[1] The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th
century, have been published several times, notably in the great
collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c.; they will be found brought
together in one small volume in Bruns, _Canones apostolorum et
conciliorum_ (Berlin, 1839).
[2] The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed to
343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by M.
Chabot, _Synodicon Orientale_, p. 278, note 4.
[3] See Boudinhon, "Note sur le concile de Laodicee," in the _Compte
rendu du premier congres des savants catholiques a Paris_, 1888
(Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420.
[4] For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that
of the Eastern Churches, see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, SS 14-183 (ed.
1893). The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek
ecclesiastical law.
[5] Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet,
_Fulg. Ferrandi opera_ (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, _Patr.
Lat._ vol. 67, col. 949.
[6] Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol.
ii. (Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned
dissertations, _Opera S. Leonis_, vol. iii., Migne, _P.L. 56._
[7] Malnory, _Saint Cesaire d'Arles_ (Paris, 1894).
[8] _Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae_ (Madrid, 1808); reproduced
in Migne, _P.L. 84._
[9] L. Duchesne, "Le Concile d'Elvire" in the _Melanges Renier_.
[10] For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnungen der
abendlandischen Kirche_ (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, _Die
Bussbucher und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche_ (2 vols., Mainz, 1883,
1898).
[11] This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of
Wasserschleben and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, "Etude sur les
Penitentiels," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature
religieuses_, vol. vi. (1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp.
59-70 and 121-127.
[12] In Migne, _P.L._ 105, col. 651.
[13] Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier,
"De l'influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des
collections canoniques," in _Nouvelle Revue historique de droit
francais et etranger_, vol. xxiii, note I.
[14] The collection of the False Decretals has been published with a
long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, _Decretales
Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (Leipzig, 1863). For the
rest of the bibliography, see DECRETALS (FALSE).
[15] The latest edition is in Pertz, _Monumenta Germaniae_, vol. ii.
part ii.
[16] Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840); reproduced by Migne,
_P.L. 132._
[17] Edited several times; in Migne, _P.L. 140._
[18] P. Fournier, "Le Premier Manuel canonique de la reforme du XIe
siecle," in _Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome_, xiv. (1894).
[19] Unpublished.
[20] Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection
see Wolf von Glanvell, _Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit_
(Paderborn, 1905).
[21] Unpublished.
[22] Several times edited; in Migne, _P.L._ 161. See P. Fournier,
"Les Collections canoniques attribuees a Yves de Chartres,"
_Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartres_ (1896 and 1897).
[23] Printed in Martene, _Nov. Thesaur. anecdot._ vol. v. col. 1019.
[24] See P. Fournier, "Deux Controverses sur les origines du Decret
de Gratien," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature religieuses_,
vol. iii. (1898), pp. n. 2 and 3.
[25] See Laurin, _Introductio in corpus juris canonici_, c. vii. p.
73.
[26] By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts
inserted there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged
edition of the _Quinque compilationes_ (Leipzig, 1882).
[27] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summa des Paucapaiea_ (Giessen, 1890).
[28] Edited by Thaner, _Die Summa Magistri Rolandi_ (Innsbruck,
1874); later by Gietl, _Die Sentenzen Rolands_ (Freiburg im B.,
1891).
[29] Edited by H. Singer, _Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus_
(Paderborn, 1902).
[30] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis_
(Giessen, 1891).
[31] He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres,
_Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium_ (Mainz, 1860). The
commentaries of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently
published.
[32] The history of this commission and the rules which it followed
for editing the _Decretum_, will be found in Laurin, _Introductio in
corpus juris canonici_, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg's
edition of the _Decretum_.
[33] Quoted by Hogan, _Clerical Studies_, p. 235.
[34] There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That
which is favoured by canonists is Richter's edition (Leipzig, 1863),
in which each chapter _de reformatione_ is followed by a selection of
decisions of the S.C. of the council.
[35] Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have
escaped destruction: _Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo
nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII._ (Freiburg im
B., 1870).
[36] _Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio_, per
Conradum Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152.
CANOPUS, or CANOBUS, an ancient coast town of Lower Egypt, a hundred and
twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria, the principal port in Egypt
for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, situated at the
mouth of the westernmost (Canopic or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on
the western bank. The channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the
western end of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the
shore at Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays,
&c. Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name of Rameses
II., but they may have been brought at a late period for the adornment
of the place. It is not certain that Canopus was an old Egyptian town,
but it appears in Herodotus as an ancient port. In the 9th year of
Ptolemy Euergetes (239 B.C.) a great assembly of priests at Canopus
passed an honorific degree, _inter alia_, conferring the title [Greek:
Euergetaes] "Benefactor" on the king. Two examples of this decree are
known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From it we learn
that the native form of the name of Canopus was Karob. A temple of
Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very near to Canopus was an older
shrine, a temple of Heracles mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for
fugitive slaves. The decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon.
Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with a
human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who
was said to have been buried here: the name canopic has been applied,
through an old misunderstanding, to the vases with human and animal
heads in which the internal organs were placed by the Egyptians after
embalming. In the Roman epoch the town was notorious for its
dissoluteness. Aboukir means "father Cyrus," referring to a Coptic saint
of that name. (F. Ll. G.)
CANOPY (through Fr. _canape_, from Med. Lat. _canapeum_, classical
_conopeum_, a mosquito curtain, Gr. [Greek: konops], a gnat), the upper
part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over an altar or
scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally simple, with
trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later styles they are very
rich, and divided into compartments with pendants, knots, pinnacles, &c.
The triangular arrangement over an Early English and Decorated doorway
is often called a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy
are peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement of
the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds to
them, as at York. The former are above and independent of the door
mouldings, and frequently support an arch with a tympanum, above which
is a triangular canopy, as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the
canopy and arch project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb
shafts, as at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely
curious canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking
into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often over
windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower tiers in the
towers. These are triangular, while the upper windows in the towers have
ogee canopies.
CANOSA (anc. _Canusium_), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto (anc. _Aufidus_), 505 ft.
above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It
was rebuilt in 963 below the Roman city, which had been abandoned after
its devastation by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral
of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the southern
Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has five domes (resembling
St Mark's at Venice, except that it is a Latin cross, instead of a Greek
cross, in plan) and many ancient columns. The archiepiscopal throne and
pulpit of the end of the 11th century are also fine. On the south side
of the building is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert
Guiscard, who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in
the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions; the
exterior is entirely faced with _cipollino_ (Carystian) marble. The
conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this period, was
undoubtedly derived from the _turbeh_ before a mosque; these turbehs are
square, domed-roofed tombs in which the sultans and distinguished
Mahommedans are buried (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_,
Paris, 1904, i. 312). A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of
which the city stands. (See CANUSIUM.) (T. As.)
CANOSSA, a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia, Italy, 12
m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of the Apennines. It
belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany (d. 1115), and is famous as
the scene of the penance performed by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope
Gregory VII. in 1077. The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of
Reggio in 1255.
CANOVA, ANTONIO (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born on the 1st of
November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village situated amid the
recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of
the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three
years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and
his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the
tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother,
the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal
attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an
asylum in his house at Rome. His father and grandfather followed the
occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that
their family had for several ages supplied Passagno with members of that
calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated
into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter
possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed
well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental
works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he
looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also
the family profession.
The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was
to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this
predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved.
In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which
are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been
constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized
the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means
young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who
afterwards became his most zealous patron. Between the younger son,
Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated
only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his
immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since
repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial
circumstance--the moulding of a lion in butter--for the warm interest
which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true.
By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally
called by filiation, Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who
had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity
of the senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his
thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making
in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice,
where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke
of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist
to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of
Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with
the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement he began
to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a
group, "Orpheus and Eurydice." The first figure, which represents
Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed
towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his
patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to
appear before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied him
with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here
for nearly four years he laboured with the greatest perseverance and
industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he
carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and
imitation of nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for
their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted to
living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. A large
portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was
regarded by him as "the secret of the art." He likewise frequented
places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions
and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was
faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at
night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to
forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On
archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient
and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began
to acquire some of the continental languages.
Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his
chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the
Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work
was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several
groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of "Daedalus
and Icarus," the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The simplicity
of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them
called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now
generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the
Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the
commencement of his twenty-fourth year.
Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian
senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without
embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend
amounted to three hundred ducats (about L60 per annum), and was limited
to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the
Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous
protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner.
His arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era in
his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most
splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest
test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was
equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his
friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was "Theseus
vanquishing the Minotaur." The figures are of the heroic size. The
victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the
monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves
the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged.
Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's
style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur
and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration.
Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honour of Clement XIV.; but
before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission
from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in
consideration of the pension. This he solicited in person, and it was
granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated
studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of
unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for
the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years
were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to
public inspection in 1787 The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic
_dilettanti_, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times.
After five years of incessant labour, he completed another cenotaph to
the memory of Clement XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works
now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a
butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with
the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's
immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most
faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and
with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his
bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and
other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering
offers were sent him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to
St Petersburg, but these were declined. "Italy," says he, in writing of
the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country--is the country and
native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured
here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be
of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all
others?"
Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several
were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group
representing the "Parting of Venus and Adonis." This famous production
was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks
over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native
Passagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a
year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some
knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings about this time. One
of his productions is a picture representing the dead body of the
Saviour just removed from the cross, surrounded by the three Marys, S.
John, Joseph of Arimathea, and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus.
Above appears the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory,
and surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was
greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his native
place. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he
returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous
application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company
with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much
improved, and again commenced his labours with vigour and enthusiasm.
Canova's sculptures have been distributed under three heads:--(1) Heroic
compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and elegance; and (3) Sepulchral
monuments and relievos. In noticing the works which fall under each of
these divisions, it will be impossible to maintain a strict
chronological order, but perhaps a better idea of his productions may
thus be obtained. Their vast number, however, prevents their being all
enumerated.
(1) His "Perseus with the Head of Medusa" appeared soon after his
return. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with
conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon," whilst the right hand
grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work
was placed in one of the _stanze_ of the Vatican hitherto reserved for
the most precious works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say
that it wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier
realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini. In
1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired to Paris to
model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with
munificence, and various honours were conferred upon him. The statue,
which is colossal, was not finished till six years after. On the fall of
the great Napoleon, Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British
government, by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington.
"Palamedes," "Creugas and Damoxenus," the "Combat of Theseus and the
Centaur," and "Hercules and Lichas" may close the class of heroic
compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration
of various others, such as "Hector and Ajax," and the statues of
Washington, King Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of "Hercules
and Lichas" is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova's
mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled.
(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of
Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist
embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some
variation. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution
of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the
statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of
finish, strikingly elegant. The "Dancing Nymphs" maintain a character
similar to that of the Hebe. The "Graces" and the "Venus" are more
elevated. The "Awakened Nymph" is another work of uncommon beauty. The
mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa (as Concord), to model whom
the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess
Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in
this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura,
Beatrice and Helen of Troy.
(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the
monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting of
nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman pontiffs already mentioned,
there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a
small model of a cenotaph for Nelson, besides a great variety of
monumental relievos.
The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen
years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works
scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labours of
his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to
Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts
of Italy, he never quitted Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the
sole proofs of his civil existence." There was, however, another proof,
which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence,
especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to
superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had
formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his
zeal and exertions, for there were many conflicting interests to
reconcile, he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his
judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn of this year he
gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he
received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed
particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who might at the
time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there,
and whom he especially honoured for his championship of the Elgin
marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly
depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Canova returned to Rome in the
beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius.
Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction,--by the
hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of
the Capitol," and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with an
annual pension of 3000 crowns, about L625.
He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The
model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the
chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of
churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of
the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest
sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to
consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make
preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the
above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to
repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to
Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he gave to his
workmen, there occurred an incident which marks the kindliness of his
character. When the festivities of the day had terminated, he requested
the shepherdesses and peasantgirls of the adjacent hamlets to pass in
review before him, and to each he made a present, expending on the
occasion about L400. We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few
years afterwards, when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in
their last asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was
in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity of
more pompous mourning.
After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova
returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit
Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with
pecuniary rewards and medals. In the meantime the vast expenditure
exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labour with unceasing
assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which
intervened between commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he
executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were
the group "Mars and Venus," the colossal figure of Pius VI., the
"Pieta," the "St John," the "recumbent Magdalen." The last performance
which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count
Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the
construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured
Bourbon king Ferdinand. This journey materially injured his health, but
he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the
year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he
experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the
13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was
one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual
use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most
distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains, which were
deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of the same month.
Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in Italy, and
brought it back to that standard from which it had declined when the
sense both of classical beauty and moderation, and of Titanic invention
and human or superhuman energy as embodied by the unexampled genius of
Michelangelo, had succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of
the 17th and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a
special method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble. He
formed his models of the same size as the work was intended to be. The
prominent defect of Canova's attractive and highly trained art is that
which may be summed up in the word artificiality,--that quality, so
characteristic of the modern mind, which seizes upon certain properties
of conception and execution in the art of the past, and upon certain
types of beauty or emotion in life, and makes a compound of the
two--regulating both by the standard of taste prevalent in contemporary
"high society," a standard which, referring to cultivation and
refinement as its higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of
his moral character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most
prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized by his
works was distributed in acts of this description. He established prizes
for artists and endowed all the academies of Rome. The aged and
unfortunate were also the objects of his peculiar solicitude. His titles
were numerous. He was enrolled amongst the nobility of several states,
decorated with various orders of knighthood, and associated in the
highest professional honours.
See the _Life of Canova_ by Memes; that by Missirini; the _Biografia_
by the Count Cicognara; _Canova et ses ouvrages_, by Quatremere de
Quincy (1834); _Opere scelte di Antonio Canova_, by Anzelmi (Naples,
1842); _Canova_, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and _La Relazione del Canova
con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti_, by Angelo Borzelli
(1901). (W. M. R.)
CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO (1828-1897), Spanish statesman, was born
in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828. Educated in his native town, he
went to Madrid in 1845, bent upon finding means to complete his literary
and philosophical studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebanez Calderon,
found him a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but
Canovas soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to
support himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University.
During this period he published his two best works--an historical novel,
_Las Campanas de Huesca_, and the history of the decay of Spain from
Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria. He became a
politician through his Junius-like letters to the "Murcielago"--_The
Bat_, a satirical political journal--and by drawing up the manifesto of
Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal O'Donnell, of whom he always remained a
loyal adherent. Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor
of Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858,
under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the interior in
1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of finance in 1866, and
was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same year, afterwards becoming a
bitter opponent of all the reactionary cabinets until the revolution of
1868. He took no part in preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes
Constituyentes of 1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all
Radical and democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but
he abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on the
16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his political
friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets of King
Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would depend on the
concessions which government would make to Conservative principles.
After the abdication of Amadeus and the proclamation of the federal
republic, Canovas took the lead of the propaganda in favour of the
restoration of the Bourbons, and was their principal agent and adviser.
He drew up the manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII.,
at that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the military
men who were actively conspiring to organize an Alphonsist
_pronunciamiento_. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del Duero, he would have
preferred to let events develop enough to allow of the dynasty being
restored without force of arms, and he severely blamed the conduct of
the generals when he first heard of the _pronunciamiento_ of Marshal
Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th
of December 1874); but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed
Alphonso XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received
from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a regency
ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed his
appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier except during the
short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in 1875 and Marshal Campos for
a few months in 1879. Canovas was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration.
He had to reconstruct a Conservative party out of the least reactionary
parties of the days of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate
elements of the revolution. With such followers he made the constitution
of 1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise in
the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience,
rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking
democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating
the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican, the Church
and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists by his tariff
policy, and courting abroad the friendship of Germany and Austria after
contributing to the marriage of his king to an Austrian princess.
Canovas crowned his policy by countenancing the formation of a Liberal
party under Sagasta, flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal
generals, which took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883,
and remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular,
and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his violent repression of
popular and press demonstrations, and of student riots in Madrid and the
provinces. At the death of Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen
regent to send for Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he
looked on quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and
most of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of
free trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the
queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff policy
of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce, and passing in
1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the starting-point of the
decline in foreign trade, the advance of foreign exchanges, the decay of
railway traffic, and the monetary and financial crisis which continued
from 1892 to 1898. Splits in the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to
resign at the end of 1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months,
Canovas resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of
the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts, with
characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and means for
sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out his stern and
unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions and no reforms. He
was making up his mind for another effort to enable General Weyler to
enforce the reforms that had been wrung from the Madrid government, more
by American diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the
bullet of an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda,
cut short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the
greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He was not
only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of considerable
merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic and philosophical
questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a member of all the
Madrid academies and a patron of art and letters. (A. E. H.)
CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN (1809-1895), marshal of France, was born at
St Cere (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and educated at St Cyr; he
received a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1828, becoming lieutenant in
1833. He went to Algeria in 1835, served in the expedition to Mascara,
at the capture of Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year
he was wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of
Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing a
battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841 he was
again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1846 and colonel
of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the expedition against Ahmed
Sghir in 1848, and defeated the Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to
the Zouaves, he defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage
and energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in
command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December 1849). For
his valour on the latter occasion he received the rank of general of
brigade and the commandership of the Legion of Honour. He led the
expedition against Narah in 1850 and destroyed the Arab stronghold.
Summoned to Paris, he was made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis
Napoleon, and took part in the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December
1851. In the Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he
was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling him to command
in case of St Arnaud's death, and he thus succeeded to the chief command
of the French army a few days after the battle. He was slightly wounded
and had a horse killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of
Zouaves. Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in
general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the siege of
Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he did not return
to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old division almost up to
the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to France he was sent on
diplomatic missions to Denmark and Sweden, and made a marshal and
senator of France (grand cross Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.).
He commanded the III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing
himself at Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp at
Chalons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris. In the
Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps, which won the
greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte, where Canrobert
commanded on the St Privat position. The VI. corps was amongst those
shut up in Metz and included in the surrender of that fortress. After
the war Canrobert was appointed a member of the superior council of war,
and was also active in political life, being elected senator for Lot in
1876 and for Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the
28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral. His
_Souvenirs_ were published in 1898 at Paris.
CANT, ANDREW (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. About
1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to be their minister, but he was
rejected by James I. Ten years later he was minister of Pitsligo in
Aberdeenshire, a charge which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in
Mid-Lothian. In July of that year he went with other commissioners to
Aberdeen in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery
of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the following
November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow which abolished
episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain to the Scottish army and
then settled as minister at Aberdeen. Though a stanch Covenanter, he was
a zealous Royalist, preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and
stoutly advocating the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the
Commonwealth. Cant's frequent and bitter attacks on various members of
his congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates,
in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son Andrew was
principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685).
CANT, (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. _cantos_, corner), in
architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut off,
octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of which are not
parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said to be canted. (2)
(From the Lat. _cantare_, to sing, very early in use, in a depreciatory
sense, of religious services), a word appearing in English in the 16th
century 'for the whining speech of beggars; hence it is applied to
thieves' or gipsies' jargon, to the peculiar language of any class or
sect, to any current phrase or turn of language, and particularly to the
hypocritical use of pious phraseology.
CANTABRI, an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast of Spain near
Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind--a district hence known as
Cantabria. Savage and untameable mountaineers, they long defied the
Roman arms and made themselves a name for wild freedom. They were first
attacked by the Romans about 150 B.C.; they were not subdued till
Agrippa and Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 B.C.)
which ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land was
part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some measure of local
self-government. They became slowly Romanized, but developed little town
life and are rarely mentioned in history. They provided recruits for the
Roman _auxilia_, like their neighbours the Astures, and their land
contained lead mines, of which, however, little is known.
CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS (Span. _Cordillera Cantabrica_), a mountain chain
which extends for more than 300 m. across northern Spain, from the
western limit of the Pyrenees to the borders of Galicia, and on or near
the coast of the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrians stretch from east to
west, nearly parallel to the sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos,
afterwards trending southward between Leon and Galicia. Their western
boundary is marked by the valley of the river Mino (Portuguese Minho),
by the lower Sil, which flows into the Mino, and by the Cabrera, a small
tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the mountains of Galicia
beyond the Mino as an integral part of the same system; others confine
the name to the eastern half of the highlands between Galicia and the
Pyrenees, and call their western half the Asturian Mountains. There are
also many local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a
whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their intricate
ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in the east, it is
possible to distinguish two principal ranges, from which the lesser
ridges and mountain masses radiate. One range, or series of ranges,
closely follows the outline of the coast; the other, which is loftier,
forms the northern limit of the great tableland of Castile and Leon, and
is sometimes regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal
range rises in some parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so
abrupt a declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and
swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus of
Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the Ebro,
rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the Cantabrian
chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about 60 m. in the
east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are upwards of 6000 ft.
high, but the greatest altitudes are attained in the central ridges on
the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia and Santander. Here are the Pena
Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta (8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an
unnamed summit in the Penas de Europa, to which range the Pena Vieja
also belongs, rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045
ft.; farther west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubina, Rubia and Cuina all
exceed 7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent
tableland, is the number of its _parameras_, isolated plateaus shut in
by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At the
south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a lake-bed, now
a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by mountains which
bifurcate from the main range south of the pass of Leitariegos--the
Sierra de Justredo and Montanas de Leon curving towards the east and
south-west, the Sierra de Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges
curving towards the west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in
coal and iron; an account of their geological structure is given under
SPAIN. They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their
eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of Pajares,
the railway from Leon to Gijon passes through the Perruca tunnel, which
is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level; the railway descends
northward through fifty-eight smaller tunnels. The line from Leon to
Orense also traverses a remarkable series of tunnels, bridges and deep
cuttings.
CANTACUZINO, CANTACUZEN or CANTACUZENE, the name of a family which
traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and writers of the same name
(see under JOHN V., Cantacuzene). The founder of the family, Andronik,
migrated to Rumania in 1633, and from his two sons Constantine and
Gheorge sprang the two principal lines which afterwards branched into
numerous families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars
(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were represented in
every branch of administration and in the world of letters. Under their
influence the Rumanian language and literature in the 17th century
reached their highest development. Among the more prominent members of
the family the following may be mentioned, (1) SHERBAN CANTACUZINO
(1640-1688), appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the
Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is alleged
that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople to drive the
Turks out of Europe, the western powers having promised him their moral
support. In the midst of his preparations he died suddenly, poisoned, it
is said, by the boyars who were afraid of his vast plans. Far more
important was his activity in economic and literary directions. He
introduced the maize into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the
country. He founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted
liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and under
his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in Bucharest in 1688.
Through his influence also the Slavonic language was officially and
finally abolished from the liturgy and the Rumanian language substituted
for it. (2) STEFAN CANTACUZINO, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia,
1714-1716. (3) DEMETRIUS CANTACUZINO, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676. He
left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and Sherban have
emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there as governors of
Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4) Of the Moldavian
Cantacuzinos, THEODORE is well known as a chronicler of his times (c.
1740). (5) GHEORGE CANTACUZINO (b. 1837), son of GREGORI (1800-1849). He
was appointed in 1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in
1889, president of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from
1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905 to 1907 prime
minister (see also RUMANIA: _History_). (M. G.)
CANTAGALLO, an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, about
100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro, with which it is
connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop. (1890) of the municipality,
26,067, of whom less than one-fourth live in the town. Cantagallo is
situated in the fertile Parahyba valley and is the commercial centre of
a rich coffee-producing district. There are exhausted gold placer mines
in its vicinity, but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable
development in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry, but
sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention is given to
the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an excellent fruit
region.
CANTAL, a department of central France, formed from Haute-Auvergne, the
southern portion of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded N. by
the department of Puy-de-Dome, E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozere, S. by
Aveyron and Lozere, and W. by Correze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop.
(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central plateau
of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal, a volcanic group
occupying its central region, and continued towards the north and east
by ranges of lower altitude. The Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit
of the department, attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the
Puy Mary and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft.
respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies the
lofty but fertile plateau of Planeze, which merges into the Monts de la
Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the Truyere skirts the
Planeze on the south and divides it from the Monts d'Aubrac, at the foot
of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted for its thermal springs, the most
important in the department. Northwards the Monts du Cantal are
connected with the Monts Dore by the volcanic range of Cezallier and the
arid plateaus of Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus
and beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central heights.
Most of the streams of the department have their sources in this central
ridge and fall by a short and rapid course into the rivers which
traverse the extensive valleys on either side. The principal rivers are
the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier; the Celle and Truyere,
tributaries of the Lot; and the Cere and Rue, tributaries of the
Dordogne. The climate of the department varies considerably in the
different localities. In the alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour,
and in the south-west in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally
mild and dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are
long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The cold and damp
of the climate in these districts are great obstacles to the cultivation
of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown in considerable quantities,
and in natural pasture Cantal is extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly
reared with profit, especially around Salers and in the Monts d'Aubrac,
while butter and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large
flocks of sheep pasture in the Monts d'Aubrac and elsewhere in the
department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple and
primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare. Many of them
migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces, where they
engage in the humblest occupations. The principal articles of food are
rye, buckwheat and chestnuts. The internal resources of the department
are considerable; but the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them
being sufficiently developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and
the streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic and
medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal, antimony and
lime. The department has no prominent manufactures. Live-stock, cheese,
butter and coal are the principal exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour
and earthenware are imported. The department is served by the railways
of the Orleans and Southern companies, the construction of which at some
points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the case of
the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyere. Cantal is
divided into four arrondissements--Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and St
Flour--23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs to the region of the
XIII. army corps and to the academie (educational division) of
Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is at St Flour and depends on the
archbishopric of Bourges. Its court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is
Aurillac (q.v.), and St Flour (q.v.) is the other principal town.
CANTARINI, SIMONE (1612-1648), called SIMONE DA PESARO, painter and
etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612. He was a disciple of
Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino and Albano. The
irritability of his temper and his vanity were extreme; and it is said
that his death, which took place at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by
chagrin at his failure in a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others
relate that he was poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured.
His pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in
originality. Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido
Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the
extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are "St
Anthony," at Cagli; the "Magdalene," at Pesaro; the "Transfiguration,"
in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the "Portrait of Guido," in the Bologna
gallery; and "St Romuald," in the Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated
etching is "Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal
Borghese."
CANTATA (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal composition
accompanied by instruments and generally containing more than one
movement. In the 16th century, when all serious music was vocal, the
term had no reason to exist, but with the rise of instrumental music in
the 17th century cantatas began to exist under that name as soon as the
instrumental art was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the
middle of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of
Italian chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with
accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo instruments.
It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative,
held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples
may be found in the church music of Carissimi; and the English vocal
solos of Purcell (such as _Mad Tom_ and _Mad Bess_) show the utmost that
can be made of this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the
cantata became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative.
Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a rather large
scale. His Latin motet _Silete Venti_, for soprano solo, shows the use
of this form in church music.
The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large scale, to
become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera. In the same way the
church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small
oratorio or portion of an oratorio. This is equally evident whether we
examine the unparalleled church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200
are extant, or the _Chandos Anthems_ of Handel. In Bach's case many of
the larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the _Christmas
Oratorio_ is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended for
performance on six different days, though together forming as complete
an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.
The essential point, however, in Bach's church cantatas is that they
formed part of a church service, and moreover of a service in which the
organization of the music was far more coherent than is possible in the
Anglican church. Many of Bach's greatest cantatas begin with an
elaborate chorus followed by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end
with a plain chorale. This has often been commented upon as an example
of Bach's indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no
one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church cantata
occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was carefully based
upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless the cantata was short the
sermon probably took place after the first chorus or one of the arias,
and the congregation joined in the final chorale. Thus the unity of the
service was the unity of the music; and, in the cases where all the
movements of the cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune,
this unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century masses
and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones of the festival
for which they are written.
In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively to
choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has, perhaps, been
only one kind of cantata since Bach which can be recognized as an art
form and not as a mere title for works otherwise impossible to classify.
It is just possible to recognize as a distinct artistic type that kind
of early 19th-century cantata in which the chorus is the vehicle for
music more lyric and songlike than the oratorio style, though at the
same time not excludeing the possibility of a brilliant climax in the
shape of a light order of fugue. Beethoven's _Glorreiche Augenblick_ is
a brilliant "pot-boiler" in this style; Weber's _Jubel Cantata_ is a
typical specimen, and Mendelssohn's _Walpurgisnacht_ is the classic.
Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata," the _Lobgesang_, is a hybrid work,
partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic
movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's ninth symphony;
but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven's work is a symphony of
which the fourth movement is a choral finale of essentially single
design, whereas Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata" is a cantata with three
symphonic preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral
songs were realized at last by Brahms in his _Rinaldo_, set to a text
which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of the
_Walpurgisnacht_. The point of Brahms's work (his only experiment in
this _genre_) has naturally been lost by critics who expected in so
voluminous a composition the qualities of an elaborate choral music with
which it has nothing whatever to do. Brahms has probably said the last
word on this subject; and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with
Beethoven's _Meeres-stille_, and including most of Brahms's and many
notable English small choral works) are merely so many different ways of
setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be comprised in
one movement. (D. F. T.)
CANTEEN (through the Fr. _cantine_, from Ital. _cantina_, a cellar), a
word chiefly used in a military sense for an official sutler's shop,
where provisions, &c., are sold to soldiers. The word was formerly
applied also to portable equipments for carrying liquors and food, or
for cooking in the field. Another sense of the word, which has survived
to the present day, is that of a soldier's water-bottle, or of a small
wooden or metal can for carying a workman's liquor, &c.
CANTEMIR, the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin, which came
from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in Moldavia.
CONSTANTINE CANTEMIR became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693. He was a
good and conscientious ruler, who protected the people from the rapacity
of the tax-gatherers and introduced peace into his country. He was
succeeded on the throne by his son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700
and 1705-1707.
His youngest brother, DEMETRIUS or DEMETER CANTEMIR (b. October 26,
1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he ruled only one year,
1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the
Turks and placed Moldavia under Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks,
Cantemir emigrated to Russia, where he and his family finally settled.
He died at Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest
linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being
well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and original
writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his writings range
over many subjects. The best known is his _History of the Growth and
Decay of the Ottoman Empire_. He also wrote a history of oriental music,
which is no longer extant; the first critical history of Moldo-Walachia;
the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of
Moldavia, _Descriptio Moldaviae_, under the name of _Historia
Hieroglyphica_, to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal
persons are represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling
houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical treatise on the
old theme of the disputation between soul and body, written in Greek and
Rumanian under the title _Divanul Lumii_.
The latter's son, ANTIOCH CANTEMIR (born in Moldavia, 1700; died in
Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great Britain, and in
1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He brought to London the Latin
MS. from whence the English translation of his father's history of the
Turkish empire was made by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an
exhaustive biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He
was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in modern
Russian literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Operele Principelui D. Cantemir_, ed. Academia Romana
(1872 foll.); A. Philippide, _Introducere in istoria limbei si
literat. romane_ (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, _Familiile
boeresti romane_ (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, _Chrestom.
romana_, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic). (M. G.)