FOOTNOTE:

[1] The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned

to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in _Literary

Remains of the United, Irishmen_, by R.R. Madden (1887).

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English prime minister, was

born on the 7th of September 1836, being the second son of Sir James

Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, lord provost of Glasgow.

His elder brother James, who just outlived him, was Conservative M.P.

for Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father

and his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an important

drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable fortunes; and he

assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in compliance with the provisions

of the will of his maternal uncle, Henry Bannerman, from whom he

inherited a large property in Kent. He was educated at Glasgow

University and at Trinity College, Cambridge (senior optime, and

classical honours); was returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal

in 1868 (after an unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became

financial secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary

to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland

(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause of Home Rule

for Ireland, he "found salvation", to use his own phrase, and followed

his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry he was secretary for war,

and filled the same office in the Liberal ministry of 1892-1895. In the

latter year he was knighted (G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister

to obtain the duke of Cambridge's resignation of the office of

commander-in-chief; but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff

in substitution for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the

ministry. It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and

therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of

small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June 1895 led to

the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, popular and possessed of

a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. Healy had said that he tried to

govern Ireland with Scottish jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the

general respect of all parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel

retired, his claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but

his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active politics and

Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent member of the inner Liberal

circle and a stanch party man, it was not supposed by the public at this

time that any ambition for the highest place could be associated with

Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and

the rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made the

political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he was

apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined with his

honourable record and experience to make him a safe man; and in December

1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal resignation of the leadership of the

Opposition, he was elected to fill the position in the House of Commons

with the general assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary

impotence, and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir Henry

had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted his duty

as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the Radical party together

in the midst of its pronounced differences. In this he was successful,

although the advent of the Boer War of 1899-1902 created new

difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. The leader of the Opposition

from the first denounced the diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and

Mr Chamberlain, and objected to all armed intervention or even

preparation for hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the

anti-war section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and

his allusion to "methods of barbarism" in connexion with the conduct of

the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the crisis within the

party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, who looked to Lord Rosebery

(q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for their political inspiration, showed

pronounced signs of restiveness. But a party meeting was called on the

9th of July, and Sir Henry was unanimously confirmed in the leadership.

The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency

throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The political

conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the first time

since 1892. The blunders of the government were open to a united attack,

and Mr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement in 1903 provided a new

rallying point in defence of the existing fiscal system. In the Liberal

campaign on behalf of free trade the real leader, however, was Mr

Asquith. Sir Henry's own principal contribution to the discussion was

rather unfortunate, for while insisting on the blessings derived by

England from its free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical

admission (at Bolton in 1903) that "12,000,000 British citizens were

underfed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retirement,

Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the accumulating

opposition in the country to the Education Act of 1902 and to the

continued weight of taxation, together with the growth of the Labour

movement, and the antagonism to the introduction of Chinese coolies

(1904) into South Africa under conditions represented by Radical

spokesmen as those of "slavery," made the political pendulum swing back.

A Liberal majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at

by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only a question

of time (see the articles on BALFOUR, A.J., and CHAMBERLAIN, J.). On the

4th of December 1905 the Unionist government resigned, and the king sent

for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet.

Lord Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to

co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd of

November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately flouted his

well-known susceptibilities by once more writing Home Rule in large

letters on the party programme, and he declared at Bodmin that he would

"never serve under that banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which

undoubtedly influenced the Irish vote, were that he "desired to see the

effective management of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative

Irish assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered

to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise the

Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led up to

their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more separated himself

from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen in the Liberal League

were included in the cabinet, Mr Asquith becoming chancellor of the

exchequer, Sir Edward Grey foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war

minister. Other sections of the party were strongly represented by Mr

John Morley as secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at

Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord

Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education minister

(afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as president of the Board

of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home secretary, and Mr John Burns--a

notable rise for a Labour leader--as president of the Local Government

Board. Lord Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin

(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen (lord

lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the duchy of

Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L.V. Harcourt

(first commissioner of works), and Captain John Sinclair (secretary for

Scotland) completed the ministry, a place of prominence outside the

cabinet being found for Mr Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the

colonies. In 1907 Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as

education minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry

Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there was a

decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to keep his seat

in the Commons.

At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming Liberal majority

was returned, irrespective of the Labour and Nationalist vote, and Sir

Henry himself was again elected for Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379,

the Labour members 51, the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157.

His premiership was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his

party; it may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime

ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather than

that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or his commanding

personality, nor any positive programme, that brought the Liberals back

to power, but the country's weariness of their predecessors and the

successful employment at the elections of a number of miscellaneous

issues. But as the man who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the

gap in the days of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously

criticized by the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly

marked out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance;

and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the

demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all sections.

Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved to be a powerful

unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous party; and though the

illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his wife (daughter of General Sir

Charles Bruce), whom he had married in 1860, made his constant

attendance in the House of Commons impossible, his domestic sorrow

excited widespread sympathy and appealed afresh to the affection of his

political followers. This became all the more apparent as his own health

failed during 1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the

leadership in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the

premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, when it

became clear that his health was not equal to active work, four or five

months elapsed before the necessary change became a _fait accompli_.

Personal affection and political devotion had in these two years made

him appear indispensable to the party, although nobody ever regarded him

as in the front line of English statesmen so far as originality of ideas

or brilliance of debating power were concerned. It is not the fortune of

many more brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character.

From the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that

Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would before long

succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of April Sir Henry

Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally announced. He died on the

22nd of the same month. He had spoken in the House of Commons on the

13th of February, but since then had been prostrated and unable to

transact business, his illness dating really from a serious heart attack

in the night of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the

Colston banquet.

From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry

Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the continued

controversies remaining from the general election of 1906,--tariff

reform and free trade, the South African question and the allied

Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the administration of

Ireland, and the amendment of the Education Act of 1902 so as to remove

its supposed denominational character. In his speech at the Albert Hall

on the 21st of December 1905 it was noticeable that, before the

elections, the prime minister laid stress on only one subject which

could be regarded as part of a constructive programme--the necessity of

doing something for canals, which was soon shelved to a royal

commission. But in spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill

(1907), the struggles over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being

dropped on account of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers

of the Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due

to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation Bill

(1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be a period of

bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming measures of some

moment were carried. A new Small Holdings Act (1907) for England was

passed; the Trades Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades

unions from the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr

Lloyd-George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) were

welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own policy; a

long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the Deceased Wife's

Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a public trustee, a court

of criminal appeal, a system of probation for juvenile offenders, and a

census of production, were passed in 1907. Meanwhile, though the

Colonial Conference (re-named Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a

wide difference of opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade

government and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the

ministry took a decided step--in the establishment of a self-governing

constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies--which, for

good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's new army

scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. In foreign affairs,

the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for delimiting the British and

Russian spheres of influence in the Middle East laid the foundations of

entirely new relations between the British and Russian governments. On

the other hand, so far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal

party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded

as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a conciliator

of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, ready to

sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his following, that

he kept the party together, while his colleagues went their own ways in

their own departments. His own special "leads" were few, owing to the

personal reasons given above; his declaration at the Queen's Hall,

London, early in 1907, in favour of drastic land reform, served only to

encourage a number of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the

House of Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education

Bill and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when his

method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons was disclosed

in 1907. The House passed by an enormous majority a resolution

(introduced on June 25) "that in order to give effect to the will of the

people, as expressed by their representatives, it is necessary that the

power of the other House to alter or reject bills passed by this House

should be so restricted by law as to secure that within the limits of a

single parliament the final decision of the Commons shall prevail"; but

the prime minister's explanation that statutory provision should be made

for two or three successive private conferences between the two Houses

as to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that,

only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by the

Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form it would

become law over their heads, was obviously not what was wanted by

enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The problem still

remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a "law" to restrict

their own powers. After the passing of this resolution the cry against

the House of Lords rapidly weakened, since it became clear at the

by-elections (culminating at Peckham in March 1908) that the "will of

the people" was by no means unanimously on the side of the bills which

had failed to pass.

The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the confidence of

the Opposition, who found that they had outlived the criticisms of the

general election, and both on the question of tariff reform and on

matters of general politics were again holding their own. The failure of

the government in Ireland (where the only success was Mr Birrell's

introduction of the Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal

divisions as regards socialistic legislation, their variance from the

views of the self-governing colonies on Imperial administration, the

admission after the general election that the alleged "slavery" of the

Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase, a

"terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme measures

such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent opportunities of

electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal promises of economy had

been largely falsified, the reductions in the navy estimates being

dangerous in themselves, while the income tax still remained at

practically the war level. For much of all this the prime minister's

colleagues were primarily responsible; but he himself had given a lead

to the anti-militarist section by prominently advocating international

disarmament, and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague

conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical ideal and

the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy of pacificism. Sir

Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist opposition, shown at the

opening of the 1906 session in his dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour

with the words "Enough of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the

signs of Unionist reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment

when the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive under

their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration

against an Opposition no longer divided and making marked headway in the

country, and the ministry had to be reconstituted under a successor, Mr

Asquith, towards whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal

devotion as had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's

leadership. (H. Ch.)

CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of

Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is situated on a fine bay,

towards the S.E. extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of

the Mull and 83 m. S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad

monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined when the

capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial of its antiquity has

survived, but the finely sculptured granite cross standing on a pedestal

in the market-place belongs to the 12th century, and there are ruins of

some venerable chapels and churches. Through the interest of the

Campbells, who are still the overlords and from whom it takes its name,

it became a royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr

Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the churches (one

of which occupies the site of a castle of the Macdonalds), the town

house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. The staple industry is whisky

distilling, of which the annual output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than

half for export. The port is the head of a fishery district and does a

thriving trade. Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen

manufacturing are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity.

There are three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called

Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. At its

entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. On the Atlantic

shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, 5 m. distant.

Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown by a light railway. Near the

village of Southend is Machrireoch, the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge,

an old structure modernized, commanding superb views of the Firth of

Clyde and its islands, and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood

the castle of Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the

Campbells in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647

General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the Macdonalds to be

slain after their surrender. Of the ancient church founded here by

Columba, only the walls remain. Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray,

Irvine and Oban in sending one member (for the "Ayr Burghs") to

parliament.

CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746-1818), German educationist, was born at

Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied theology at the university of

Halle, and after acting for some time as chaplain at Potsdam, he

accepted a post as director of studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau

(see BASEDOW). He soon after set up an educational establishment of his

own at Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one of

his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble health. In

1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of education, and purchased

the _Schulbuchhandlung_, which under his direction became a most

prosperous business. He died in 1818. His numerous educational works

were widely used throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the

_Kleine Kinderbibliothek_ (11th ed., 1815); _Robinson der Jungere_ (59th

ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every European

language; and _Sammtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften_, 37 vols.

CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY), a southern state of Mexico, comprising the western

part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by

Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico

designated on English maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264;

(1900) 86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. The name

of the state is derived from its principal forest product, _palo de

campeche_ (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, consists of a

vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations in the north,

heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts in the north adapted

to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently watered, the rains

filtering quickly through the soil. In the south, however, there are

some large rivers, and the forest region is very humid. The climate is

hot and unhealthy. In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de

Terminos, a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the

southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, fustic,

lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell and _chicle_, the

last extracted from the _zapote chico_ trees (_Achras sapota_, L.).

Stock-raising engages some attention. One railway crosses the state from

the capital, Campeche, to Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means

of transportation except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen

(pop. in 1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Terminos

and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest products,

and owing to its inland water communications with the forest areas of

the interior is the principal port of the state and of Tabasco.

CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA, a fortified city and port of Mexico,

and capital of a state of the same name, situated on the Bay of

Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and 90 m. S.W. of Merida, in

lat. 20 deg. 5' N., long. 90 deg. 16' W. Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche

was one of the three open ports of this coast under the Spanish regime,

and its walls, general plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and

comfortable stone residences are evidence of the wealth it once

possessed. It is still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf

coast of Mexico. It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed

large profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely

lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a part of

Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to Laguna de Terminos is

now the chief shipping port for logwood and other forest products, and a

considerable part of the trade of Campeche has been transferred to

Progreso, the port of Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow

roadstead defended by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf

160 ft. long, but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie

outside and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood,

cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture. The

principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old churches, the

town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and market. The streets are

traversed by tramways, and a railway runs north-eastward to Merida.

Campeche stands on the site of an old native town, of which there are

interesting remains in the vicinity, and which was first visited by

Hernandez de Cordoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and

was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678 and 1685.

During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the scene of many engagements

between the Mexicans and people of Yucatan.

CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was born at Milan of a

noble Bolognese family. At first he followed a legal career at Pavia and

Bologna, and when in 1499 he took his doctorate he was esteemed the most

learned canonist in Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de'

Gualtavillani, by whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro,

born in 1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, became

bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went into the church; on

account of his services during the rebellion of Bologna, he was made by

Julius II. auditor of the Rota in 1511, and sent to Maximilian and to

Vienna as nuncio. Raised to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on

another embassy to Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest

of San Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a subsidy

from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England on the ostensible

business of arranging a crusade against the Turks. Wolsey, then engaged

in beginning his reform of the English church, procured that he himself

should be joined to the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who

arrived in England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position

and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's mission

failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, where he was

received in Consistory on the 28th of November 1519, with the gift from

the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi (q.v.), who had

been deposed, and large gifts of money and furniture. He was made

protector of England in the Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave

him the rich see of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of

Bologna. After attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity

of Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to restore

peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England as co-legate

with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He brought with him a

secret document, the Decretal, which defined the law and left the

legates to decide the question of fact; but this important letter was to

be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. "Owing to recent events," that is,

the loss of the temporal power, Clement was in no way inclined to offend

the victorious Charles V., Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already

received (16th of September 1528) distinct instructions "not to proceed

to sentence under any pretext without express commission, but protract

the matter as long as possible." After using all means of persuasion to

restore peace between the king and queen, Campeggio had to resist the

pressure brought upon him to give sentence. The legatine court opened at

Blackfriars on the 18th of June 1529, but the final result was certain.

Campeggio could not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his

only escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea of

the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he left England

on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had been searched at

Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had been burnt. Returning to

Bologna, the cardinal assisted at the coronation of Charles V. on the

24th of February 1530, and went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was

deprived by Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was

finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the see of

Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament (11th of March

1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish dominions made ample

amends. In 1537 he became cardinal bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on

the 25th of July 1539. His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in

Trastevere. (E. Tn.)

CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, was born at

Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was educated at the university there,

and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his

father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, and then visited

Paris, Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he had

been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine and

surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in 1755 he was

called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum in

Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six years, and retired to his

country house near Franeker, in order uninterruptedly to carry on his

studies. In 1763, however, he accepted the professorship of medicine,

surgery and anatomy at Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten

years. He then returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in

1776 spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned as one

of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, and the

latter years of his life were much occupied with political affairs. In

1787 he was nominated to a seat in the council of state, and took up his

residence at the Hague, where he died on the 7th of April 1789.

Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very numerous;

the most important of those bearing on comparative anatomy were

published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title _Oeuvres de P.

Camper qui ont pour objet l'histoire naturelle, la physiologie, et

l'anatomie comparee_. His _Dissertation physique sur les differences

reelles que presentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de

differents pays et de differents ages; sur le beau qui caracterise les

statues antiques et les pieces gravees_, &c., which was published in

1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial

angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also ANATOMY.)

CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, was born at

Hunshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of October 1812. Having

studied jurisprudence and political economy at the universities of Bonn,

Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne,

and immediately devoted his attention to financial and commercial

questions. Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this

capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor in the

ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of the second

chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate Liberal party. In

1869 he was appointed minister of finance. On taking office, he was

confronted with a deficit in the revenue, which he successfully cleared

off by effecting a conversion of a greater part of the state loans. The

French war indemnity enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the

state debt and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm

adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either of the

Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism to the tobacco

monopoly and the general economic policy of the latter brought about his

retirement. Camphausen's great services to Prussia were recognized by

his sovereign in the bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a

dignity carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the

18th of May 1896.

CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter, was born at Dusseldorf,

and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. von Schadow. As an historical and

battle painter he rapidly became popular, and in 1859 was made professor

of painting at the Dusseldorf academy, together with other later

distinctions. His "Flight of Tilly" (1841), "Prince Eugene at the Battle

of Belgrade" (1843; in the Cologne museum), "Flight of Charles II. after

the Battle of Worcester" (Berlin National Gallery), "Cromwell's Cavalry"

(Munich Pinakothek), are his principal earlier pictures; and his

"Frederick the Great at Potsdam," "Frederick II. and the Bayreuth

Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg," and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein

campaign and the war of 1866 (notably "Lines of Duppel after the

Battle," at the Berlin National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as

a representative of patriotic historical art. He also painted many

portraits of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He

died at Dusseldorf on the 16th of June 1885.

CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and ketones of the

hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring associated with volatile oils

in many plants. They are extracted together with volatile oils by

distilling certain plants with steam, the volatile oils being

subsequently separated by fractional distillation. The term "camphor" is

generally applied to the solid products so obtained, and hence includes

the "stearoptenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are

mostly white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they

are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol and

ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two main groups,

according to the nature of the corresponding hydrocarbon or terpene. In

this article only the camphors of commercial importance will be treated;

details as to the chemical structure, syntheses and relations will be

found in the article TERPENES.

_Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor_, C10H19OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl

hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs in the volatile oils of

_Mentha piperita_ and _M. arvensis_ (var. _piperascens_ and _glabrata_),

from which it is obtained by cooling and subsequently pressing the

separated crystals; or by fractional distillation. It crystallizes in

prisms, having the odour and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42 deg.

and boils at 212 deg.. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily

dissolves in alcohol and ether. It is optically active, being

laevo-rotatory. Menthol is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in

rheumatism, neuralgia, throat affections and toothache. It acts also as

a local anaesthetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant.

_Thymol, thyme camphor_, C10H13OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl phenol, an

oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, _Carum ajowan_, garden

thyme, _Thymus vulgaris_, wild thyme, _T. Serpyllum_ and horse mint,

_Monarda punctata_. Thymol crystallizes in large colourless plates which

melt at 44 deg. and boil at 230 deg.. It has the odour of thyme, is

sparingly soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in

alkaline solutions. In medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more

active than phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol,

which has been introduced in surgery under the names _aristol_ and

_annidalin_, as a substitute for iodoform.

_Borneol, Borneo camphor_ or camphol, also known as Malayan, Barus or

Dryobalanops camphor, C10H17OH, occurs in fissures in the wood of

_Dryobalanops aromatica_, a majestic tree flourishing in the East

Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo and inactive

modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic camphor. Borneol melts

at 203 deg. and boils at 212 deg.. It is very similar to common or Japan

camphor, but has a somewhat peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce

common camphor to a mixture of d- and l-borneol.

_Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor_, C10H16O, which constitutes

the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product of the camphor

laurel, _Cinnamonum camphora_, a tree flourishing in Japan, Formosa and

central China. It also occurs in various volatile oils, e.g. lavender,

rosemary, sage and spike. To extract the camphor, chips of the tree are

steamed, and the mixed vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are

conducted to a condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates

out. This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, which

is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation and

cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained is exported from

Japan in two grades--Samuel A and Samuel B. It is purified by mixing

with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings or quicklime and subliming,

by steam distillation or by crystallization. Common camphor forms a

translucent mass of hexagonal prisms, melting at 175 deg. and boiling at

204 deg. It sublimes very readily. In alcoholic solution it is

dextro-rotatory; the laevo form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil

of _Matricaria parthenium_ and closely resembles the d form. Camphor

is chiefly used in the celluloid industry. The so-called "artificial

camphor" is pinene hydrochloride (see TERPENES).

Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, and, in

some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite antiseptic.

It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the relief of myalgia,

sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, thymol or carbolic

acid, it is a valuable local application for neuralgia and for toothache

due to dental caries. Taken internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a

diaphoretic and a feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as

various substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). In

large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration being

followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, coma and

death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and in such conditions as

diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is a popular remedy for "cold in

the head," but it is not to be relied upon as a prophylactic against

infection either by an ordinary cold or true influenza.

CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-1627), Dutch painter, poet and

theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great

artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death

of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time

there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the

prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a

private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). As,

however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was

deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was

poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of

short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic

feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair

merit, among which is a _Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum_; but his fame

chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small,

but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the

composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above

criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and

his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent

at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have

been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son

Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly

credited.

CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters,

was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi

(1475-1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then

taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian,

Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness,

vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of

St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among

the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the

latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of

Cremona.

Giulio's pupil, BERNARDINO CAMPI (1522-1592), in some respects superior

to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under

Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he

added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say

which was the master's and which the imitator's. He was also much

influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the

frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona.

CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure

origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in

1726, we only know that he was born in "a house equally poor and

honest," that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the

service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Cordoba, who wished

apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take

orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen

years of age. In 1715 he became "page" to D. Francisco de Ocio,

superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a

clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patino, the head of

the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval

department. Under the protection of Patino, who became prime minister in

1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both

at home and in America. It was Patino's policy to build up a navy

quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention

abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and

honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a

shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing

spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he

was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden

books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the

incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy

Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping

all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was

entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that

Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister.

He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion

to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of

power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the

system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of

contractors and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly

compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands

of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year's

revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow

him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and

pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the

national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent

the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money

needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April

1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a _New System of

Government for America_ printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS.

treatise with the curious title, _What is superfluous and is wanting in

Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is._

See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, _Patino y Campillo_ (Madrid, 1882).

CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by

rail N.W. of the city of Sao Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos,

with which it is connected by the Paulista & Sao Paulo railway. Pop.

(1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial

centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and

the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther

inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to

Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into

new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though

Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local

consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great

central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has

produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two

virulent fever epidemics have resulted.

CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in

tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in

modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to

which the curious may be referred.

See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell's _Camping-out_ (1892) and _Voyages on

German Rivers_ (1890); G.R. Lowndes, _Gipsy Tents_ (1890).

For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp

Life_ (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the _Big Game Shooting_

volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on "Camping out" in

_The Encyclopaedia of Sport_; F.C. Selous, _A Hunter's Wanderings in

Africa_ (1881), and _Travel and Adventure in South Africa_ (1893);

A.W. Chanler, _Through Jungle and Desert_ (1896); A.B. Rathbone,

_Camping and Tramping in Malaya_ (1898).

For America, G.O. Shields, _Camping and Camp Outfits_ (1890); W.W.

Pascoe, _Canoe and Camp Cookery_ (1893); _Woodcraft_, by "Nessmuk"

(1895); W.S. Rainsford, _Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone_ (1896);

S.E. White, _The Forest_ (1903), and _The Mountains_ (1904);

_Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping_ (1904), published

by "The Appalachian Mountain Club," Boston. Valuable information will

be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of

outfitters and dealers in sporting goods.

CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in London,

received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as the best of

the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make the complimentary

speech when Queen Mary visited the city on the 3rd of August 1553. He

went to Oxford and became fellow of St John's College in 1557, taking

the oath of supremacy on the occasion of his degree in 1564, in which

year he was orator in the schools. He had already shown his talents as a

speaker at the funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas

White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration

fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen Elizabeth

to the university, and won a regard, which the queen preserved until

the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset him; but at the

persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of Gloucester, although holding

Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's orders in the English Church.

Inwardly "he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind."

Rumours of his opinions began to spread and, giving up the office of

proctor, he left Oxford in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a

proposed restoration of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry

followed him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three

months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying himself by

writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed's

_Chronicles_), a superficial work of no real value. At last he escaped

to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was reconciled to the

Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, he went to Rome and became

a Jesuit in 1573, spending some years at Brunn, Vienna and Prague. In

1580 the Jesuit mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert

Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance

Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in the

characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London on the 24th

of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His presence became known to

the authorities and an indiscreet declaration, "Campion Brag," made the

position more difficult. The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth

he led a hunted life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in

Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this

time he was writing his _Decem Rationes_, a rhetorical display of

reasons against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private

press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the benches

of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th of June 1581. The

sensation was immense, and the pursuit became keener. On his way to

Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th

of July and the following day, yielding to the foolish importunity of

some pious women. Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London,

bearing on his hat a paper with the inscription, "Campion, the Seditious

Jesuit." Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the presence of

Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to be really queen of

England, and on his replying straightly in the affirmative, she made him

offers, not only of life but of wealth and dignities, on conditions

which his conscience could not allow. He was kept a long time in prison,

twice racked by order of the council, and every effort was made to shake

his constancy. Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a

forged confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four

public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and although

still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for preparation, he

bore himself so easily and readily that he won the admiration of most of

the audience. Racked again on the 31st of October, he was indicted at

Westminster that he with others had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise

a sedition in the realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November

he was brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply to

him said: "If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to be

condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects as ever the

queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's death with the _Te

Deum laudamus_, and, after spending his last days in pious exercises,

was led with two companions to Tyburn (1st of December 1581) and

suffered the barbarous penalty. Of all the Jesuit missionaries who

suffered for their allegiance to the ancient religion, Campion stands

the highest. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true and

his loyalty unquestionable. He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.

An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's _Edmund

Campion_ (1867); and a complete list of his works in De Backer's

_Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus_. (E. Tn.)

CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician, was born in

London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened at St Andrew's,

Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of the Middle Temple, who was by

profession one of the cursitors of the chancery court, the clerks "of

course," whose duties were to draft the various writs and legal

instruments in correct form. His mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of

Laurence Searle, one of the queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of

Campion's father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died

herself soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the

orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his stepson

by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to Peterhouse,

Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied at Cambridge for four

years, and left the university, it would appear, without a degree, but

strongly imbued with those tastes for classical literature which

exercised such powerful influence upon his subsequent work. In April

1587 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of

adopting a legal profession, but he had little sympathy with legal

studies and does not appear to have been called to the bar. His

subsequent movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have

taken part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance

of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears with the

degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records does not

permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The rest of his life was

probably spent in London, where he practised as a physician until his

death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving behind him, it would appear,

neither wife nor issue. He was buried the same day at St

Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street.

The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being a group

of five anonymous poems included in the _Songs of Divers Noblemen and

Gentlemen_, appended to Newman's surreptitious edition of Sidney's

_Astrophel and Stella_, which appeared in 1591. In 1595 appeared under

his own name the _Poemata_, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies

and epigrams, which evince much skill in handling, and won him

considerable reputation. This was followed in 1601 by _A Booke of

Ayres_, one of the song-books so fashionable in his day, the music of

which was contributed in equal proportions by himself and Philip

Rosseter, while the words were almost certainly all written by him. The

following year he published his _Observations in the Art of English

Poesie_, "against the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in

favour of rhymeless verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry.

Its appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of the

crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped champions, but

the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by Daniel, who in his

_Defence of Ryme_, published the same year, finally demolished the

movement.

In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of the marriage

of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of _Songs of Mourning_

(set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) for the loss of Prince Henry,

which was sincerely lamented by the whole English nation. The same year

he wrote and arranged three masques, the _Lords' Masque_ for the

marriage of Princess Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of

Queen Anne at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl

of Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. If,

moreover, as appears quite likely, his _Two Bookes of Ayres_ (both words

and music written by himself) belongs also to this year, it was indeed

his _annus mirabilis_.

Some time in or after 1617 appeared his _Third and Fourth Booke of

Ayres_; while to that year probably also belongs his _New Way of making

Foure Parts in Counter-point_, a technical treatise which was for many

years the standard text-book on the subject. It was included, with

annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfair's _Brief Introduction to

the Skill of Musick_, and two editions appear to have been bought up by

1660. In 1618 appeared _The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham

Castle_ on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the music by

Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost certainly by Campion; and

in 1619 he published his _Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber

unus_, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions,

additions (in the form of another book of epigrams) and corrections.

While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in

the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion.

No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he mainly

worked, the masque and the song-book. The masque was an amusement at

any time too costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was

practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more

ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy,

with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the

madrigal. Its loss involved that of many hundreds of dainty lyrics,

including those of Campion, and it is due to the enthusiastic efforts of

Mr A.H. Bullen, who first published a collection of the poet's works in

1889, that his genius has been recognized and his place among the

foremost rank of Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him.

Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to him "the

superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we may thank the fates

that his precepts of rhymeless versification so little affected his

practice. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than

many others, but they lack the spontaneous grace and freshness of his

other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must

have possessed a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is

unmusical; moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave

rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic

features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently

shift from line to line. His range was very great both in feeling and

expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate epithalamium or a

simple country ditty, the result is always full of unstudied freshness

and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred pieces he is particularly

successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works_, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding _A New

Way_, &c.; _Songs and Masques_, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with an

introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; _Poems_, &c. (in

English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); _Complete Works_, ed. P. Vivian

(Clarendon Press, 1908). The "Observations in the Art of English

Poesie" are also published in Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_

and Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. ii. (1903).

(P. Vn.)

CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French dramatist, was born at

Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded

in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of

Racine. If he copied his master's methods of construction with some

success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond

mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of

_Athalie_ and _Phedre_. He secured the patronage of the influential

duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating _Arminius_ to her, and in 1685 he

scored his first success with _Andronic_, which disguised under other

names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece

made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment is weak, and he

failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject.

Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendome, to write the book of

an opera to be performed at a fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He

handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced _Acis et Galathee_

for Lulli's music. Campistron had another success in _Tiridate_ (1691),

in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of

Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and

two comedies, one of which, _Le Jaloux desabuse_, has been considered by

some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to

the duc de Vendome and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him

on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man

under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours

were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St

James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in

Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty

years of service with Vendome he retired to his native place, where he

died on the 11th of May 1723.

CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901), Spanish poet, was born at

Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of September 1817. Abandoning his first

intention of entering the Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid,

found an opening in politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and,

after occupying several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellon

de la Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies

grew more pronounced with time, and his _Polemicas con la

Democracia_ (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of his

political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from 1840, when

he published his _Ternezas y flores_, a collection of idyllic verses,

remarkable for their technical excellence. His _Ayes del Alma_ (1842) and

his _Fabulas morales y politicas_ (1842) sustained his reputation, but

showed no perceptible increase of power or skill. An epic poem in

sixteen cantos, _Colon_ (1853), is no more successful than modern epics

usually are. Campoamor's theatrical pieces, such as _El Palacio de la

Verdad_ (1871), _Dies Irae_ (1873), _El Honor_ (1874) and _Glorias

Humanas_ (1885), are interesting experiments; but they are totally

lacking in dramatic spirit. He always showed a keen interest in

metaphysical and philosophic questions, and defined his position in _La

Filosofia de las leyes_ (1846), _El Personalismo_ (1855), _Lo

Absoluto_ (1865) and _El Ideismo_ (1883). These studies are chiefly

valuable as embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to

the composition of those _doloras, humoradas_ and _pequenos poemas_,

which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic species. The first

collection of _Doloras_ was printed in 1846, and from that date onwards

new specimens were added to each succeeding edition. It is difficult to

define a _dolora_. One critic has described it as a didactic, symbolic

stanza which combines the lightness and grace of the epigram, the

melancholy of the _endecha_, the concise narrative of the ballad, and

the philosophic intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared

that a _dolora_ is a dramatic _humorada_, and that a _pequeno poema_ is

a _dolora_ on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. The

humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form to which

Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes no further. It cannot

be denied that in the _Doloras_ Campoamor's special gifts of irony,

grace and pathos find their best expression. Taking a commonplace theme,

he presents in four, eight or twelve lines a perfect miniature of

condensed emotion. By his choice of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal

facility and copiousness which have led many Spanish poets to

destruction. It pleased him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this

affectation has been reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the

impression of insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using

mysticism as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of

the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching morality by

satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism of a genial,

epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether for good. His

formula is too easily mastered, and to his example is due a plague of

_doloras_ and _humoradas_ by poetasters who have caricatured their

model. Campoamor, as he himself said, did not practise art for art's

sake; he used art as the medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are

poor. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a

deep silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge him

with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming bulk of

his work will perish; we may even say that it is already dead. His

pretensions, or the pretensions put forward in his name, that he

discovered a new poetic _genre_ will be rejected later, as they are

rejected now by all competent judges. The title of a philosophic poet

will be denied to him. But he will certainly survive, at least in

extract, as a distinguished humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and

sententious aphorism, an artist of extremely finished execution.

(J. F. K.)

CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of

Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above

sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself

contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine

modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and

cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the

15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The

town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of

counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in

consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats.

CAMPODEA, a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible antennae

and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known species

(_Campodea staphylinus_) has a wide distribution and is equally at home

in the warm valleys of south Europe, in the subarctic conditions of

mountain tops, in caves and in woods and gardens in England. It lives in

damp places under stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves.

Although blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into

the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with its

antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling that of

a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or thysanurous

insects of the order Aptera (q.v.).

CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802), Spanish statesman and

writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st

of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the council of

Castile; but on the accession of Charles IV. he was removed from his

office, and retired from public life, regretted by the true friends of

his country. His first literary work was _Antiquidad maritima de la

republica de Cartago_, with an appendix containing a translation of the

_Voyage of Hanno_ the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared in

a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable essays,

_Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular_, 1774, and _Discurso

sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos y su fomento_, 1775. As a

supplement to the last, he published four appendices, each considerably

larger than the original essay. The first contains reflections on the

origin of the decay of arts and manufactures in Spain during the last

century. The second points out the steps necessary for improving or

re-establishing the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection

of royal ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts

and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. The

third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with the results

of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances of towns. The fourth

contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez de Mata on national

commerce, with some observations adapted to present circumstances. These

were all printed at Madrid in 1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count

Campomanes died on the 3rd of February 1802.

Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes

as an introduction to the first edition of his _Cartas

politico-economicas_, published in 1878.

CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1900), Spanish marshal, senator and

knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at Segovia on the 14th of December

1831. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was

attached to the staff college as an assistant professor. He took part in

the Morocco campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen

actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of

lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a

professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under Prim. In

1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to the rank of general

in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the Federal Republican

government in 1873 confided to General Campos several high commands, in

which he again distinguished himself against the Cantonal Republicans

and the Carlists. About that time he began to conspire with a view to

restore the son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his

designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command of a

division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of May of

that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. On both

occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the other commanders to

proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected to hold aloof, and would have

been arrested, had not the minister of war, Ceballos, answered for his

good behaviour, and quartered him in Avila under surveillance. He

managed to escape, and after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at

Sagunto on the 29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII.

king of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great

influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as a

sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, and later

by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important political crisis,

and on every international or colonial question, especially when other

generals or the army itself became troublesome. He took an important

part in the military operations against the Carlists, and in the

negotiations with their leaders, which put an end to the civil war in

1876. In the same way he brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878.

On his return from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet

for a few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever afterwards

treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In 1881, with other

discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in obtaining office. After

the death of King Alphonso, Campos steadily supported the regency of

Queen Christina, and held high commands, though declining to take

office. In 1893 he was selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla,

and went to the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of

peace, which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed a

serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of Canovas

to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as well as in

his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he was not allowed

to give them local self-government, as he wished. Subsequently he

remained aloof from politics, and only spoke in the senate to defend his

Cuban administration and on army questions. After the war with America,

and the loss of the colonies in 1899, when Senor Silvela formed a new

Conservative party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency

of the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post up

to the time of his death. This took place in the summer recess of 1900

at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, where he was buried.

CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the

Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. N.E. of the city of

Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, 22,518; of the municipality,

78,036. The river is navigable for small steamers above and below the

city, but is closed to coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at

its mouth. The shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahe), 60 m.

south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water

communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes united by

canals. Campos has indirect railway communication with Rio de Janeiro by

way of Macahe, and is the starting point for several small independent

lines. The elevation of the city is only 69 ft. above sea level, and it

stands near the western margin of a highly fertile alluvial plain

devoted to the production of sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and

many kinds of tropical fruit are produced in abundance.

CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), the capital of the

department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat of a suffragan bishop;

situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian Mountains, at the

head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the river Tirgului, a

tributary of the Argesh. Pop. (1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine

scenery render Campulung a popular summer resort. In the town are more

than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both

claim to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first

prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for several

paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July and the 24th of

October; and there is a considerable traffic with Transylvania, over the

Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the south by a branch railway to

Ploesci. Near Campulung are the remains of a Roman camp; and, just

beyond the gates, vestiges of a Roman colony, variously identified with

Romula, Stepenium and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi.

CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical painter, was born at

Rome. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picture-restorer, and

Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing

higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being

Raphael. As an original painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the

French artist David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness

and patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was

essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both personally,

and as an artist, and received many honours and preferments from the

papal and other Italian courts. He was appointed director of the Academy

of San Luca and of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of

the pictures of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all

the orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief works

are the classical paintings of the "Assassination of Caesar," the "Death

of Virginia," the "Devotion of the Roman Women," "Young Romulus and

Remus," "Horatius Cocles," the "St Thomas," which was copied in mosaic

for St Peter's, the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" and a number

of excellent portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection

of pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including

Raphael's "Madonna with the Pink") being bought by the duke of

Northumberland.

CAMULODUNUM, also written CAMALODUNUM (mod. Colchester, q.v.), a British

and Roman town. It was the capital of the British chief Cunobelin and is

named on his coins: after his death and the Roman conquest of south

Britain, the Romans established (about A.D. 48) a _colonia_ or

municipality peopled with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve

both as an informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It

was stormed and burnt A.D. 61 in the rising of Boadicea (q.v.), but soon

recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman Britain. Its walls

and some other buildings still stand and abundant Roman remains enrich

the local museum. The name denotes "the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic

Mars.

CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolutionist, was a successful

advocate before the Revolution. In 1789 he was elected by the third

estate of Paris to the states general, and attracted attention by his

speeches against social inequalities. Elected to the National Convention

by the department of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee

of general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged

with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered with his

colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he was exchanged

for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November 1795. He played an

inconspicuous role in the council of the Five Hundred. On the 14th of

August 1789 the Constituent Assembly made Camus its archivist, and in

that capacity he organized the national archives, classified the papers

of the different assemblies of the Revolution and drew up analytical

tables of the _proces-verbaux_. He was restored to the office in 1796

and became absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican,

refusing to take part in the Napoleonic regime.

CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), French mathematician and

mechanician, was born at Crecy-en-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th of

August 1699. He studied mathematics, civil and military architecture,

and astronomy, and became associate of the Academie des Sciences,

professor of geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and

fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied Pierre

Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the expedition to Lapland

for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. He died on the 2nd of

February 1768. He was the author of a _Cours de mathematiques_ (Paris,

1766), and a number of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects

(see Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch_).

CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French mechanician, was born

near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September 1672. After studying for the

church, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions, a number of which

he described in his _Traite des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des

arts et metiers_, Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732.

CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French architect, was born at

Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died it the same city on the 27th

of July 1789. He published several works on architectural and related

subjects.

CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the home of

Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's "beginning of miracles" (John ii.

I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it is evident from the

biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of, and higher than,

Capernaum. Opinion as to identification is fairly divided between Kefr

Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth,

contains a ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter is

an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no remains but a

few cisterns.

CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic terms have a shifting

reference, which doubtless arises out of the migrations of the tribes to

which the term "Canaanites" belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems

to be applied to a population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in

Josh. xi. 3, Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these,

but to a people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be

used of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is

disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively to the

population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish

inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the writer called the

Yahwist (J); see _e.g. _Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; Ex. xv. 15; Num.

xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, and elsewhere. It

was also, as Augustine tells us,[1] a usage of the Phoenicians to call

their land "Canaan." This is confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea

by the Lebanon, which bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in

Canaan"; these coins are dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and

his successors, Greek writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest,

viz. that the original name of Phoenicia was [Greek: Chna], i.e. Kena, a

short, collateral form of Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured

by the Egyptian usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or

Arabian nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shur?) to "the Ka-n-'-na,"

and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in "the

Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all western

Syria and Palestine with Raphia--"the (first) city of the

Ka-n-'-na"--for the south-west boundary towards the desert.[2] In the

letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their Egyptian

overlord[3]--commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna tablets--we find the

two forms Kinahhi and Kinahna, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an

respectively, and standing, as Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its

widest extent.

On the name "Canaan" Winckler remarks,[4] "There is at present no

prospect of an etymological explanation." From the fact that Egyptian

(though not Hebrew) scribes constantly prefix the article, we may

suppose that it originally meant "the country of the Canaanites," just

as the Hebrew phrase "the Lebanon" may originally have meant "the

highlands of the Libnites"; and we are thus permitted to group the term

"Canaan" with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, Anak (generally

with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor are scholars more unanimous

with regard to the region where the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan"

arose. It may be true that the term Kinahhi in the Amarna letters

corresponds to Syria and Palestine in their entirety. But this does not

prove that the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" arose in that region, for

they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let us refer at

this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps hardly estimated at

its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples in Gen. x. Here we find

"Canaan" included among the four sons of Ham. If Cush in v. 6 really

means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is

really a Hebraized form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t

(black),[5] the passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has

recently been suggested,[6] Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north

Arabia, and Ham is the short for Yarham or Yerahme'el (see i Chr. ii.

25-27, 42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all

becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an Arabian name.

Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning from about 4000 B.C.[7] a

wave of Semitic migration poured out of Arabia, and flooded Babylonia

certainly, and possibly, more or less, Syria and Palestine also. Also

that between 2800 and 2600 B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same

course, covering not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and

probably also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet

with the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), the

first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the first part

of his name is identical with the name of the father of Canaan in

Genesis (Ham or Kham), indicating his Arabian origin.[8] It was he, too,

who restored the ancient supremacy of Babylonia over Syria and

Palestine, and so prevented the Babylonizing of these countries from

coming to an abrupt end.

We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors arrived in the

second Semitic migration, came to call their land "Canaan." They had in

fact the best right to do so. The first of the Canaanite immigrants were

driven seawards by the masses which followed them. They settled in

Phoenicia, and in after times became so great in commerce that

"Canaanite" became a common Hebrew term for "merchant" (e.g. Isa. xxiii.

8). It is a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their

inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious

phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and belonged properly to

the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.[9] For their own traditions

as to their origin see PHOENICIA; we cannot venture to reject these

altogether. The masses of immigrants which followed them may have borne

the name of Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be

given. Both within and without Palestine the name was famous.

First, as regards the Old Testament. We find "the Amorite" (a collective

term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. 16-18a) among other

tribal names, the exact original reference of which had probably been

forgotten. No one in fact would gather from this and parallel passages

how important a part was played by the Amorites in the early history of

Palestine. In Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we

find them located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi.

13, 21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great

Amorite kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the

east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in Gen.

xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c.,

where the name of Amorite is synonymous with "Canaanite," except that

"Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. Next, as to the

extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian inscriptions and in the Amarna

tablets Amar and Amurru have a more limited meaning, being applied to

the mountain-region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later

on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as

north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term "the land of

Hatti" (conventionally = Hittites) displaced "Amurru" so far as north

Palestine is concerned (see HITTITES).

Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first stage of the

second great Arabian migration. In the interval preceding the second

stage Syria with Palestine became an Egyptian dependency, though the

links with the sovereign power were not so strong as to prevent frequent

local rebellions. Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of

a strong hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the

Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not quite so

tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs began to seek their

opportunities, though as a rule they did not find them because they

could not obtain the help of a neighbouring king.[10] The boldest of the

disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even

before the death, of Amen-hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power

into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or

Hamath), reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the

attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite

trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor of Gubla

(Gebal).

It was, first, the advance of the Hatti (Hittites) into Syria, which

began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more threatening in

that of his successor, and next, the resumption of the second Arabian

migration, which most seriously undermined the Egyptian power in Asia.

Of the former we cannot speak here (see HITTITES), except so far as to

remark the Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the

Hatti, was afterwards clever enough to make a treaty with their king,

and, with other external powers, to attack the districts which remained

loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to

the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in his religious

innovations to attend to such messages. What most interests us is the

mention of troublesome invaders called some times _sa-gas_ (a Babylonian

ideogram meaning "robber"), sometimes Habiri. Who are these Habiri? Not,

as was at first thought by some, specially the Israelites, but all those

tribes of land-hungry nomads ("Hebrews") who were attracted by the

wealth and luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it

for themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites or

tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, Ammonites

and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north Syria. Itakkama writes

thus to the Pharaoh,[11] "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the

cities of the king, my lord, to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in

Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will

bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show

myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS." Similarly Zimrida,

king of Sidon, declares, "All my cities which the king has given into my

hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri."[12] Nor had Palestine any

immunity from the Arabian invaders. The king of _Jerusalem_, Abd-Hiba,

the second part of whose name has been thought to represent the Hebrew

Yahweh,[13] reports thus to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this

year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops

come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my

lord."[14] Abd-Hiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and

the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable

league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death

at the siege of Gina.[15] All these princes, however, malign each other

in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest their own innocence of

traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see

above) accuses of disloyalty, writes thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and

my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS,

and my Suti[16] are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go

whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."[17] This petty prince,

therefore, sees no harm in having a band of Arabians for his garrison,

as indeed Hezekiah long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against

Sennacherib.

From the same period we have recently derived fresh and important

evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as the material

gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified and critically

examined, a true history of early Palestine will be within measurable

distance. At present, there are five places whence the new evidence has

been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, generally identified with the Lachish of

the Old Testament. Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders

Petrie and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I

Kings ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. 3.

Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from

Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made some

discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the site, however,

was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio).

Schumacher began working here in 1903 for the German Palestine Society.

5. Taannek, on the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst

Sellin of Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may

be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform tablet

belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, a deed of sale;

at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian stele, three seals, and

three cylinders with Babylonian mythological representations; at

Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a Babylonian legend, and at Taannek,

twelve tablets and fragments of tablets were found near the fragments of

the terracotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact

that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used

Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. But much

beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive sanctuaries, for

instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths at Gezer is described in

detail in _P.E.F. Quart. Statement_, January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903,

p. 219. There is reason, as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the

result of a gradual development, beginning with two small pillars, and

gradually enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at

Tell-es-Safy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved

to be of great antiquity; Sellin's discoveries at Taannek and those of

Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars have also

been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. 25, 26, and numerous

jars with the skeletons of infants. We cannot doubt that the sacrificing

of children was practised on a large scale among the Canaanites. Their

chief deity was Ashtart (Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous

images of her have been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of

the divine form vary in the different places. The other images which

have been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, infer

that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish Pantheon.

What the images do prove is the large amount of intercourse between

Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of Egyptians in the subject country.

See the _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, ed. by Winckler, with translation

(1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements

from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek;

also H.W. Hogg, "Recent Assyriology," &c., in _Inaugural Lectures_ ed.

by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical

questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. See

further articles PALESTINE; JEWS. (T. K. C.)