CAMORRA CANDYTUFT
CAMP CANE
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA CANEA
CAMPAIGN CANE-FENCING
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE CANEPHORAE
CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO CANES VENATICI
CAMPANIA CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE
CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO CANGAS DE ONIS
CAMPANILE CANGAS DE TINEO
CAMPANULA CANGUE
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER CANINA, LUIGI
CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO
CAMPBELL, GEORGE CANIS MAJOR
CAMPBELL, JOHN CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG
CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL CANIZARES, JOSE DE
CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS CANNAE
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD CANNANORE
CAMPBELL, LEWIS CANNES
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN CANNIBALISM
CAMPBELL, THOMAS CANNING, CHARLES JOHN
CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY CANNING, GEORGE
CAMPBELTOWN CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO
CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH CANNOCK
CAMPECHE (state of Mexico) CANNON
CAMPECHE (city of Mexico) CANNON-BALL TREE
CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO CANNSTATT
CAMPER, PETER CANO, ALONZO
CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON CANO, MELCHIOR
CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM CANOE
CAMPHORS CANON
CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ CANONESS
CAMPI, GIULIO CANONIZATION
CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL CANON LAW
CAMPINAS CANOPUS
CAMPING OUT CANOPY
CAMPION, EDMUND CANOSA
CAMPION, THOMAS CANOSSA
CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE CANOVA, ANTONIO
CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO
CAMPOBASSO CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN
CAMPODEA CANT, ANDREW
CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ CANT
CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE CANTABRI
CAMPOS CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS
CAMPULUNG CANTACUZINO
CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO CANTAGALLO
CAMULODUNUM CANTAL
CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON CANTARINI, SIMONE
CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS CANTATA
CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES CANTEEN
CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE CANTEMIR
CANA CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON
CANAAN, CANAANITES CANTERBURY
CANACHUS CANTHARIDES
CANADA CANTICLES
CANAL CANTILEVER
CANAL DOVER CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE
CANALE ANTONIO CANTILUPE, WALTER DE
CANALIS CANTO
CANANDAIGUA CANTON, JOHN
CANARD CANTON (city of China)
CANARY CANTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
CANARY ISLANDS CANTON (New York, U.S.A.)
CANCALE CANTON (Ohio, U.S.A.)
CANCEL CANTON (country division)
CANCELLI CANTONMENT
CANCER, LUIS CANTU, CESARE
CANCER (astronomy) CANUSIUM
CANCER (disease) CANUTE
CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON CANUTE VI.
CANDELABRUM CANVAS
CANDIA CANVASS
CANDIDATE CANYNGES, WILLIAM
CANDLE CANYON
CANDLEMAS CANZONE
CANDLESTICK CAPE BRETON
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH CAPE COAST
CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE CAPE COLONY
CANDON
CAMORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, blackmail
and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. Probably both the word
and the association were introduced into Naples by Spaniards. There is a
Spanish word _camorra_ (a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have
existed in Spain long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It
was in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was
primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan
prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and oppression,
its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. In or about 1830
the Camorra was carried into the city by prisoners who had served their
terms. The members worked the streets in gangs. They had special methods
of communicating with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach
of the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. A
long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze meant he
was not "worth powder and shot," and so on. The society rapidly extended
its power, and its operations included smuggling and blackmail of all
kinds in addition to ordinary road-robberies. Its influence grew to be
considerable. Princes were in league with and shared the profits of the
smugglers: statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact,
were involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra drew
huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The general
disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized that
merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loading and
unloading of merchandise. Being non-political, the government did not
interfere with the society; indeed its members were taken into the
police service and the Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled
the authorities. After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when
the constitution was granted by Francis II., the _camorristi_ then in
gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became
all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862.
Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its power.
In September 1877 there was a determined effort to exterminate it:
fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi being simultaneously
arrested in the market-place. Though much of its power has gone, the
Camorra has remained vigorous. It has grown upwards, and highly-placed
and well-known camorristi have entered municipal administrations and
political life. In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made
in the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the
Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. A
government inquiry also took place. As the result of this investigation
the Honest Government League was formed, which succeeded in 1901 in
entirely defeating the Camorra candidates at the municipal elections.
The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the "swell mobsmen,"
the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed with and levied fines
on people of highest rank. Most of these were well connected. There were
the lower order of blackmailers who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.;
and there were political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the
society were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve
for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted
camorrista when he was sometimes called _picciotto d' honore_, and after
giving proof of courage and zeal became a _picciotto di sgarro_, one,
that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some localities he was then
called _tamurro_. The initiatory ceremony for full membership is now a
mock duel in which the arm alone is wounded. In early times initiation
was more severe. The camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground,
and at a signal all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the
novice had at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that
his hand was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate
as _picciotto di sgarro_ lasted three years, during which the lad had to
work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as master. After
initiation there was a ceremony of reception. The camorristi stood round
a table on which were a dagger, a loaded pistol, a glass of water or
wine supposed to be poisoned and a lancet. The _picciotto_ was brought
in and one of his veins opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he
held it out to the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets
and obey orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock
the pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to die
for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the dagger, placed
his right hand on the lad's head while with the left he fired off the
pistol into the air and smashed the poison-glass. He then drew the
dagger from the table and presented it to the new comrade and embraced
him, as did all the others. The Camorra was divided into centres, each
under a chief. There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one
time to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was Aniello
Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. The chief of
every centre was elected by the members of it. All the earnings of the
centre were paid to and then distributed by him. The camorristi employ a
whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their chief is _masto_ or _si masto_,
"sir master." When a member meets him he salutes with the phrase _Masto,
volite niente?_ ("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are
addressed simply as _si_.
See Monnier, _La Camorra_ (Florence, 1863); Umilta, _Camorra et Mafia_
(Neuchatel, 1878); Alongi, _La Camorra_ (1890); C.W. Heckethorn
_Secret Societies of All Ages_ (London, 1897); Blasio, _Usi e costumi
dei Camorriste_ (Naples, 1897).
CAMP (from Lat. _campus_, field), a term used more particularly in a
military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized place of
food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary housing (see
CAMPING-OUT). The shelter of troops in the field has always been of the
greatest importance to their well-being, and from the earliest times
tents and other temporary shelters have been employed as much as
possible when it is not feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in
barracks or in houses. The applied sense of the word "camp" as a
military post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the
Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern warfare the word is
used in two ways. In the wider sense, "camp" is opposed to "billets,"
"cantonments" or "quarters," in which the troops are scattered amongst
the houses of towns or villages for food and shelter. In a purely
military camp the soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground
allotted for their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of
concentration and readiness for immediate action, and are under better
disciplinary control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from
the weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the restricted
sense "camp" implies tents for all ranks, and is thus opposed to
"bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded by improvised
screens, &c., or at most small _tentes d'abri_ carried in sections by
the men themselves. The weight of large regulation tents and the
consequent increase in the number of horses and vehicles in the
transport service are, however, disadvantages so grave that the
employment of canvas camps in European warfare is almost a thing of the
past. If the military situation permits, all troops are put into
quarters, only the outpost troops bivouacking. This course was pursued
by the German field armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter
campaign.
Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole army to
bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are not to be depended
upon, tents must be provided, for no troops can endure many successive
nights in bivouac, except in summer, without serious detriment to their
efficiency. In a war on the Russo-German frontier, for instance,
especially if operations were carried out in the autumn and winter,
tents would be absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In
this connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates many
of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For training purposes
in peace time, _standing camps_ are formed. These may be considered
simply as temporary barracks. An _entrenched camp_ is an area of ground
occupied by, or suitable for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and
protected by fortifications.
_Ancient Camps._--English writers use "camp" as a generic term for any
remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of their special age,
size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it various dissimilar things.
We may distinguish (1) Roman "camps" (_castra_) of three kinds, large
permanent fortresses, small permanent forts (both usually built of
stone) and temporary earthen encampments (see ROMAN ARMY); (2)
Pre-Roman; and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English
hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to their
special periods. Often we can say no more than that the "camp" is not
Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified with earthen walls were
thrown up as early as the Bronze Age and probably earlier still, and
that they continued to be built down to Norman times. These consisted of
hilltops or cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified
with one or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining
huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have come in
first with the Normans. Their _mottes_ or earthen mounds crowned with
wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by an enclosure on the
flat constituted a new element in fortification and greatly aided the
conquest of England. (See CASTLE.)
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the city of Rome, bounded
on the N.W. by the hills surrounding the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E.
by the Sabine mountains, on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W.
by the sea. (See LATIUM, and ROME (province).)
CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of an army
during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the time when armies
went into quarters during the winter and literally "took the field" at
the opening of summer. The word is also used figuratively, especially in
politics, of any continuous operations aimed at a definite object, as
the "Plan of Campaign" in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived
from the Latin _Campania_, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f.
Italian, _la Campagna di Roma_, from which came two French forms: (1)
_Champagne_, the name given to the level province of that name, and
hence the English "champaign," a level tract of country free from woods
and hills; and (2) _Campagne_, and the English "campaign" with the
restricted military meaning.
CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), French educator, the
companion of Marie Antoinette, was born at Paris in 1752. Her father,
whose name was Genest, was first clerk in the foreign office, and,
although without fortune, placed her in the most cultivated society. At
the age of fifteen she could speak English and Italian, and had gained
so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader
to the three daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general
favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the
Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000
_livres_ as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first lady of the
bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued to be her faithful
attendant till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the
Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. Madame Campan survived the dangers
of the Terror, but after the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost
penniless, and being thrown on her own resources by the illness of her
husband, she bravely determined to support herself by establishing a
school at St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by
Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of
Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at
Ecouen for the education of the daughters and sisters of members of the
Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the
restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent
the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends,
but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies
circulated on account of her connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in
1822, leaving valuable _Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie Antoinette,
suivis de souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les regnes de Louis
XIV.-XV._ (Paris, 1823); a treatise _De l'Education des Femmes_; and one
or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. The
most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that which
especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place given to domestic
economy in the education of girls. At Ecouen the pupils underwent a
complete training in all branches of housework.
See Jules Flammermont, _Les Memoires de Madame de Campan_ (Paris,
1886), and histories of the time.
CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance philosopher, was
born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen years of age he had
mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth
year he entered the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading
the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of
learning. He took a course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in
Abruzzo, and in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow
course of study, he happened to read the _De Rerum Natura_ of Bernardino
Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to
nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy (he was
already the author of numerous poems) was a defence of Telesio,
_Philosophia sensibus demonstrata_ (1591). His attacks upon established
authority having brought him into disfavour with the clergy, he left
Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven
years he led an unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his
talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox,
and was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power. He
returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was committed to
prison because he had joined those who desired to free Naples from
Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudee, however, declares that the
expressions used by Campanella were wrongly interpreted as
revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven years in prison. Yet his
spirit was unbroken; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of
works, forming a complete system of philosophy. During the latter years
of his confinement he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed
considerable liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been
regarded as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was
thought better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set
at liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of the
Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at Rome by the
pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy headed by his pupil,
Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go to Paris (1634), where he was
received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of
his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works; but only
the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of
May 1639.
In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.), a follower of
Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, in the uncertain
half-light which preceded the dawn of modern philosophy. The sterility
of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he understood it, drove him to the
study of man and nature, though he was never entirely free from the
medieval spirit. Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region
of theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. The prime
fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and Descartes, the
certainty of individual consciousness. To this consciousness he assigned
a threefold content, power, will and knowledge. It is of the present
only, of things not as they are, but merely as they seem. The fact that
it contains the idea of God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the
divine existence, since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from
the Infinite. God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect
degree, those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity
possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action
presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its parts
have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate are in
everything. The more remote from God, the greater the degree of
imperfection (i.e. _Not-being_) in things. Of imperfect things, the
highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue of the possession of
reason are akin to the Divine and superior to the lower creation. Next
comes the mathematical world of space, then the corporeal world, and
finally the empirical world with its limitations of space and time. The
impulse of self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion;
above this comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the
perfection of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and
love, and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in
origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is superior to
the state, and, therefore, all temporal government should be in
subjection to the pope as the representative of God.
In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, advocates
the experimental method and lays down heat and cold as the fundamental
principles by the strife of which all life is explained. In political
philosophy (the _Civitas Solis_) he sketches an ideal communism,
obviously derived from the Platonic, based on community of wives and
property with state-control of population and universal military
training. In every detail of life the citizen is to be under authority,
and the authority of the administrators is to be based on the degree of
knowledge possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial
organism for the promotion of individual and collective good. In
contrast to More's _Utopia_, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking
in practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity in
the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to whether this
system was a philosophic dream, or a serious attempt to sketch a
constitution for Naples in the event of her becoming a free city. The
_De Monarchia Hispanica_ contains an able account of contemporary
politics especially Spanish.
Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic thinker, is
among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern empirical science, and
on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. Yet his fondness for the
antithesis of Being and Not-being (_Ens_ and _Non-ens_) shows that he
had not shaken off the spirit of scholastic thought.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For his works see Quetif-Echard, appendix to E.S.
Cypriano, _Vita Campanellae_ (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); Al.
d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most
important are _De sensu rerum_ (1620); _Realis philosophiae
epilogisticae partes IV._ (with _Civitas Solis_) (1623); _Atheismus
triumphatus_ (1631); _Philos. rationalis_ (1637); _Philos. universalis
seu metaph._ (1637); _De Monarchia Hispanica_ (1640). For his life,
see Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, _Vita e filos. di Tommaso
Campanella_ (Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, _Lettere
inedite di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti_ (1878); and
_Nuovi documenti di T.C._ (1881); and especially L. Amabile, _Fra T.
Campanella_ (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H. Ritter,
_History of Philos._; M. Carriere, _Philos. Weltanschauung d.
Reformationszeit_, pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, _Th. Morus et Campanella_
(Paris, 1843); Chr. Sigwart, _Kleine Schriften_, i. 125 seq.; and
histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda,
_Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica di fronte
al socialismo moderno_ (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first
published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again
(1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into English verse by
J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see _Dict. de theol.
cath._, col. 1446 (1904).
CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern district (II.
below) is of much greater extent than that known by the name in ancient
times.
I. _Campani_ was the name used by the Romans to denote the inhabitants
first of the town of Capua and the district subject to it, and then
after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.), to describe the
inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. The name, however, is
pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the early 4th
(or late 5th) century B.C. (R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 143),
which were certainly struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of
Campania, whom the name properly denotes, a branch of the great
Sabelline stock (see SABINI); but in what precise spot the coins were
minted is uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the
Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in the last
quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded appearance being at
the conquest of their chief town Capua, probably in 438 B.C. (or 445,
according to the method adopted in interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on
this see under CUMAE), or 424 according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was
taken by them in 428 or 421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite
language they spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all
Campania except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans
remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, op. cit.
p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took over not merely the
wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their customs; the haughtiness and
luxury of the men of Capua was proverbial at Rome. This town became the
ally of Rome in 338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the _civitas sine
suffragio_, the highest status that could be granted to a community
which did not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was
completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories
(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent in alliance
with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the Hannibalic
war. But Capua and the towns dependent on it revolted (Livy
xxiii.-xxvi.); after its capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and
the jealousy and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both
finally appeased (cf. Cicero. _Leg. Agrar._ ii. 88). We have between
thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating,
probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, _Italic
Dialects_, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to the curious
cult described under JOVILAE, while two or three are curses written on
lead; see OSCA LINGUA.
See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd
ed.), c. "Capua"; Th. Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 365. (R. S. C.)
The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from Campani (see
above), and did not come into common use until the middle of the 1st
century A.D. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it entirely. Varro and Livy use
it sparingly, preferring _Campanus ager_. Polybius (2nd century B.C.)
uses the phrase [Greek: ta pedia ta kata Kapuen] to express the district
bounded on the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the
Apennines of Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which
ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by the sea,
and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. But the
geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division of Italy
Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried the north
boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and even the river
Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village of San Pietro in Fine
preserves the memory of the north-east boundary which ran between
Venafrum and Casinum. On the east the valley of the Volturnus and the
foot-hills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary;
this town is sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to
Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the time of
Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended much farther north,
and included the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a
_corrector_, who about A.D. 333 received the title of _consularis_. It
is for this reason that the district round Rome still bears the name of
Campagna di Roma, being no doubt popularly connected with Ital. _campo_,
Lat. _campus_. This district (to take its earlier extent), consisting
mainly of a very fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south,
and the sea on the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the
Liris and Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right
down to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is
comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is the main
plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the central Apennines,
and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, Sebethus, Savo, belong
entirely to Campania.
The road system of Campania was extremely well developed and touched all
the important towns. The main lines are followed (though less
completely) by the modern railways. The most important road centre of
Campania was Capua, at the east edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to
the north-west, was the only bridge over the Volturnus until the
construction of the Via Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing
through Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the
Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum and Cales.
At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia began to turn east
and to approach the mountains on its way to Beneventum, while the Via
Popillia went straight on to Nola (whence a road ran to Abella and
Abellinum) and thence to Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating
at Regium. From Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia
and Telesia, while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up
ancient warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae,
Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, Puteoli and
Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella and Neapolis. Neapolis
could also be reached by a branch from the Via Popillia at Suessula,
which passed through Acerrae. From Suessula, too, there was a short cut
to the Via Appia before it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian
further improved the communications of this district with Rome, by the
construction of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at
Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river
Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must have
been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along the shore,
past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here it fell into the
existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana over the hills, at
the back, and the newer, dating from the time of Agrippa, through the
tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. The mileage in both cases was
reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond Naples a road led along the coast through
Herculaneum to Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and
Surrentum, and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From
Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran to
Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but outside the
limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to Abellinum and thence
to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum was another important centre: it lay
at the point where the Via Latina was crossed at right angles by a road
leaving the Via Appia at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca,
while east of Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road
from Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched off
to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and rejoined it
near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, probable that the
original road made the detour by Venafrum, in order to give a direct
communication between Rome and the interior of Samnium (inasmuch as
roads ran from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae),
and Th. Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies
the antiquity of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo),
though it is shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a
milestone numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing
and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the road to
Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short cut was
not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century coins of Telesia,
Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian type.
Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most important from
the commercial point of view. Its period of greatest comparative
importance was the 2nd-1st century B.C. The harbours constructed by
Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the
sea, and that at Misenum (the latter the station of one of the chief
divisions of the Roman navy, the other fleet being stationed at
Ravenna), were mainly naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but
was less important than Puteoli.
The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as in modern
times;[1] the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called
Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in modern times, though the
name has now extended to the whole province of Caserta) between the
roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xviii. III).
The loose black volcanic earth (_terra pulla_) was easier to work than
the stiffer Roman soil, and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt,
wheat and millet are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables;
and the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the
Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the east and
south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other districts
also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited to the slopes
than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good.
The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania (Pompeii,
Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but at some date soon
after that Latin became general, except in Neapolis, where Greek was the
official language during the whole of the imperial period.
See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, _Italic
Dialects_, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie_,
iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434.
II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably larger area
than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the _compartimento_ of Campania
belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, Naples, Avellino and
Salerno.
It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila (Abruzzi)
and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of Foggia (Apulia),
on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the south and west by
the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 sq. m. It thus includes the whole
of the ancient Campania, a considerable portion of Samnium (with a part
of the main chain of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of _Latium
adjectum_, consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part
of which lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the
extraordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro,
with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains and the
sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. Liris), which
rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno (94 m. in length),
with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which rises near Sarno and
waters the fertile plain south-east of Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose
main tributary is the Tanagro, which is in turn largely fed by another
Calore. The headwaters of the Sele have been tapped for the great
aqueduct for the Apulian provinces.
The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of Fondi
with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient _Ager Caecubus_),
renowned for its wine (see FONDI). The mountains (of the ancient
Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the east side of the extreme
promontory to the south-east is the port of Gaeta, a strongly fortified
naval station. The east side of the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the
marshes at the mouth of the Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its
unhealthy lagoons, continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico,
which reaches the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as
far as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct
craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of Naples,
which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of Naples. Here the
scenery completely changes: the Bay of Naples, indeed, is one of the
most beautiful in the world. The island of Procida lies 2-1/2 m.
south-west of the Capo Miseno, and 3 m. south-west of Procida is that of
Ischia. In consequence of the volcanic character of the district there
are several important mineral springs which are used medicinally,
especially at Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of
Ischia.
Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy in the 1st
century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large armour-plate and
gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the volcanic earth (_pozzolana_)
which forms so important an element in concrete and cement, and is
largely quarried near Rome also. Naples, on the other hand, is one of
the most important harbours of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco
and Torre Annunziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports
for smaller vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is
manufactured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare
di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval shipbuilding
yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare the promontory of
Sorrento, ending in the Punta della Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m.
south-west) forms the south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest
point of this mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine
chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east as
Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the low marshy
ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, malaria is very
prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf of Salerno is formed by
another mountain group, culminating in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.);
and on the east side of this is the Gulf of Policastro, where the
province of Salerno, and with it Campania, borders, on the province of
Potenza.
The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of the province
of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, the chief towns
being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni
(20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); that of the province of Benevento was
256,504, with 73 communes, the only important town being Benevento
itself (24,647); that of the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69
communes, the most important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del
Greco (33,299), Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata
(28,143), Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino
(Principato Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425,
with 128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and Ariano di
Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
564,328, with 158 communes, the chief towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava
dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief
railway centre: a main line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence
there is a branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to
Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on the line
between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), Sparanise (branch to
Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. From Caserta, indeed, there are
two independent lines to Naples, while a main line runs to Benevento and
Foggia across the Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to
Vinchiaturo (for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From
Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples,
branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, San
Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to Caserta (and
thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local lines to Pozzuoli and
Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the
other via Pompeii, which together make up the circum-Vesuvian electric
line, and were in connexion with the railway to the top of Vesuvius
until its destruction in April 1906. The main line for southern Italy
passes through Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and
Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for Mercato San
Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one line going
east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), Potenza and
Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line along the east coast of
Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east along the west
coast of Calabria to Reggio.
Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli and the
towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia (including the latter)
on the north-east shores of the Bay of Naples. The native peasant
industries are (besides agriculture, for which see ITALY) the
manufacture of pottery and weaving with small hand-looms, both of which
are being swept away by the introduction of machinery; but a government
school of textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement
of the trade. (T. As.)