroes have been largely assimilated by the

Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the native races see their separate

articles.) Of the white races in the Colony the French element has been

completely absorbed in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are

mainly pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased form

their own language, also engage largely in agriculture and viticulture.

Of fine physique and hardy constitution, they are of strongly

independent character; patriarchal in their family life; shrewd, _slim_

and courageous; in religion Protestants of a somewhat austere type.

Education is somewhat neglected by them, and the percentage of

illiteracy among adults is high. They are firm believers in the

inferiority of the black races and regard servitude as their natural

lot. The British settlers have developed few characteristics differing

from the home type. The British element of the community is largely

resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in

professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk of the

farmers are English or German; the German farmers being found in the

district between King William's Town and East London, and on the Cape

Peninsula. Numbers of them retain their own language. The term

"Africander" is sometimes applied to all white residents in Cape Colony

and throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to the

Dutch-speaking colonists. "Boer," i.e. farmer, as a synonym for "Dutch,"

is not in general use in Cape Colony.

Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of Malays in

Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the Dutch as slaves.

These people are largely leavened with foreign elements and, professing

Mahommedanism, religion rather than race is their bond of union. They

add greatly by their picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street

scenes. They are generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There

are also a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of

the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the _taal_ or

vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, as it is

of the natives in the western provinces.

The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the colony,

which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not include the

comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, was 566,158. Of

these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or about 33% of the whole. Of the

coloured races the Hottentots and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000,

whilst the Kaffirs formed about 50% of the population. Since 1865

censuses have been taken--in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland

formed part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand East,

Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, and Basutoland

had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland and British Bechuanaland had

been added. The following table gives the area and population at each of

the three periods.

+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

| 1875. | 1891. | 1904. |

+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| Area. | Pop. | Area. | Pop. | Area. | Pop. |

| sq. m. | | sq. m. | | sq. m. | |

+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

| 201,136 | 849,160 | 260,918 |1,527,224| 276,995 |2,409,804|

+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at 720,984, and

that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is officially divided into

nine provinces, but is more conveniently treated as consisting of three

regions, to which may be added the detached area of Walfish Bay and the

islands along the coast of Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows

the distribution of population in the various areas.

The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 and 579,741 in

1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 in 1875 and 376,987 in

1891. The proportion of Dutch descended whites to those of British

origin is about 3 to 2. No exact comparison can be made showing the

increase in the native population owing to the varying areas of the

colony, but the natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites;

the increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable

measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25% of the total

population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The

great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is

densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital)

where the white outnumbers the coloured population. Here in an area of

1711 sq. m. the inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The

urban population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns

and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the total

population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants at the 1904

census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as Indians, 85,892 as

Hottentots,[2] 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as Griquas. The Kaffir and

Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes

separately classified, while 279,662 persons were described as of mixed

race. Divided by sex (including white and black) the males numbered

(1904) 1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion

of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:--whites, 82.16 females

to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared with 1891); coloured,

103.22 females to every 100 males. Of the total population over 14 years

old--1,409,975--the number married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the

white population this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.

+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+

| | Population (1904). |

+-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+

| | Area in | White. | Coloured. | Total. | Per |

| | sq. m. | | | | sq. m.|

+-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+

| Cape Colony Proper | 206,613 | 553,452 | 936,239 | 1,489,691 | 7.21 |

| British Bechuanaland | 51,424 | 9,368 | 75,104 | 84,472 | 1.64 |

| Native Territories | 18,310 | 16,777 | 817,867 | 834,644 | 45.50 |

| Walfish Bay and Islands | 648 | 144 | 853 | 977 | 1.50 |

+-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+

| Total | 276,995 | 579,741 | 1,830,063 | 2,409,804 | 8.70 |

+-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+

The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ about 1/4th

of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged in such pursuits

numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and 67,278, whereas 99,319

were engaged in domestic employment, and 111,175 in agricultural

employment, while 214,982 (mostly children) were dependants. The natives

follow domestic and agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.

Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory till 1895.

Among the European population the birth-rate is about 33.00 per

thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. The birth-rate among

the coloured inhabitants is about the same as with the whites, but the

death-rate is higher--about 25.00 per thousand.

_Immigration and Emigration_.--From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 persons

availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants from England to

the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. The total number of adult

immigrants by sea, however, steadily increased from 11,559 in 1891 to

38,669 in 1896, while during the same period the number of departures by

sea only increased from 8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took

place in the last year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the

political position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants,

while the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 there

were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 departures.

Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the immigration figures rose

in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures numbered 29,615. This great

increase proved transitory; in 1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered

32,282 and 33,775 respectively, while in the same years the emigrants

numbered 33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the

European population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian

extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.

_Provinces_.--The first division of the colony for the purposes of

administration and election of members for the legislative council was

into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the western being largely

Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly British. With the growth of the

colony these provinces were found to be inconveniently large, and by an

act of government, which became law in 1874, the country was portioned

out into seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were

formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. The seven

provinces are named from their geographical position: western,

north-western, south-western, eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and

midland. In general usage the distinction made is into western and

eastern provinces, according to the area of the primary division.

Griqualand West on its incorporation with the colony in 1880 became a

separate province, and when the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was

taken over by the Cape in 1895 it also became a separate province (see

GRIQUALAND and BECHUANALAND). For electoral purposes the Native

Territories (see KAFFRARIA) are included in the eastern province.

_Chief Towns_.--With the exception of Kimberley the principal towns (see

separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape Town, had a

population (1904) of 77,668, or including the suburbs, 169,641. The most

important of these suburbs, which form separate municipalities, are

Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg (18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley,

the centre of the diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape

Town, had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of

Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959

inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, 25,220.

Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. Uitenhage (pop.

12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Of the other towns Somerset

West (2613), Somerset West Strand (3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl

(11,293), Wellington (4881), Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon

(3508), Worcester (7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are

named in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam is

distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony are

Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West (5478), Victoria

West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of Mossel Bay (4206) and

George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), Middleburg (6137), Cradock

(7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more

centrally situated, while in the east are Graham's Town (13,887), King

William's Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp

(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North (5566), the

largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset East (5216).

Simon's Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of the British navy.

Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the colony near the Transvaal

frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg (2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad

(2903) is the capital of Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of

Tembuland.

Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, whose

headquarters are at O'okiep (2106). Knysna, Port Alfred and Port St

Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and Barkly West are two widely

separated towns, the first being E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West

in Griqualand West. Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the

middle course of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on

the north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western part

of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining region in

the east of the colony. The general plan of the small country towns is

that of streets laid out at right angles, and a large central market

square near which are the chief church, town hall and other public

buildings. In several of the towns, notably those founded by the early

Dutch settlers, the streets are tree-lined. Those towns for which no

population figures are given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000

inhabitants.

_Agriculture and Allied Industries._--Owing to the scarcity of water

over a large part of the country the area of land under cultivation is

restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are pastoralists, whose

wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep and goats, horses, and,

in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of adequate irrigation much

fertile soil is left untouched.

The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000 bushels

in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and Kaffir corn (a

kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing districts are in the

south-western and eastern provinces. The yield per acre is fully up to

the average of the world's yield, computed at twelve bushels to the

acre. The quality of Cape wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives

its name to the Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower

hills of Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and

horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and Kaffir

corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider area than any

other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest crop grown. They are

often cut whilst still tender, dried and used as forage being known as

oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of about 5-1/2 lb each were produced in

1904). The principal vegetables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold

and beet, beans and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small,

whilst those devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging

from 3000 acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers

own the farms they occupy.

The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief

occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 woolled and

3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There were 2,775,000 angora and

4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000

asses. These figures showed in most cases a large decrease compared with

those obtained in 1891, the cause being largely the ravages of

rinderpest. Lucerne and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich

farms are maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country,

young birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres

supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated ostriches in

1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over 200,000 since 1891. There

are large mule-breeding establishments on the veld.

Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. It is

doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to the Cape. The

first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, while the cuttings of

French vines introduced by the Huguenots about 1688 have given rise to

an extensive culture in the south-western districts of the colony. The

grapes are among the finest in the world, whilst the fruit is produced

in almost unrivalled abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of

wine are produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000,

and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides

1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those known as

Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. The high reputation

which they had in the first half of the 19th century was afterwards lost

to a large extent. Owing to greater care on the part of growers, and the

introduction of French-American resistant stocks to replace vines

attacked by the phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th

century again acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater

part of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the colony.

The chief wine-producing districts are those of the Paarl, Worcester,

Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and the Cape, all in the

south-western regions. Beyond the colony proper there are promising vine

stocks in the Gordonia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata

district of Tembuland.

Fruit culture has become an important industry with the facilities

afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in Europe. The trees

whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection and yield the largest

harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and apple. Large quantities of

table grapes are also grown. Many millions of each of the fruits named

are produced annually. The pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees

likewise flourish. Cherry trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive

was begun in the western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn,

Stockenstroom, Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is

grown. The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 lb.

Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to that of

diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres are Port Elizabeth

and the Cape district. In 1904 the output of the mills was valued at

over L2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 bushels of wheat being ground.

Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown property

and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries were little developed

before 1897 when government experiments were begun, which proved that

large quantities of fish were easily procurable by trawling. Large

quantities of soles are obtained from a trawling ground near Cape

Agulhas. The collection of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is

under government control.

_Mining_.--The mineral wealth of the country is very great. The most

valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in Griqualand West and

also at Hopetown, and other districts along the Orange river. The

diamond-mining industry is almost entirely under the control of the De

Beers Mining Company. From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come

larger numbers of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the

world combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years

1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and a half

million carats, of the average annual value of L4,250,000, the average

price per carat being L1:13:3. From the other districts alluvial

diamonds are obtained of the average annual value of L250,000-L400,000.

They are finer stones than the Kimberley diamonds, having an average

value of L3:2:7 per carat.

Next in importance among mineral products are coal and copper. The

collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of considerable extent.

The Indwe mines are the most productive. The colonial output increased

from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 tons in 1904. The copper mines are

in Namaqualand, an average of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined

yearly. Copper was the first metal worked by white men in the colony,

operations beginning in 1852.

Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near Mafeking--the

outcrop extending about 30 m.---and, in small quantities, from mines in

the Knysna district. In the Cape and Paarl districts are valuable stone

and granite quarries. Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which

neighbourhood there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several

districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown and Uitenhage

divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near Cape Town. Many other

minerals exist but are not put to industrial purposes.

_Trade_.--The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities,

but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods to and from the

Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. The staple exports are

diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich

feathers, mohair, hides and skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000

lb in 1860, had doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 lb in 1905 when

the export was valued at L1,887,459. In the same year (1905) 471,024 lb

of ostrich feathers were exported valued at L1,081,187. The chief

imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, timber, hardware

and machinery. The value of the total imports rose from L13,612,405 in

1895 to L33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped to L20,000,913 in 1905. The

exports in 1895 were valued at L16,798,137 and rose to L23,247,258 in

1899. The dislocation of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics

brought down the exports in 1900 to L7,646,682 (in which year the value

of the gold exported was only L336,795). They rose to L10,000,000 and

L16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and in 1905 had reached

L33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold valued at L20,731,159.)

About 75% of the imports come from the United Kingdom or British

colonies, and nearly the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom.

The tonnage of ships entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from

10,175,903 in 1895 to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year 9/11ths of the

tonnage was British. It is interesting to compare the figures already

given with those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the

colony over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country was

under L1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over L4,500,000, in 1874 it

exceeded L10,500,000. It remained at about this figure until the

development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. The consequent great

increase in the carrying trade with the Transvaal led to some neglect of

the internal resources of the colony. Trade depression following the war

of 1899-1902 turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory

results. The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was

L12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony being

L15,302,854. A "trade balance-sheet" for 1906 drawn up for the Cape Town

chamber of commerce by its president showed, however, a debtor account

of L18,751,000 compared with a credit account of L17,931,000, figures

representing with fair accuracy the then economic condition of the

country.

Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. The tariff,

revised in 1906, is protective with a general _ad valorem_ rate of 15%

on goods not specifically enumerated. On machinery generally there is a

3% _ad valorem_ duty. Books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are

on the free list. There is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United

Kingdom, machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.

_Communications_.--There is regular communication between Europe and the

colony by several lines of steamships. The British mails are carried

under contract with the colonial government by packets of the

Union-Castle Steamship Co., which leave Southampton every Saturday and

Cape Town every Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m.,

according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the distance

in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers sail once a week, or

oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) East London (543 m., three

days) and Durban (823 m., four or five days); Mossel Bay being called at

once a fortnight. Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated

intervals for Port Nolloth.

Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (_Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie_), starting from

Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three chief Cape ports.

The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, the eastern route is via

the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines of steamers ply between Cape

Town and Australian ports, and others between Cape Colony and India.

There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers crossing

main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the colony is that which

spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is 1480 ft. long and cost L114,000. Of

the roads in general it may be said that they are merely tracks across

the veld made at the pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally

used as a draught animal in country districts remote from railways;

sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying 3 to 4

tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted the ox-wagon for

bringing agricultural produce to market. The "Scotch cart," a light

two-wheeled vehicle is also much used.

_Railways_.--Railway construction began in 1859 when a private company

built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, 64 m. long, was

the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen years. In 1871

parliament resolved to build railways at the public expense, and in 1873

(the year following the conferment of responsible government on the

colony) a beginning was made with the work, L5,000,000 having been voted

for the purpose. In the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was

bought by the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private

companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving

subsidies from the government, which owns and works the greater part of

the railways in the colony.

The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines from the

seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines then begun

determined the development of the whole system. The standard gauge in

South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways mentioned are of that

gauge unless otherwise stated.

The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified under

three great systems:--the Western, the Midland and the Eastern.

The Western system--the southern section of the Cape to Cairo

route--starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley (647 m.) to Vryburg

(774 m.), whence it is continued by the Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking

(870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623

m.) and the Belgian Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs

via Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen Streams, a

station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via Klerksdorp to

Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most direct route between Cape

Town and the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955

m.)

The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main line runs by

Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval's Pont on the Orange river, whence it

is continued through the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal by

Bloemfontein to Johannesburg (714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria

(741 m.). From Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and

Johannesburg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban,

and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and Port

Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line (186 m.) runs by

Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the main line at Rosmead, from

which a junction line (83 m.) runs eastwards, connecting with the

Eastern system at Stormberg. From Naauwpoort another junction line (69

m.) runs north-west, connecting the Midland with the Western system at

De Aar, and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from Cape

Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg via

Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)

The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal line runs

to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, where it joins the

line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. (Distance from East London to

Johannesburg, 665 m.) From Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a

branch, originally the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).

The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways running for

the most part parallel with the coast. Starting from Worcester, 109 m.

from Cape Town on the western main line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via

Swellendair and Riversdale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George,

Oudtshoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from

Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town 666 m.) From

Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King William's Town to Blaney

junction on the eastern main line and 31 m. from East London. The

Somerset East line crosses, at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line

from Port Elizabeth to the north, and by this route the distance between

Port Elizabeth and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905

of the Somerset East-King William's Town line, the nearest railway

connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and Stormberg

junction--a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom junction on the eastern

main line a branch railway goes through the Transkei to connect at

Riverside, the frontier station, with the Natal railways. It runs via

the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and

Kokstad. From Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also

connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, a station

51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata (180 m. distant).

Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns (307 m. from East London),

whence another line 142 m. long goes to Kokstad.

Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all the towns

within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked to it by railway. Longer

branches run from the capital S.E. to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via

Malmesbury (47 m.), and Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A

line runs N.W. across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line

via Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, a line

(111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange river. From

Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, whence another

line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie

river. Another line (179 m.) on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port

Elizabeth via Humansdorp to Avontuur.

A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from Port

Nolloth on the west coast to the O'okiep copper mines (92 m.). It has a

gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.

The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively short

distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the Karroo. The

steepest gradient is on the western main line. Having entered the hilly

district at Tulbagh Road, where the railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the

Hex River Pass is reached soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above

the sea. In the next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that

distance being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is

the most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from East

London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. from its

starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., at Cathcart (109

m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, where it pierces the

Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, the rails are 5450 ft. above the

sea. From Sterkstroom to Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The

highest railway station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the

Zuurberg, on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems.

The capital expended on government railways to the end of 1905 was

L29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of L10,034. The gross earnings in

1905 were L4,047,065 (as compared with L3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses

L3,076,920 (as compared with L1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in

1905 numbered 20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000

lb).

_Posts and Telegraphs_.--Direct telegraphic communication between London

and Cape Town was established on Christmas day 1879. Cables connect the

colony with Europe (1) via Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena,

Ascension and St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar

and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and Cocos.

An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, on Lake

Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other lines connect Cape Town

with all other South African states, while within the colony there is a

complete system of telegraphic communication, over 8000 m. of lines

being open in 1906. The telephone service is largely developed in the

chief towns. The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely

built, at a cost up to 1906 of L865,670, by the government, which in

1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).

The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the reach of

the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts of Gordonia

(Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. Since 1890 a yearly

average of over 50,000,000 has passed through the post. Of these about

four-fifths are letters.

_Constitution and Government_.--Under the constitution established in

1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature consisted of

two chambers, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. Members of

the Legislative Council or Upper House represented the provinces into

which the colony was divided and were elected for seven years; members

of the House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for five

years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. At the head

of the executive was a governor appointed by the crown. By the South

Africa Act 1909 this constitution was abolished as from the

establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Cape Colony entered

the Union as an original province, being represented in the Union

parliament by eight members in the Senate and fifty-one in the House of

Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the election of members of

the House of Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at

the establishment of the Union, and are as follows:--Voters must be born

or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape province at least

twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no distinction being made as to

race or colour), must be in possession of property worth L75, or in

receipt of salary or wages of not less than L50 a year. No one not an

elector in 1892 can be registered as a voter unless he can sign his name

and write his address and occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does

not qualify for a vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified

for election to parliament (see further SOUTH AFRICA). The number of

registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 were

non-Europeans.

For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting of the

same number of members as are elected by the province to the House of

Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the council are the same as

for the House of Assembly. All voters, European and non-European, are

eligible for seats on the council, but any councillor who becomes a

member of parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial

council. The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation

within the province for purely local purposes, and generally controls

all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. The

council was also given, for five years following the establishment of

the Union, control of elementary education. All ordinances passed by the

council must have the sanction of the Union government before coming

into force. The council is elected for three years and is not subject to

dissolution save by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an

official appointed by the Union government and styled administrator of

the province. The administrator holds his post for a period of five

years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting of four

persons elected by the provincial council but not necessarily members of

that body.

To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the divisional

and municipal councils of the province, but the powers of such

subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn by the Union

parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, which are elected

triennially, were established in 1855. In 1908 they numbered eighty-one.

The councils are presided over by a civil commissioner who is also

usually resident magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the

division; can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money on

the security of the rates for public works; and return three members

yearly to the district licensing court. Their receipts in 1908 were

L269,000; their expenditure in the same period was L283,000. The

electors to the divisional councils are the owners or occupiers of

immovable property. Members of the councils must be registered voters

and owners of immovable property in the division valued at not less than

L500.

Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for the most

part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal Act of 1882.

Certain municipalities have, however, obtained special acts for their

governance. In 1907 there were 110 municipalities in the province. Under

the act of 1882 the municipalities were given power to levy annually an

owner's rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and a

tenant's rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. No rate

may exceed 2d. in the L on the capital value or 8d. in the L on the

annual value. The receipts of the municipalities in 1907 amounted to

L1,430,000. During the same period the expenditure amounted to

L1,539,000.

_Law and Justice_.--The basis of the judicial system is the Roman-Dutch

law, which has been, however, modified by legislation of the Cape

parliament. In each division of the province there is a resident

magistrate with primary jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The

South Africa Act 1909 created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the

supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town,

becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over

by a judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony,

namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham's Town, and the

high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, became local divisions

of the Supreme Court of South Africa. Each of these courts consists of a

judge-president and two puisne judges. The provincial and local courts,

besides their original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which

the government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which the

validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into question. From the

decisions of these courts appeals may be made to the appellate division

of the Supreme Court. The judges of the divisional courts go on circuit

twice a year. In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at

Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond buying

("I.D.B."). This court consists of two judges of the supreme court and

one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner or the resident

magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian territories, which fall under

the jurisdiction of the eastern district court, are subject to a Native

Territories Penal Code, which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual

magistrates in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident

at Cape Town, with two assistants in the territories.

_Religion_.--Up to the year 1876 government provided an annual grant for

ecclesiastical purposes which was divided among the various churches,

Congregationalists alone declining to receive state aid. From that date,

in accordance with the provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants

were only continued to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed

Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the country,

is by far the most numerous community. Next in number of adherents among

the white community come the Anglicans--Cape Colony forming part of the

Province of South Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to

preside over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape

Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later, however,

separate bishops were appointed for the eastern province (with the seat

at Graham's Town) and for Natal. Subsequently another bishopric, St

John's, Kaffraria, was created and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the

rank of archbishop. Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber

the Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people. The

Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham's Town, but are

comparatively few. There are, besides, several foreign missions in the

colony, the most important being the Moravian, London and Rhenish

missionary societies. The Moravians have been established since 1732.

The following figures are extracted from the census returns of

1904:--Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118; Jews, 19,537;

Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; "no religion," 1,016,255. In

this last category are placed the pagan natives. The figures for the

chief Protestant sects were:--Dutch Reformed Church, 399,487;

Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209; Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433;

Presbyterians, 88,660; Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other

Methodists, 290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the

Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and Bechuanas

26% were returned as Christians.

_Education_.--There is a state system of primary education controlled by

a superintendent-general of education and the education department which

administers the parliamentary grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of

public schools, drawn up by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into

operation, and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive

scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the colony into

school districts under the control of popularly elected school boards,

which were established during 1905-1906. These boards levy, through

municipal or divisional councils, a rate for school purposes and

supervise all public and poor schools. The schools are divided into

public undenominational elementary schools; day schools and industrial

institutions for the natives; mission schools to which government aid

for secular instruction is granted; private farm schools, district

boarding schools, training schools for teachers, industrial schools for

poor whites, &c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were

open. Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of the

white population over fourteen years old could read and write. In the

same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and 53,000 could read

but not write. There are also numbers of private schools receiving no

government aid. These include schools maintained by the German

community, in which the medium of instruction is German.

The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of London,

stands at the head of the educational system of the colony. It arose out

of and superseded the board of public examiners (which had been

constituted in 1858), was established in 1874 and was granted a royal

charter in 1877. It is governed by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who

is chairman of the university council) and a council consisting (1909)

of 38 members, including representatives of Natal. The university is

empowered to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university

in Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B., and

M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature, science and

music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The number of students who

matriculated rose from 34 in 1875 to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in

1905. The examinations are open to candidates irrespective of where they

have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants are paid to

seven colleges that specially devote themselves to preparing students

for the graduation courses. These are the South African College at Cape

Town (founded in 1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the

Diocesan College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham's

Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines at Kimberley

and the Huguenot Ladies' College at Wellington. Several denominational

colleges, receiving no government aid, do the same work in a greater or

less degree, the best known being St Aidan's (Roman Catholic) College

and Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham's Town. Graaff Reinet

College, Dale College, King William's Town, and the Grey Institute, Port

Elizabeth, occupy the place of high schools under the education

department. The Theological Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares

theological students for the ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town

is a Royal Observatory, founded in 1829, one of the most important

institutions of its kind in the world. It is under the control of a

royal astronomer and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty.

_Defence_.--The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to repelling

attacks from the sea. Simon's Town, which is on the east side of the

peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and West Coast naval

squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also Table Bay. Port Elizabeth

is likewise fortified against naval attack. A strong garrison of the

British army is stationed in the colony, with headquarters at Cape Town.

The cost of this garrison is borne by the imperial government. For

purposes of local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted

Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has been

maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape Mounted Riflemen

and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty is to preserve order in the

Transkeian territories. The Cape Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are

also available for the defence of the colony and are fully armed. There

are numerous volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the

government. By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between

eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as

within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force.

_Revenue, Debt, &c._--The following table shows the total receipts

(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts) of the

colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:--

+-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+

| | Receipts. | |

| Year ending +----------------+--------------------+ Payments. |

| 30th June. | Total. | Loans | |

| | |(included in total).| |

+-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+

| 1880 | L3,556,601 | L3,742,665 |

| 1885 | L3,814,947 | L496,795 | 4,211,832 |

| 1890 | 5,571,907 | 1,141,857 | 5,327,496 |

| 1895 | 5,416,611 | 26,441 | 5,388,157 |

| 1900 | 6,565,752 | 128,376 | 7,773,230 |

| 1905 | 13,856,247 | 5,214,290 | 10,914,784 |

+-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+

The colony had a public debt of L42,109,561 on the 31st of December

1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, &c.,

but guaranteed in the general revenue. The greater part of the loans

were issued at 3-1/2 or 4% interest. Nearly the whole of the loans raised

have been spent on railways, harbours, irrigation and other public

works. The value of assessed property for divisional council purposes

was returned in 1905 at L87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional

councils increased from L160,558 in 1901 to L273,543 in 1905, and the

expenditure from L170,892 in 1901 to L243,241 in 1905. The receipts

from municipal rates and taxes rose from L520,587 in 1901 to L700,103 in

1905; the total municipal receipts in the same period from L978,867 to

L1,752,105. At the end of 1905 the total indebtedness of the

municipalities was L5,775,420, and the value of assessed property within

the municipal bounds L53,948,224.

_Banks._--The following table gives statistics of the banks under trust

laws:--

+----------+------------------------------------+--------------+------------+

| | Including Head Offices. | | Assets and |

| 31st +------------+-----------+-----------+ Circulation, |Liabilities |

| December.| Capital | Capital | Reserve | Colony only. |Colony only.|

| | Subscribed.| Paid up. | | | |

+----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+

| 1890 | L5,780,610 |L1,558,612 | L850,489 | L740,210 | L9,221,661 |

| 1895 | 7,189,090 | 2,382,003 | 1,008,837 | 612,266 | 11,864,152 |

| 1900 | 12,166,800 | 6,508,308 | 1,810,621 | 1,361,637 | 20,537,343 |

| 1905 | 11,510,900 | 4,456,925 | 2,948,428 | 1,065,251 | 20,749,988 |

+----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+

_Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures_.--Since 1903 a standard

time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being that of 30 deg. or

two hours east of Greenwich. In other words noon in South Africa

corresponds to 10.0 A.M. in London. The actual difference between the

meridians of Greenwich and Cape Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The

monetary system is that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation

are exclusively British. Though all the standard weights and measures

are British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:--_Liquid

Measure_: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half aum = 15-1/2

imperial gallons; anker = 7-1/2 imperial gallons. _Capacity_: Muid = 3

bushels. The general surface measure is the old Amsterdam _Morgen_,

reckoned equal to 2.11654 acres; 1000 Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033

British imperial feet. The Cape ton is 2000 lb.

_The Press_.--The first newspaper of the colony, written in Dutch and

English, was published in 1824, and its appearance marked an era not

only in the literary but in the political history of the colony, since

it drew to a crisis the disputes which had arisen between the colonists

and the governor, Lord Charles Somerset, who had issued a decree

prohibiting all persons from convening or attending public meetings. Its

criticisms on public affairs soon led to its suppression by the

governor, and a memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for

a free press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in

1828, and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by

public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are

divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the British or

the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both sides. There are

about one hundred newspapers in English or Dutch published in the

colony.

The chief papers are the _Cape Times, Cape Argus, South African News_

(Bond), both daily and weekly; the _Diamond Fields Advertiser_

(Kimberley) and the _Eastern Province Herald_ (Port Elizabeth). _Ons

Land_ and _Het Dagblad_ are Dutch papers published at Cape Town.

(F. R. C.)