FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Enarralio in Psalm civ._

[2] W.M. Muller, _Asien und Europa, _p. 205.

[3] The letters are written in the official and diplomatic

language--Babylonian, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are not

wanting.

[4] _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, _p. 181.

[5] These explanations are endorsed by Driver _ (Genesis, on _Gen. x.).

[6] See the relevant articles in _Ency. Bib. _and Cheyne's _Genesis

and Exodus._

[7] For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 127

f.; Paton, _Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine_ (1902), pp. 6-8,

25-28.

[8] It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name

differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), _kimta rapashtum_, "wide family." That,

however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism

or Arabism.

[9] See Cheyne, _Genesis and Exodus_ (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A.

Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscriptions_ (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's

inscription).

[10] See _Amarna Letters_, Winckler's edition, No. 7.

[11] _Op. cit._ No. 146.

[12] _Op. cit._ No. 147.

[13] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. p. 16.

[14] _Amarna Letters_, No. 180 (xi. 20-24).

[15] _Ibid._ No. 164 (xi. 15-18).

[16] Nomads of the Syrian desert.

[17] _Amarna Letters_, No. 144 (xi. 24-32).

CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part of the 6th

century B.C. He was especially noted as the author of two great statues

of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple at Miletus, and one in

cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins of Miletus furnish us with copies

of the former and show the god to have held a stag in, one hand and a

bow in the other. The rigidity of these works naturally impressed later

critics.

CANADA. The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern half of the

continent of North America and its adjacent islands, excepting Alaska,

which belongs to the United States, and Newfoundland, still a separate

colony of the British empire. Its boundary on the south is the parallel

of latitude 49 deg., between the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods,

then a chain of small lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon

river on the north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with

their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From this

eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial line nearly

corresponding to lat. 45 deg.; then an irregular line partly determined

by watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the

Bay of Fundy. The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an

irregular line a few miles inland from the coast along the "pan handle"

of Alaska to Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141 deg. to the Arctic

Ocean. A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the Atlantic

on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to

Newfoundland.

_Physical Geography._--In spite of these restrictions of its natural

coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada is admirably

provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf of St Lawrence with its

much indented shores and the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick

supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by ice in the winter,

but the southern ones open all the year round; and on the Pacific

British Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with

well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken

shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of sheltered

navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to

Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great

advantage for the coasting trade. The greatly varied Arctic coast line

of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much

clogged with ice to be of much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a

mediterranean sea 850 m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with

its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and

whalers, and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada,

though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of the nine

provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt water,

Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended

to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern

extension, James Bay, and there is no probability that the shallow

harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping,

though Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an

important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is,

however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great Lakes.

Geology.

The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, and drawn on a

large scale, more than half of its surface sloping gently inwards

towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the

south-east and south-west. In the main it is a broad trough, wider

towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay

occupying much of its north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains

rise gradually to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern

member of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. The

physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with its geology

that at least an outline of the geological factors involved in its

history is necessary to understand the present physiography. The

mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the

earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the

third at the end of the Mesozoic. The Archean mountain chains, which

enclosed the present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that they had

already been worn down almost to a plain before the early Palaeozoic

sediments were laid down. This ruling geological and physical feature of

the North American continent has been named by E. Suess the "Canadian

Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from

its own waste, were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places

still almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east of

this "protaxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its

edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however,

extends only a short distance into Canada. The Mesozoic sediments were

almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis,

upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are

still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up

into the series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast

region. The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest,

and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving

the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric development of North

America the main structural watershed is towards its western side, on

the south coinciding with the Rocky Mountains proper, but to the

northward falling back to ranges situated further west in the same

mountain region. The great central area of Canada is drained towards

Hudson Bay, but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the

Mackenzie flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence

north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and the other

to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While these ancient events

shaped the topography in a broad way, its final development was

comparatively recent, during the glacial period, when the loose

materials were scoured from some regions and spread out as boulder clay,

or piled up as moraines in others; and the original water-ways were

blocked in many places. The retreat of the ice left Canada much in its

present condition except for certain post-glacial changes of level which

seem to be still in progress. For this reason the region has a very

youthful topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence

that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving down of

the older mountain systems, especially that of the Archean pro taxis,

and the disorderly scattering of glacial material provide most of the

lake basins so characteristic of Canada.

_Lakes and Rivers._--As a result of the geological causes just mentioned

many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes of all sizes and

shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles long and a thousand feet

deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest. Thousands of these lakes have

been mapped more or less carefully, and every new survey brings to light

small lakes hitherto unknown to the white man. For numbers they can be

compared only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for

size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of

lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it will be

noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes occur within five

hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, and belong to the Archean

protaxis or project beyond its edges into the Palaeozoic sedimentary

rocks which lean against it. The most famous of the lakes are those of

the St Lawrence system, which form part of the southern boundary of

Canada and are shared with the United States; but many others have the

right to be called "Great Lakes" from their magnitude. There are nine

others which have a length of more than 100 m., and thirty-five which

are more than 50 m. long. Within the Archean protaxis they are of the

most varied shapes, since they represent merely portions of the

irregular surface inundated by some morainic dam at the lowest point.

Comparatively few have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water,

the great majority running into long irregular bays and containing many

islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian Bay and

Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the other hand the lakes

are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections of mountain valleys

occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords of the adjoining coast are

valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes of the different regions present

the same features as the nearest sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The

majority of the lakes have rocky shores and islands and great variety of

depth, many of the smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and

are slowly filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat

bogs, the _muskegs_ of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered

that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few

small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the Quill and Old Wives

lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In such cases the

waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in solution which are

deposited as a white rim round the basin towards the end of the summer

when the amount of water has been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is

interesting to find maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on

their shores a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet

above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over at the

lowest point from one basin into the next below, making chains of lakes

with no long or well-defined channels between, since in so young a

country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have carved wide

valleys. Thus canoe navigation may be carried on for hundreds of miles,

with here and there a waterfall or a rapid requiring a portage of a few

hundred yards or at most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore

in many cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive

connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The best

example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which may be

said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St Mary's, St

Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing from Lake Ontario to

the sea under its proper name. As these lakes are great reservoirs and

settling basins, the rivers which empty them are unusually steady in

level and contain beautifully clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a

few feet in the year and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while

the Mississippi, whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of

the Great Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and

is loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important Canadian

river from the historic and economic points of view, since it provided

the main artery of exploration in early days, and with its canals past

rapids and between lakes still serves as a great highway of trade

between the interior of the continent and the seaports of Montreal and

Quebec. It is probable that politically Canada would have followed the

course of the States to the south but for the planting of a French

colony with widely extended trading posts along the easily ascended

channel of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was

the ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire.

North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and Hudson Bay there

are many large rivers converging on that inland sea, such as Whale

river, Big river, East Main, Rupert and Nottaway rivers coming in from

Ungava and northern Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important

tributaries from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill

rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow,

affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them, Nelson

river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and

Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, and receive the waters of

Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and many others emptying into Winnipeg

river from Ontario; of Red river coming in from the United States to the

south; and of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western

prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The parallel

of 49 deg. approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters from the

streams going south to the Missouri, though a few small tributaries of

the latter river begin on Canadian territory.

The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of northern

British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca and Peace rivers,

first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, then north through Slave

river to Great Slave Lake, and finally north-west through Mackenzie

river to the Arctic Ocean. If measured to the head of Peace river the

Mackenzie has a length of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than

1000 m. of navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like

other northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented

sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading

posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in lat. 69

deg., and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their torrents

before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer climate has yet

given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and giving rise to

widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar flooding takes place

in several other important northward-flowing rivers in Canada, the St

Lawrence at Montreal affording the best-known instance. Second among the

great north-western rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about

18 m. from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea

and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north, then

to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into Alaska, and

then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward projection of the

Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of its course 1800 m. are

continuously navigable for suitable steamers, so that most of the

traffic connected with the rich Klondike gold-fields passes over its

waters. The rest of the rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through

British Columbia and are much shorter, though the two southern ones

carry a great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow

and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest, but

after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., it passes into

the United States. With its expansions, the narrow and deep Arrow lakes,

it is an important waterway in the Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in

size but farther north, follows a similar course, entering the sea at

Vancouver; while the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are

much shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and Liard

rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory. All of

these rivers are waterways of some importance in their lower course, and

are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats supplying the posts and

mining camps of the interior with their requirements. In most cases they

reach the coast through deep valleys or profound canyons, and the

transcontinental railways find their way beside them, the Canadian

Pacific following at first tributaries of the Columbia near its great

bend, and afterwards Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand

Trunk Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries.

The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing east and

north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, but there are two

lakes, the Committee's Punch Bowl and Fortress Lake, right astride of

it, sending their waters both east and west; and there is a mountain

somewhat south of Fortress Lake whose melting snows drain in three

directions into tributaries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the

Athabasca, so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the

Atlantic (Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the St

Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents one or two lakes

draining each way, but in a much less striking position, since the

water-parting is flat and boggy instead of being a lofty range of

mountains. The rivers of Canada, except the St Lawrence, are losing

their importance as means of communication from year to year, as

railways spread over the interior and cross the mountains to the

Pacific; but from the point of view of the physical geographer there are

few things more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in

which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers have

waterfalls on their course, they must become of more and more importance

as sources of power. The St Lawrence system, for instance, generates

many thousand horse-power at Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine

rapids. All the larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this

way, and many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern

Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the Rocky

Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they will some day

find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland.

_The Archean Protaxis._--The broad geological and geographical

relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the more

important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more detail, and for

that purpose five areas may be distinguished, much the largest being the

Archean protaxis, covering about 2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador,

Ungava and most of Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south;

and the western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to the

Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The southern parts of

the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, belong to it also. This vast

area, shaped like a broad-limbed V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre,

is made up chiefly of monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and

granite; but scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin

and Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as

suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The Keewatin

and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and more or less

metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special interest for their ore

deposits, which include most of the important metals, particularly iron,

nickel, copper and silver. The southern portion of the protaxis is now

being opened up by railways, but the far greater northern part is known

only along the lakes and rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though

once consisting of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty

elevations in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador,

where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach 6000 ft. or

more. In every other part the surface is hilly or mammilated, the harder

rocks, such as granite or greenstone, rising as rounded knobs, or in the

case of schists forming narrow ridges, while the softer parts form

valleys generally floored with lakes. From the summit of any of the

higher hills one sees that the region is really a somewhat dissected

plain, for all the hills rise to about the same level with a uniform

skyline at the horizon. The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as

a plateau, but probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part

includes from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and

extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake Winnipeg.

Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an average of about 1500

ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at a few points near Lake

Superior and on the eastern coast of Labrador. In most parts the

Laurentian hills are bare _roches moutonnees_ scoured by the glaciers of

the Ice Age, but a broad band of clay land extends across northern

Quebec and Ontario just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis

are in general its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often

have a descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great

Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they have cut

back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The waterfalls are

utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp the forests of spruce

which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and Ontario. Most of the pine that

formerly grew on the Archean at the northern fringe of the settlements

has been cut, but the lumberman is still advancing northwards and

approaching the northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine

forests, beyond which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the

prevalent trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and

includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is reached,

near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and somewhat farther

south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to the north are the "barren

grounds" on which herds of caribou (reindeer) and musk ox pasture,

migrating from north to south according to the season. There are no

permanent ice sheets known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but

some of the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are

partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless by its

mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, the barren

grounds can never support a white population and have little to tempt

even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it occasionally in summer to hunt

the deer in their migrations.

_The Acadian Region._--The "maritime provinces" of eastern Canada,

including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, may be

considered together; and to these provinces as politically bounded may

be added, from a physical point of view, the analogous south-eastern

part of Quebec--the entire area being designated the Acadian region.

Taken as a whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and

extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, may be

regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian mountain system

that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the United States. The rocks

underlying it have been subjected to successive foldings and crumplings

by forces acting chiefly from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with

alternating prolonged periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of

disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the

south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains, and

terminates in the Gaspe peninsula as the Shickshock Mountains. The

first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, but the Shickshocks rise

above 3000 ft. The province of New Brunswick exhibits approximately

parallel but subordinate ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly

flat Silurian and Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia,

connected by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still

another and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on

all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates

referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important veins of

auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern side,

while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and on parts of its

shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New Brunswick the Carboniferous

rocks occupy a large area, but the coal seams so far developed are thin

and unimportant. Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova

Scotia and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already

mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important industries.

Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral products of that part of

Quebec included in the region now under description, although many

other minerals are known and already worked to some extent. Extensive

tracts of good arable land exist in many parts of the Acadian region.

Its surface was originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of

the forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward Island, the

smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating, based on

Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording a red and very fertile

soil, much of which is under cultivation.

_The St Lawrence Plain._--As the St Lawrence invited the earliest

settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication with the Old

World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest and most populous

part of the country on its shores and near the Great Lakes which it

leads up to; and this early development was greatly helped by the flat

and fertile plain which follows it inland for over 600 m. from the city

of Quebec to Lake Huron. This affords the largest stretch of arable land

in eastern Canada, including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec

with an area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south

of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal to the

mountains of the "Eastern Townships," while in Ontario it extends from

the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence and Lakes Ontario, Erie and

Huron. The whole region is underlain by nearly horizontal and

undisturbed rocks of the Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward.

Superimposed on these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and

sand deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of St

Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west peninsula of

Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and the real wealth of this

district lies in its soil and climate, which permit the growth of all

the products of temperate regions. Georgian Bay and the northern part of

Lake Huron with the whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the

foot of the Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes;

so that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous

cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an elevated,

rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean from the newer and

far more extensive farm lands of the west. For many years this southern

projection of the northern wilderness was spanned by only one railway,

and offered a serious hindrance to the development of the regions

beyond; but settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly

filling up the gap between east and west.

_The Interior Continental Plain._--Passing westward by rail from the

forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills, the flat prairie

of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of flowers comes as a

very striking contrast, introducing the Interior Continental plain in

its most typical development. This great plain runs north-westward

between the border of the Archean protaxis and the line of the Rocky

Mountains, including most of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan

and most of Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49 deg. it is

800 m. wide, but in lat. 56 deg. it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and

to the north of lat. 62 deg. it is still narrower and somewhat

interrupted, but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic

Ocean about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the

continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was

occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards the

north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed limestones and other

rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon the downward slope of the

Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains are underlain by Cretaceous and

early Tertiary shales and sandstones lying nearly unaltered and

undisturbed where they were deposited, although now raised far above

sea-level, particularly along the border of the Rocky Mountains where

they were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised.

These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing to their

comparatively soft character this has been, in the main, nearly uniform,

and has produced no very bold features of relief, Coal and lignitic coal

are the principal economic minerals met with in this central plain,

though natural gas occurs and is put to use near Medicine Hat, and "tar

sands" along the north-eastern edge of the Cretaceous indicate the

presence of petroleum. Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of

fertile soil, now rapidly filling up with settlers from all parts of the

world, and the grassy uplands in the foot-hill region affording

perennial pasturage for the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher.

Though the region is spoken of as a plain there are really great

differences of level between the highest parts in south-western Alberta,

4500 ft. above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg,

where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very flat and

rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial Lake

Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently rolling

character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the plain, the most

westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri Coteau. The first step

represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the second to 3000 ft. on an average.

In so flat a country any elevation of a few hundred feet is remarkable

and is called a mountain, so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding

mountains. More important than the hills are the narrow and often rather

deep river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks

of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When not too deep

the river channels may be traced from afar across the prairie by the

winding band of trees growing beside the water. The treeless part of the

plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular shape with an area twice as

large as that of Great Britain. North of the Saskatchewan river groves

or "bluffs" of trees begin, and somewhat farther north the plains are

generally wooded, because of the slightly more humid climate. It has

been proved, however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow

also on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older

farm-steads. In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough

to permit of "alkaline" ponds and lakes, which may completely dry up in

summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often hard to obtain,

though the land itself is fertile.

_The Cordilleran Belt._--The Rocky Mountain region as a whole, best

named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several parallel

ranges of mountains of different structures and ages, the eastern one

constituting the Rocky Mountains proper. This band of mountains 400 m.

wide covers towards the south almost all of British Columbia and a strip

of Alberta east of the watershed, and towards the north forms the whole

of the Yukon Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous

country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking

river systems, two principal mountain axes form its ruling features--the

Rocky Mountains proper, above referred to, and the Coast Ranges. Between

them are many other ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as

the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains. There

is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau, once probably

a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected by river valleys,

which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a width of about 100 m. and

affords the largest areas of arable and pasture land in British

Columbia. Similar wide tracts of less broken country occur, after a

mountainous interruption, in northern British Columbia and to some

extent in the Yukon Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills

alternate with short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific

border of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and

channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland between

mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and there is also a

bordering mountain system partly submerged forming Vancouver Island and

the Queen Charlotte Islands. The highest mountains of the Cordillera in

Canada are near the southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from

the Yukon Territory, the meridian of 141 deg., and they include Mount

Logan (19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest

peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far to the

north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains, with Mount

Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-clad for almost their

whole height, are quite isolated from the highest points of the Rocky

Mountains proper, which are 1000 m. to the south-east. Near the height

of land between British Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which

rise from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has

been carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next range

to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach 10,000 ft. or

over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond 9000 ft. The snow line

in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being lower on

the Pacific side where the heaviest snowfall comes in winter than on the

drier north-eastern side. The snow line gradually sinks as one advances

north-west, reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The

Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not very

large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All the glaciers

are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines, hundreds or

thousands of feet lower down the valley. The timber line is at about

7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and 4000 ft. in the interior of

the Yukon Territory. On the westward slopes, especially of the Selkirks

and Coast Ranges, vegetation is almost tropical in its density and

luxuriance, the giant cedar and the Douglas fir sometimes having

diameters of 10 ft. or more and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the

eastern flanks of the ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the

interior plateau and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open

grass land. The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different

types of structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with

their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming first,

then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated in Cretaceous

times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of granite and diorite as

batholiths along the margin of the continent and sedimentary rocks lying

as remnants on their flanks; and finally the Rocky Mountains in the

Laramie or early Eocene, after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest

and also highest range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific

side, crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run

from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along overturned

folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually the form of tilted

blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east and a gentler slope,

corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards the south-west. Near the

centre of the range there are broader foldings, carved into castle and

cathedral shapes. The most easterly range has been shown to have been

actually pushed 7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains

proper no eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of

importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines which

they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a bituminous and also

semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best mined on the Pacific slope of

the continent, the coking coals of the Fernie region supplying the fuel

of the great metal mining districts of the Kootenays in British

Columbia, and of Montana and other states to the south. The Selkirks and

Gold Ranges west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive

rocks, both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines of

gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its leadership

among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals. In early days the

placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser and Caribou attracted miners

from everywhere, but these have declined, and lode mines supply most of

the gold as well as the other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also

include many mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less

value than those inland. Most of the mining development is in southern

British Columbia, where a network of railways and waterways gives easy

access; but as means of communication improve to the north a similar

development may be looked for there. The Atlin and White Horse regions

in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much

attention, and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished

many millions of dollars' worth of gold. Summing up the economic

features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of the best

coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold, copper, lead and

zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and iron Ontario takes the

lead. When its vast area stretching from the international boundary to

beyond the Arctic circle is opened up, it may be expected to prove the

counterpart of the great mining region of the Cordillera in the United

States to the south.

_Climate_.--In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42 deg. to the

Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must be great variations

of climate. If placed upon Europe it would extend from Rome to the North

Cape, but latitude is of course only one of the factors influencing

climate, the arrangement of the ocean currents and of the areas of high

and low pressure making a very wide difference between the climates of

the two sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada,

rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western Europe,

the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48 deg. to 50 deg.,

having a climate very similar to the southern coast of England. In

Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels of latitude,

especially in summer when in the western half of the country they run

nearly north-west and south-east; so that the average temperature of 55

deg. is found about on the Arctic circle in the Mackenzie river valley,

in lat. 50 deg. near the Lake-of-the-Woods, in lat. 55 deg. at the

northern end of James Bay, and in lat. 49 deg. on Anticosti in the Gulf

of St Lawrence. The proximity of the sea or of great lakes, the

elevation and the direction of mountain chains, the usual path of storms

and of prevalent winds, and the relative length of day and amount of

sunshine in summer and winter all have their effect on different parts

of Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single province,

like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies so greatly in

different parts. Details should therefore be sought in articles on the

separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava and Labrador are very chill

and inhospitable, owing largely to the iceberg-laden current sweeping

down the coast from Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters

and a temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South of

the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces have much more

genial temperatures, averaging 40 deg. F. for the year and over 60 deg.

for the summer months. The amount of rain is naturally high so near the

sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall is not usually excessive. In Quebec

and northern Ontario the rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40

in., while the snows of winter are deep and generally cover the ground

from the beginning of December to the end of March. The winters are

brilliant but cold, and the summers average from 60 deg. to 65 deg. F.,

with generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes these

regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the cities to the

south. The winter storms often sweep a little to the north of southern

Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the north is rain in the south,

giving a much more variable winter, often with too little snow for

sleighing. The summers are warm, with an average temperature of 65 deg.

and an occasional rise to 90 deg.. As one goes westward the

precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in. in Manitoba and 13.35 for the

other two prairie provinces, most of this, however, coming opportunely

from May to August, the months when the growing grain most requires

moisture. There is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern

Ontario and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow and the

frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing moisture to

start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in southern Saskatchewan

and Alberta is much more variable than farther east and north, so that

in some seasons crops have been a failure through drought, but large

areas are now being brought under irrigation to avoid such losses. The

prairie provinces have in most parts a distinctly continental climate

with comparatively short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but with

much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta, however, the winter

cold is often interrupted by chinooks, westerly winds which have lost

their moisture by crossing the mountains and become warmed by plunging

down to the plains, where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and

raising the temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20 deg. to 40

deg. F. In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the

grass of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there may

be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent and the

winter's cold increases, but the coming of spring is not much later, and

the summer temperatures, with sunshine for twenty hours out of

twenty-four in June, are almost the same as for hundreds of miles to

the south, so that most kinds of grain and vegetables ripen far to the

north in the Peace river valley. Though the climate of the plains is one

of extremes and often of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and

invigorating and of particular value for persons affected with lung

troubles.

The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more variety than

that of the other provinces because of the ranges of mountains which run

parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast itself the climate is insular,

with little frost in winter and mild heat in summer, and with a very

heavy rainfall amounting to 100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver

Island and near Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast

Range the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario,

comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the south, but

with keen winters farther north. The interior plateau may be described

as arid, so that irrigation is required if crops are to be raised. The

Selkirk Mountains have a heavy rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on

their western flanks, but very much less precipitation on their eastern

side. The Rocky Mountains have the same relationships but the whole

precipitation is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends

largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from

perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist

climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire. In

the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and Ungava the

climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited by white

men except at a few fur-trading posts. North-west and north-east of

Hudson Bay it becomes too severe for the growth of trees as seen on the

"barren grounds," and there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of

moss which serves as a non-conducting covering for the "tundras." There

is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate on

the surface to form glaciers, the summer's sun having warmth enough to

thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime provinces,

southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the Pacific coast region on the

one hand, and the Arctic north, particularly near Hudson Bay, on the

other, Canada has snowy and severe winters, a very short spring with a

sudden rise of temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn

with its "Indian summer." There is much sunshine, and the atmosphere is

bracing and exhilarating.

_Flora_.--The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec and

Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova Scotia a number of

species are found common also to Newfoundland that are not apparent

inland. Professor Macoun gives us a few notable species--_Calluna

vulgaris_, Salisb., _Alchemilla vulgaris_, L., _Rhododendron maximum_,

L., _Ilex glabia_, Gray, _Hudsonia ericoides_, L., _Gaylussacia dumosa_,

F. and G., and _Schezaea pusilla_, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western

flora begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while in

the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably. In the

lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf many Arctic and sub-Arctic

species are found. On the shores of the lower reaches _Thalictrum

alpinum_, L., _Vesicaria arctica_, Richards, _Arapis alpina_, L.,

_Saxifraga oppositifolia_, L., _Cerastium alpinum_, L., _Saxifraga

caespitosa_, L. and S. have been gathered, and on the Shickshock

Mountains of Eastern Canada _Silene acaulis_, L., _Lychnis alpina_, L.,

_Cassiope hypnoides_, Don., _Rhododendron laponicum_, Wahl, and many

others. On the summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected

_Aspidium aculeatum_, Swartz var., _Scopulinum_, D.C. Eaton, _Pellaea

densa_, Hook, _Gallium kamtschaticum_, Sletten. From the city of Quebec

westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of southern forms, and

when the mountain (so called) at Montreal is reached the representative

Ontario flora begins. In Ontario the flora of the northern part is much

the same as that of the Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the

Ottawa and St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect,

and trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern parts

of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions north of the lakes

the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie requires a high winter

temperature, while the east and north shores of Lake Superior have a

boreal vegetation that shows the summer temperature of this enormous

water-stretch to be quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come

the prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the ravines

the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then disappearing

gives place to that of the prairie, which is found everywhere between

the Red river and the Rocky Mountains except in wooded and damp

localities. Northwards, in the Saskatchewan country, the flora of the

forest and that of the prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the

foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found,

several years' collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of the

best hay and pasture grasses, _Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa, Bromus,

Agrostis, Calamagrostes_ and _Poa_, there are 59 species. Besides the

grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for pasture--_Astragalus,

Vicia_ (wild vetch), _Lathyrus_ (wild pea) of which there are many

species. The rose family is represented by _Prunus, Potentilla,

Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus_ and _Amelanchier_.

About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are found

_Ruppia maritima_, L., _Heliotropium curassavicum_, L., natives of the

Atlantic coast, and numerous species of _Chenopodium, Atriplex_ and

allied genera. The flora of the forest belt of the North-West

Territories differs little from that of northern Ontario. At the

beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains there is a luxurious

growth of herbaceous plants, including a number of rare umbellifers. At

the higher levels the vegetation becomes more Arctic. Northwards the

valleys of the Peace and other rivers differ little from those of Quebec

and the northern prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that

is, the Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or

Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp instead

of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the south the flora

is partly peculiar to the American desert, and such species as _Purshia

tridentata_, D.C., and _Artemisia tridentata_, Nutt., and species of

_Gilia, Aster_ and _Erigonum_ are found that are not met with elsewhere.

Above Yale, in the drier part of the Fraser valley, the absence of rain

results in the same character of flora, while in the rainy districts of

the lower Fraser the vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that

of the tropics. So in various parts of the mountainous country of

British Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions.

Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled with

flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant, including

_Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias, Siliums,

Camassias_ and others.

_Fauna_.--The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and the caribou

of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the far north; the

caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces except in Prince Edward

Island; the moose, with an equally wide range in the wooded country; the

Virginia deer, in one or other of its varietal forms, common to all the

southern parts; the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on

the western edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn

antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful bison

found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called "wood buffalo." The

wapiti or American elk at one time abounded from Quebec to the Pacific,

and as far north as the Peace river, but is now found only in small

numbers from Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the

grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear is also

common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear everywhere along

the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf is found in the wooded

districts of all the provinces, and on the plains there is also a

smaller wolf called the coyote. In British Columbia the puma or cougar,

sometimes called the panther and the American lion, still frequently

occurs; and in all parts the common fox and the silver fox, the lynx,

beaver, otter, marten, fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other

fur-bearing animals. Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are

plentiful or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other

circumstances. In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or

Rocky Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the saddleback

and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered in the northern

Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly migratory, and are those

common to the northern and central states of the United States. The

wildfowl are, particularly in the west, in great numbers; their

breeding-grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies up to

Hudson Bay, the barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of

geese--including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the

laughing goose, the brant and others--all breed in the northern regions,

but are found in great numbers throughout the several provinces, passing

north in the spring and south in the autumn. There are several varieties

of grouse, the largest of which is the grouse of British Columbia and

the pennated grouse and the prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains,

besides the so-called partridge and willow partridge, both of which are

grouse. While the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada)

has always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a more

recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which it had come from

Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying wheatfields

extended north. In certain parts of Ontario the wild turkey is

occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but in British Columbia is

found the California quail, and a larger bird much resembling it called

the mountain partridge. The golden eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and

a large variety of hawks are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the

horned owl and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently

remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these, with the

Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting, being the principal

birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts in that season. The rook

is not found, but the common crow and one or two other kinds are there

during the summer. Song-birds are plentiful, especially in wooded

regions, and include the American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird

and various sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago,

has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns. The

smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is found

everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. The sea-birds

include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants, albatrosses

(four species), fulmars and petrels, and in the Gulf of St Lawrence the

gannet is very abundant. Nearly all the sea-birds of Great Britain are

found in Canadian waters or are represented by closely allied species.

(A. P. C.)

_Area and Population._--The following table shows the division of the

Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital, population and

estimated area of each.

+------------------------+-------------+--------------------------+---------------+

| | | Population. | |

| | Area in +------------+-------------+ Official |

| | sq. mi. | 1881. | 1901. | Capital. |

+------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+

| Provinces-- | | | | |

| Ontario | 260,862 | 1,926,922 | 2,182,947 | Toronto |

| Quebec | 351,873 | 1,359,027 | 1,648,898 | Quebec |

| Nova Scotia | 21,428 | 440,572 | 459,574 | Halifax |

| New Brunswick | 27,985 | 321,233 | 331,120 | Fredericton |

| Manitoba | 73,732 | 62,260 | 255,211[1]| Winnipeg |

| British Columbia | 372,630 | 49,459 | 178,657 | Victoria |

| Prince Edward Island | 2,184 | 108,891 | 103,259 | Charlottetown |

| Saskatchewan | 250,650 | \ 25,515 | 91,460[1]| Regina |

| Alberta | 253,540 | / | 72,841[1]| Edmonton |

| | | | | |

| Districts-- | | | | |

| Keewatin | 516,571 | \ | 8,800 | . . |

| Yukon | 196,976 | | | 27,219 | Dawson City |

| Mackenzie | 562,182 | > 30,931 | 5,216 | . . |

| Ungava | 354,961 | | | 5,113 | . . |

| Franklin | 500,000 | / | | . . |

+------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+

| The Dominion | 3,745,574[2]| 4,324,810 | 5,371,315 | Ottawa |

+------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+

In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces of Nova

Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and Ontario (Upper Canada).

In 1869 the North-west Territories were purchased from the Hudson's Bay

Company, from a corner of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In

1871 British Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the

Dominion.

The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became a

portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions in

North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its dependency, the Labrador

coast, and the Bermuda islands, were annexed to Canada. West of the

province of Ontario, then inaccurately defined, the provinces of

Manitoba and British Columbia were the only organized divisions of the

western territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia,

Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving the remainder

of the north-west as unorganized territories, a certain portion of the

north-east, called Keewatin, having previously been placed under the

lieutenant-governor of Manitoba. In 1905 these four districts were

formed into the two provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin

was placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing to the

influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted and granted a

limited measure of self-government. The unorganized territories are

sparsely inhabited by Indians, the people of the Hudson's Bay Company's

posts and a few missionaries.

_Population_.--The growth of population is shown by the following

figures:--1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901,

5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been more rapid, and in 1905

alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada, of whom about two-fifths were

from Great Britain and one-third from the United States.

The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island, where it

is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New Brunswick, 11.8;

Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8; Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta,

0.72; British Columbia, 0.4; the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an

indication of the density in settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and

the western provinces there are large unpopulated districts, the area of

which enters into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of

English- or French-speaking people, but there are German settlements of

some extent in Ontario, and of late years there has been a large

immigration into the western provinces and territories from other parts

of Europe, including Russians, Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and

Scandinavians. These foreign elements have been assimilated more slowly

than in the United States, but the process is being hastened by the

growth of a national consciousness. English, Irish and Scots and their

descendants form the bulk of the population of Ontario, French-Canadians

of Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish of a large proportion of New

Brunswick. In the other provinces the latter race tends to confine

itself to the cities. Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario, together

with a decreasing number of half-breeds--i.e. children of white fathers

(chiefly French or Scottish) and Indian mothers--who originally formed

the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and Saskatchewan, particularly the

ranching districts, are chiefly peopled by English immigrants, though

since 1900 there has also been a large influx from the United States.

British Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the mining

districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871 a great change has

taken place throughout the west, i.e. from Lake Superior to the Pacific.

Then Manitoba was principally inhabited by English and French

half-breeds (or Metis), descendants of Hudson's Bay Company's employes,

or adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers,

descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (q.v.), some English

army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration that shortly

followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba buffalo were still running on the

plains, and British Columbia having lost its mining population of 1859

and 1860 was largely inhabited by Indians, its white population which

centred in the city of Victoria being principally English.

French is the language of the province of Quebec, though English is much

spoken in the cities; both languages are officially recognized in that

province, and in the federal courts and parliament. Elsewhere, English

is exclusively used, save by the newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex

is slightly the more numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the

greatest discrepancy existing in British Columbia.

The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families of twelve

to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in Ontario. In spite of

the growth of manufactures since 1878, there are few large cities, and

the proportion of the urban population to the rural is small. Herein it

differs noticeably from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of

farmers in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and

there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a

manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large tracts

in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for cultivation and

are being opened up.

_Religion_.--There is no established church in Canada, but in the

province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the Roman

Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that province about

87% of the population belongs to this church, which is strong in the

others also, embracing over two-fifths of the population of the

Dominion. The Protestants have shown a tendency to subdivision, and many

curious and ephemeral sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the

various sections of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united,

and a working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians, Methodists

and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the strongest, and in Ontario

form over 30% of the population. Next come the Presbyterians, the

backbone of the maritime provinces. The Church of England is strong in

the cities, especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief

in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them 90% are

nominally Christian.

_Indians_.--The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and has slightly

increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia and the unorganized

territories, nearly all of these are on reservations, where they are

under government supervision, receiving an annuity in money and a

certain amount of provisions; and where, by means of industrial schools

and other methods, civilized habits are slowly superseding their former

mode of life. British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along

the coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in the

interior. An almost equal number are found in the three prairie

provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000, are more civilized

than those of the west, many of them being good farmers. In all the

provinces they are under the control of the federal government which

acts as their trustee, investing the money which they derive chiefly

from the sale of lands and timber, and making a large annual

appropriation for the payment of their annuities, schools and other

expenses. While unable to alienate their reservations, save to the

federal government, they are not confined to them, but wander at

pleasure. As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are

given the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario.

A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make incomparable

guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties, on which they will

cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships, though tending to shrink from

regular employment in cities or on farms.

_Orientals_.--The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about 20,000, of

whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though they were

spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as laundrymen. They are

as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding, and are feared rather for

their virtues than for their vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on

all Chinese entering Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to L100 ($500).

British Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the

Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature.

_Finance_.--Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding to

that of the United States, has been the only one employed. One dollar is

divided into one hundred cents (L1=$4.86-2/3). The money in circulation

consists of a limited number of notes issued by the federal government,

and the notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and

copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England, but in

that year a branch of the royal mint was established at Ottawa. Though

the whole financial system rests on the maintenance of the gold

standard, gold coin plays a much smaller part in daily business than in

England, France or Germany. United States' notes and silver are usually

received at par; those of other nations are subject to a varying rate of

exchange.

The banking system, which retains many features of the Scotch system, on

which it was originally modelled, combines security for the note-holders

and depositors with prompt increase and diminution of the circulation in

accordance with the varying conditions of trade. This is especially

important in a country where the large wheat crop renders an additional

quantity of money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and

winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the "wild cat"

banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early days of the

western states. Since federation no chartered bank has been compelled to

liquidate without paying its note-holders in full. The larger banks are

chartered by the federal government; in the smaller towns a number of

private banks remain, but their importance is small, owing to the great

facilities given to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906

there were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from 619

in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has rapidly

increased. The banks are required by law to furnish to the finance

minister detailed monthly statements which are published in the official

gazette. Once in every ten years the banking act is revised and

weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses have been established in the chief

commercial centres. In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate

paid-up capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of

$83,000,000 and deposits of over $553,000,000.

There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:--(1) the post-office

savings banks; (2) the government savings banks of the Maritime

provinces taken over at federation and being gradually merged with the

former; (3) two special savings banks in the cities of Montreal and

Quebec; (4) the savings bank departments of the chartered banks. The

rate of interest allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered

banks usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in the

first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546 in October

1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not specify the deposits

in these special accounts.

The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain banking

privileges.

The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and excise duties,

with subsidiary amounts from mining licences, timber dues, post-office,

&c. Both the revenue and the expenditure have in recent years increased

greatly, the revenue rising from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in

1905 and the expenditure keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion

in 1873 and in 1905 was:--

+------------+--------------+--------------+

| | 1873. | 1905. |

+------------+--------------+--------------+

| Gross debt | $129,743,432 | $377,678,580 |

| Assets | 30,894,970 | 111,454,413 |

| Net debt | 98,848,462 | 266,224,413 |

+------------+--------------+--------------+

While the debt had thus increased faster than the population, it weighed

less heavily on the people, not only on account of the great increase

in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower rate of interest paid,

and of the increasing revenue derived from assets. Whereas in 1867 the

rate of interest was over 4%, and interest was being paid on former

provincial loans of over 6%, Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%.

The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the debts of

the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure on canals and

assistance given to railways. It does not include the debts incurred by

certain provinces since federation, a matter which concerns themselves

alone. A strong prejudice against direct taxation exists, and none is

imposed by the federal government, though it has been tentatively

introduced in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor

licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British Columbia has

a direct tax on property and on income. The cities, towns and

municipalities resort to it to supply their local needs, and there is a

tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario on account of the excellence

of her municipal system, to devolve the burden of educational payments,

and others more properly provincial, upon the municipal authorities on

the plea of decentralization.

_Commerce and Manufactures._--Since 1867 the opening up of the fertile

lands in the north-west, the increase of population, the discovery of

new mineral fields, the construction of railways and the great

improvement of the canal system have changed the conditions, methods and

channels of trade. The great extension during the same period of the use

of water-power has been of immense importance to Canada, most of the

provinces possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls,

capable of generating a practically unlimited supply of power.

In 1878 the introduction of the so-called "National Policy" of

protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection still

remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a preference

accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most of the British

colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared with that of the

United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28% on dutiable imports and to

about 16% on total imports. Tentative attempts at export duties have

also been made. Inter-provincial commerce is free, and the home market

is greatly increasing in importance. The power to make commercial

treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great Britain,

but in most cases the official consent of Canada is required, and for

many years no treaty repugnant to her interests has been signed. The

denunciation by the British government in 1897 of commercial treaties

with Belgium and Germany, at the request of Canada, was a striking proof

of her increasing importance, and attempts have at various times been

made to obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government.

The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is with the

United States and Great Britain. From the former come most of the

manufactured goods imported and large quantities of raw materials; to

the latter are sent food-stuffs. Farm products are the most important

export, and with the extension of this industry in the north-west

provinces and in northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold,

silver, copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an

unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The exports of

lumber are about equally divided between the two. Formerly, the logs

were shipped as square timber, but now almost always in the form of

deals, planks or laths; such square timber as is still shipped goes

almost entirely to Great Britain. Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper

is exported chiefly to the United States. To that country fresh fish is

sent in large quantities, and there is an important trade in canned

salmon between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the

manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an increasing

share of the home market. In this they have won increased success, at

least five-sixths of the manufactured goods used being produced within

the country, but a desire for further protection is loudly expressed.

Though the chief foreign commerce is with Great Britain and the United

States, the Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of

the world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her total foreign

trade (import and export) was in 1906 over L100,000,000.

_Shipping_.--The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax, N.S.,

Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal on the Atlantic; and

Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C., on the Pacific. Halifax is the

ocean terminus of the Intercolonial railway; St John, Halifax and

Vancouver of the Canadian Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western

terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an

uninhabited harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing

city. Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the winter

trade eastwards is done through American harbours, especially Portland,

Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey. Esquimalt, Halifax,

Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped graving-docks. The coast,

both of the ocean and of the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected.

The decay of the wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the

comparative importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a

great increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon

inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada and Great

Britain; direct communication exists with France, and the steamers of

the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly to Japan and to Australia.

_Internal Communications_.--Her splendid lakes and rivers, the

development of her canal system, and the growth of railways have made

the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than her foreign, and

the portfolio of railways and canals is one of the most important in the

cabinet. There are, nominally, about 200 railways, but about one-half of

these, comprising five-sixths of the mileage, have been amalgamated into

four great systems: the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian

Northern and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or

less consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected

the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across Prince

Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal government.

Originally built chiefly as a military road, and often the victim of

political exigencies, it has not been a commercial success. With the

completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific (planned for 1911) and the

Canadian Northern, the country would possess three trans-continental

railways, and be free from the reproach, so long hurled at it, of

possessing length without breadth.

At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made with the

railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given by the federal,

provincial and municipal governments to the construction of railways,

amounting often to more than half the cost of the road. The government

of Ontario has constructed a line to open up the agricultural and mining

districts of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of

a commission. Practically all the cities[3] and large towns have

electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power on

many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding towns and

villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government has instituted a railway

commission of three members with large powers of control over freight

and passenger rates and other such matters. Telephone and express

companies are also subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an

appeal may be made to the governor-general in council, i.e. to the

federal cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways and

has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat similar

commission, appointed by the local government, exercises extensive

powers of control over railways solely within the province, especially

over the electric lines.

Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain

important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers ply on

lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far northern

districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary obstacles are

surmounted by canals, on which over L22,000,000 have been spent, chiefly

since federation. The St Lawrence river canal system from Lake Superior

to tide water overcomes a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large

quantities of grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer

navigation on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft.

on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels on equal

terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most modern character.

So great, however, is the desire to shorten the time and distance

necessary for the transportation of grain from Lake Superior to Montreal

that an increasing quantity is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron

and Georgian Bay ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller

canals bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the Hudson

river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn lumber of Ontario,

Quebec and New Brunswick find their destination. It has long been a

Canadian ideal to shorten the distance from Lake Superior to the sea.

With this object in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been

built, connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of Lake

Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently surveys were made with

a view to connecting the Georgian Bay through the intervening water

stretches, with the Ottawa river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903

all tolls were taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of

trade.

_Mining_.--The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton to the islands

in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova Scotia, British Columbia and

the Yukon are still the most productive, but the northern parts of

Ontario are proving rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly

bituminous, occurs in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia

and in various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the

anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater part of

the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus of federal

bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel, chiefly from imported

ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on certain minerals and metals are

also given by some of the provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though

still valuable, show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the

centre of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly in

American hands, and the product exported to the United States. Of the

less important minerals, Canada is the world's chief producer of

asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver and all the important metals

are mined in the Rocky Mountain district. From Quebec westwards, vast

regions are still partly, or completely, unexplored.

_Lumber_.--In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by fire, the

forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the world. Measures

have been taken, both by the provincial and the federal governments, for

its preservation, and for re-forestation of depleted areas. Certain

provinces prohibit the exportation of logs to the United States, in

order to promote the growth of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware

within the country, and the latter have of late years developed with

great rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered from

lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the greater demand

from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. A great development has

also taken place in Ontario and the eastern provinces, through the use

of spruce and other trees, long considered comparatively useless, in the

manufacture of wood-pulp for paper-making.

_Crown Lands_.--Large areas of unoccupied land remain in all the

provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba, Saskatchewan,

Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British Columbia and the

territories, these crown lands are chiefly owned by the federal

parliament; in the other provinces, by the local legislatures. So great

is their extent that, in spite of the immigration of recent years, the

Dominion government gives a freehold of 160 acres to every _bona fide_

settler, subject to certain conditions of residence and the erection of

buildings during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold

or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by the provinces

must be paid for, save in certain districts of Ontario, where free

grants are given, but the price charged is low. The Canadian Pacific

railway controls large land areas in the two new provinces; and large

tracts in these provinces are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion

and the provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be

preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of these the

most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff, Alberta, owned by

the Dominion government, and the "Algonquin National Park," north-east

of Lake Simcoe, the property of Ontario.

_Fisheries_.--The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic coast,

carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince

Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec. Cod, herring, mackerel

and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught, though halibut, salmon,

anchovies and so-called sardines are also exported. Bounties to

encourage deep-sea fishing have been given by the federal government

since 1882. In British Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in

addition to which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and

shellfish. The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish,

sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find more or

less permanent employment in the fishing industry, including the

majority of the Indians of British Columbia.

The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent in the

North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria, but the

returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as one causing

friction with the United States. Indeed, no department of national life

has caused more continual trouble between the two peoples than the

fisheries, owing to different laws regarding fish protection, and the

constant invasion by each of the territorial waters of the other.

_Education_.--The British North America Act imposes on the provincial

legislatures the duty of legislating on educational matters, the

privileges of the denominational and separate schools in Ontario and

Quebec being specially safeguarded. In 1871, the New Brunswick

legislature abolished the separate school system, and a contest arose

which was finally settled by the authority of the legislature being

sustained, though certain concessions were made to the Roman Catholic

dissentients. Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where

the legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools which

had been established in 1871. After years of bitter controversy, in

which a federal ministry was overthrown, a compromise was arranged in

1897, in which the Roman Catholic leaders have never fully acquiesced.

In the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain

educational privileges, (though not amounting to a separate school

system) were granted to the Roman Catholics.

All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of

education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read and write,

and 86% of those over five years of age. These percentages have

gradually risen ever since federation, especially in the province of

Quebec, which was long in a backward state. The school systems of all

the provinces are, in spite of certain imperfections, efficient and

well-equipped, that of Ontario being especially celebrated. A fuller

account of their special features will be found under the articles on

the different provinces.

Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in number with the

growth of the country in wealth and culture. In Quebec are a number of

so-called classical colleges, most of them affiliated with Laval

University.

Higher education was originally organized by the various religious

bodies, each of which retains at least one university in more or less

integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba

support provincial universities at Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg.

Those of most importance[4] are:--Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S.

(1818); the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800);

McGill University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec, and

Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. (1841); the

University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827); Trinity University,

Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University, Toronto, Ont. (1836); the

University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba,

Winnipeg, Man. (1877).

Of these McGill (see MONTREAL) is especially noted for the excellence of

its training in practical and applied science. Many of the students,

especially in the departments of medicine and theology, complete their

education in the United States, Britain or Europe.

Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries, that of

Toronto being especially well-equipped.

Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is the Royal

Society of Canada, founded in 1881.

_Defence_.--The command in chief of all naval and military forces is

vested in the king, but their control rests with the federal parliament.

The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries protection service, are

under the minister of marine and fisheries, the land forces under the

minister of militia and defence. Prior to 1903, command of the latter

was vested in a British officer, but since then has been entrusted to a

militia council, of which the minister is president. The fortified

harbours of Halifax (N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905

maintained and garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since

been taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the

permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered about

1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in various schools,

chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In this all able-bodied

citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are nominally enrolled, but the

active militia consists of about 45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying

state of efficiency. These cannot be compelled to serve outside the

Dominion, though special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was

done during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a Dominion

arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps flourish in most of

the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the Royal Military College, to

the successful graduates of which a certain number of commissions in the

British service is annually awarded.

_Justice and Crime_.--Justice is well administered throughout the

country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has been little of

the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia and the United

States. For this great credit is due to the "North-west mounted police,"

the "Riders of the Plains," a highly efficient body of about seven

hundred men, under the control of the federal government. Judges are

appointed for life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed

save by impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never

attempted since federation, though more than once threatened. From the

decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be made to the

judicial committee of the imperial privy council.

AUTHORITIES.--The Canadian Geological Survey has published (Ottawa,

since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number of subjects.

Several provinces have bureaus or departments of mines, also issuing

reports. The various departments of the federal and the provincial

governments publish annual reports and frequent special reports, such

as the decennial report on the census, from which a vast quantity of

information may be obtained. Most of this is summed up in the annual

_Statistical Year Book of Canada_ and in the _Official Handbook of the

Dominion of Canada_, issued at frequent intervals by the Department of

the Interior. See also J.W. White (the Dominion geographer), _Atlas of

Canada_ (1906); J. Castell Hopkins, _Canada: an Encyclopaedia_ (6

vols., 1898-1900); _The Canadian Annual Review_ (yearly since 1902),

replacing H.J. Morgan's _Canadian Annual Register_ (1878-1886); Sir

J.W. Dawson, _Handbook of Canadian Geology_ (1889); George Johnson,

_Alphabet of First Things in Canada_ (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley,

_Canada in the Twentieth Century_ (1903); _Transactions of the Royal

Society of Canada_ (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, _The

Canadian Banking System_ (1895); A. Shortt, _History of Canadian

Banking_ (1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, _The Intercolonial_ (1876); John

Davidson, "Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces" (_Economic

Journal_, June 1905); _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,

passim_, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman, G.M. Dawson,

W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also articles in _Canadian

Economics_ and in the _Handbook of Canada_, published on the occasion

of visits of the British Association. (W. L. G.)