greatest prosperity and the best administration that Rome ever enjoyed;
but his strict government and close supervision, combined with his
loyalty to the ancient traditions, made that reign an era of severity
for the Christians. Pliny was governor of Bithynia and Pontus, and
thence he wrote to the emperor informing him that the Christians were
gaining headway everywhere, so much so that the temples of the gods were
being forsaken by the people of all classes. He desired advice as to how
he should proceed. By the application of torture to two maidservants who
held the office of deaconesses in the local church he had elicited the
information--for the learning of which, doubtless, torture was entirely
unnecessary--that "the whole sum of their error consisted in this, that
they were wont, at certain times appointed, to meet before day, and to
sing hymns to one Christ their God. They also agreed among themselves to
abstain from all theft, murder, and adultery; to keep their faith, and
to defraud no man: which done, they departed for that time, and
afterwards resorted again to take a meal in companies together, both men
and women, and yet without any act of evil."
To this Trajan replied that the Christians should not be sought after,
nor should anonymous accusations be received; but when they were brought
before the magistrate they should be punished. A most inconsistent
decision; for, as Tertullian pointed out, if they deserved to be
punished when caught, they ought also to be sought after as guilty.
In the legends of the martyrs there is an account of a widow named
Symphrosa who, with her seven sons, suffered death by the command of
Trajan. They refused to sacrifice to the gods at his behest. First, the
mother was tortured by being hung up for some time in the temple of
Hercules by the hair of the head, and then drowned; afterward, her sons
were by various means tortured and put to death.
We now come to the time of the philosophic emperor, Marcus Aurelius.
During the reign of his predecessor, Antoninus Pius, the Christians were
generally left to practise and propagate their religion in peace.
Consequently, the Gospel made rapid inroads upon paganism; so much so
that the latter was stirred to a more bitter opposition than had ever
before been instituted. At the first glance it appears a difficult
problem in moral philosophy to explain how so wise and righteous a ruler
as Marcus Aurelius could bring himself to persecute so cruelly an
inoffensive people like the Christians. But in the first place it must
be remembered that ecclesiastic history of that time, as we have it, is
very uncertain; in fact, it is greatly distorted and exaggerated. There
are good reasons for believing that what is called a general persecution
was confined largely to the one province of Gaul. Then it is very likely
that the emperor knew but little of the character of the Christians or
of the nature of their doctrines; that he held an unfavorable opinion of
them is shown by his own words. It also seems to be the fact that he
issued no new edict against them; but the rescript of Trajan was still
in force, which was to the effect that Christians, when accused in legal
form, and failing to recant, should be punished. Marcus Aurelius simply
allowed this rule to be enforced by the magistrates. He saw in the
Christians only stubborn recalcitrants against the established
government. Whatever may have been the amount of the emperor's direct
responsibility in the matter, during his reign the flame of persecution
again burst out; and among many others, some women won lasting fame by
the glorious constancy and courage of their martyrdom.
One of the most illustrious was Felicitas, a Roman lady of good family
and the mother of seven sons. It was the policy of the magistrates not
to punish unnecessarily, but to endeavor to win those who were accused
to an acknowledged abandonment of their faith. In this case the judge
deemed it the more efficacious method to proceed against the mother
first, in the hope that in winning her to change her religion, he would
have less trouble with her sons; but neither promises of freedom nor
threats of total destruction of herself and her family could prevail.
Then he caused each son to be brought before him separately, and
endeavored both by menaces and persuasion to turn them from their
allegiance. Felicitas, however, had too thoroughly instilled into her
sons' minds the principles upon which her own faith and courage were
founded; they were unanimous in their steadfastness. The consequence was
that the mother was doomed to see her offspring executed one by one; and
at last, her resolution being invincible even before this terrible
trial, Felicitas herself was beheaded.
The brunt of the persecution which took place in the reign of Marcus
Aurelius was borne by the Christians of Gaul, particularly those of
Lyons and Vienne. We possess a good description of these sufferings in a
letter which has been preserved by Eusebius, and which was sent by the
survivors of these devoted churches to their brethren in the other parts
of the empire. "The greatness of the tribulation in this region," says
the epistle, "and the fury of the heathen against the saints, and the
sufferings of the blessed witnesses, we cannot recount accurately, nor
indeed could they possibly be recorded. For with all his might the
adversary fell upon us, giving us a foretaste of his unbridled activity
at his future coming. He endeavored in every way to practise and
exercise his servants against the servants of God, not only shutting us
out from houses and baths and markets, but forbidding any of us to be
seen in any place whatever. But the grace of God led the conflict
against him, and delivered the weak, and set them as firm pillars, able
through patience to endure all the wrath of the Evil One."
The letter goes on to relate how the heathen servants of many of the
Christians were arrested, and, through fear of suffering the same
dreadful tortures which they saw visited upon the believers, testified
falsely that the Christians were wont to indulge in the most atrocious
practices. This was believed by the common people, with the result that
all pity was extirpated from their breasts, and they hunted the
Christians with a rage which could only be likened to that of wild
beasts.
One of the most renowned of the sufferers on this occasion was the slave
Blandina, "through whom Christ showed that things which appear mean and
obscure and despicable to men are with God of great glory.... For while
we all trembled, and her earthly mistress, who was herself also one of
the witnesses, feared that on account of the weakness of her body she
would be unable to make a bold confession, Blandina was filled with such
power as to be delivered and raised above those who were torturing her
by turns from morning until evening in every manner, so that they
acknowledged that they were conquered, and could do nothing more to her.
And they were astonished at her endurance, as her entire body was
mangled and broken; and they testified that one of these forms of
torture was sufficient to destroy life, not to speak of so many and so
great sufferings. But the blessed woman, like a noble athlete, renewed
her strength in her confession; and her comfort and recreation and
relief from the pain of her sufferings was in exclaiming, 'I am a
Christian, and there is nothing vile done by us.'"
All this torture seems to have taken place in the examination of
Blandina before the tribunal; for we read how, later, she with others
was taken to the amphitheatre to be exposed to the wild beasts, a
spectacle having been arranged in order that the people might be regaled
with the sight of the Christians' sufferings. At this exhibition the
people themselves decided as to what forms of cruelties the victims
should endure, shouting out their demands for the fiery stake or the
beasts, as their horrible fancies dictated.
Blandina was suspended on a cross, and there left to the mercy of any of
the numerous wild beasts prowling around the arena that might choose to
attack her. But on this occasion she was left unmolested; and the sight
of her, hanging from the stake and thus reminding them of the Master
they served, as well as the prayers she continually offered, so
heartened her comrades that they were the better enabled to meet their
death with a good courage.
The memory of Blandina has justly been preserved through all these
centuries as one of the bravest and best in the noble "army of martyrs."
No doctor of theology ever bore more effective testimony to the faith;
no Christian soldier ever contended more earnestly for the cause; no
philosopher ever advanced a stronger argument in evidence of the truth
of religion than this poor slave woman who thus suffered in the bloody
arena where Christianity fought and conquered seventeen centuries ago.
Women were not allowed by the law of the Church to teach in the
assembly; but Blandina, from her rostrum of pain which was set up in the
amphitheatre at Lyons, by her faith which could enable her to forget her
own misery in the desire to cheer other sufferers, preached such a
sermon as sentences of polished eloquence can never emulate.
We cannot better finish our account of this great martyr than by quoting
the description of her end as it is given in the letter mentioned above.
"On the last day of the contests, Blandina was again brought in, with
Ponticus, a boy about fifteen years old. They had been brought every day
to witness the sufferings of the others, and had been pressed to swear
by the idols. But because they remained steadfast and despised them, the
multitude became furious, so that they had no compassion for the youth
of the boy nor respect for the sex of the woman. Therefore, they exposed
them to all the terrible sufferings and took them through the entire
round of torture, repeatedly urging them to swear, but being unable to
effect this; for Ponticus, encouraged by his sister so that even the
heathen could see that she was confirming and strengthening him, having
nobly endured every torture, gave up the ghost. But the blessed
Blandina, last of all, having, as a noble mother, encouraged her
children and sent them before her victorious to the King, endured
herself all their conflicts and hastened after them, glad and rejoicing
in her departure as if called to a marriage supper; rather than cast to
wild beasts. And, after the scourging, after the wild beasts, after the
roasting seat, she was finally enclosed in a net, and thrown before a
bull. And after being tossed about by the animal, but feeling none of
the things which were happening to her, on account of her hope and firm
hold upon that which had been entrusted to her, and her communion with
Christ, she also was sacrificed. And the heathen themselves confessed
that never among them had a woman endured so many and such terrible
tortures."
The horrible circumstances attending the persecution at Lyons seem to
have been largely instigated by the fury of the ungovernable mob; there
are indications that the trial of Christians was oftentimes carried on
in strict conformity with legal measures, and also with some show of
pity on the part of the judges. The punishments in cases like these were
no less severe; but there is some, comfort in thinking, inasmuch as the
persecutors were members of the human race like ourselves, that they
felt bound by their consciences to proceed to these extreme measures in
the endeavor to put down what they believed to be a dangerous
innovation. To understand persecution rightly, it is necessary not only
to sympathize with the sufferers, but also, so far as is possible, to
take the viewpoint of the persecutors. It is only in comparatively
recent times that barbarities in legal proceedings have been
discontinued. Age has not yet destroyed all the implements of torture
that were considered part of the necessary furniture of a European
prison. Far down in Christian times, the examination of a prisoner was
considered to be very properly and justly facilitated by the application
of thumbscrews and iron boots. Even our own memory is not entirely
lacking in incidents where water has been used to the great discomfort
of a prisoner, with the object of expediting his confession. Hence, it
would be absurd to expect to find a Roman magistrate of the second
century after Christ contenting himself with expostulating with those
whom the laws, the traditions, and the customs of his country condemned.
This failing, he would naturally try a stronger argument.
This is illustrated in the cases of the renowned martyrs Perpetua and
Felicitas. These were ladies of Carthage, who suffered during the reign
of Severus. Perpetua was only a learner in the Christian faith, not yet
having been baptized. She was young, married, and possessed a still
stronger tie to existence in the young infant which she carried in her
arms. Her father, by whom she was greatly beloved, visited her in prison
and endeavored to persuade her to renounce Christianity. Failing in his
arguments and entreaties, he even exercised the parental right which the
law of his day gave him to chastise his daughter; but he could elicit no
word of decision from her other than: "God's will must be done."
While in the prison she was baptized, and was thus still more strongly
fortified to meet the trial which was before her. At her examination we
have such a picture as is indicated above. The judge entreated her to
have compassion on her father's tears, on her infant's helplessness, as
well as on her own life. He pointed out to her the cruel position in
which she was placed by her religion, and used this as an argument
against it. But it all availed nothing. She was returned to the prison
to await the day of execution. Her companion in this direful
anticipation was Felicitas, a married woman who was about to become a
mother. This Christian woman also, on being brought before the
procurator, had been entreated by him to have pity upon herself and her
condition; but she had replied that his compassion was useless, since no
thought of self-preservation could induce her to be unfaithful to her
religion. While in the prison she gave birth to a girl, which was
adopted by a Christian woman who as yet was free.
On the day of their execution, Perpetua and Felicitas were taken to the
amphitheatre and stripped of their clothing; but on this occasion,
however lacking the people may have been in the quality of mercy, they
at least showed some feelings of decency, for they requested that the
women might be allowed to have their garments. The two martyrs were then
exposed to the fury of an enraged bull. The animal attacked them both;
but as neither of them was mortally wounded, an officer despatched them
with his sword.
The authorities doubtless congratulated themselves that by the death of
these poor women the hated religion was by so much reduced; but "the
blood of the martyrs was the seed of the church," and by the courage of
its martyrs more people were incited to investigate the new faith than
by their sufferings were deterred from following it. In fact, there are
instances on record that the constancy of the Christians in their
sufferings bore immediate fruit in the conversion of the spectators;
where those who came to revile shared in the end the death of those they
helped to persecute. The most noted example of this kind is that of
Potamiana, who suffered under the emperor Severus. Rufinus says that she
was a disciple of Origen. We are also informed by Palladius that she was
a slave, and that her condemnation originated in the passion of her
master. Angered by her steadfast refusal to submit to his desires, he
accused her to the judges as a Christian, and bribed them to endeavor to
break her resolution and afterward return her to himself; but their
tortures proved as ineffectual as his persuasions. At last, being
sentenced to death, she was given in charge of Basilides, an officer of
the army, to be led to the place of execution. On the way thither, when
the people sought to annoy her by insult and abuse, Basilides drove them
back, and, probably more by his actions than by words, manifested for
her much kindness and pity. Eusebius says that Potamiana, "perceiving
the man's sympathy for her, exhorted him to be of good courage, for she
would supplicate her Lord for him after her departure, and he would soon
receive a reward for the kindness he had shown her. Having said this,
she nobly sustained the issue, burning pitch being poured, little by
little, over various parts of her body, from the soles of her feet to
the crown of her head. Such was the conflict endured by this famous
maiden."
Shortly after this, Basilides, being requested by his fellow soldiers to
take an oath, refused; and he gave it as his reason that it was not
lawful for him to swear, he being a Christian. At first they thought he
was jesting; but as he persistently affirmed it, they took him before
the judge, with the result that the next day he was beheaded. He was
reported to have said that for three days after her martyrdom Potamiana
stood by him night and day, and that she placed a crown upon his head,
telling him that she had besought the Lord for him and had obtained what
she asked, which was that he should soon be with her.
In the year 250 the Emperor of Rome was Decius. During his brief reign
he instituted one of the severest persecutions that the Church was
called upon to endure. Yet there is reason to believe that this emperor
was a man of superior character and high principles. Alarmed at the
corruption that prevailed in the empire, he sought to restore the
ancient customs and to strengthen the primitive religion. As a means
deemed by him necessary to this end, he endeavored to extirpate
Christianity. This was the first persecution in which the attempt was
universally made to destroy the Church. This persecution was
consequently far more terrible than any which had preceded it.
Fortunately, the reign of Decius lasted only two years; but during that
time vast numbers of Christians were put to death, and the women were as
little spared as they had been on former occasions. There is no need of
recounting their individual sufferings, as it would simply be a
repetition of the horrors described above.
In the meantime, the Church had greatly changed in its character. It had
grown sufficiently strong to compete with paganism even in point of
numbers. During the periods of peace there were taken into its fold a
great many who were not strongly grounded in the faith, nor had they the
mind to endure in the time of persecution. Consequently, when it came to
the trial, great numbers would return to a formal practice of heathen
worship, with the purpose in mind of returning to the Church after the
storm had passed over. These often obtained certificates from the
magistrates to the effect that they had made the required recantation.
The Church had also begun to define its creed with metaphysical nicety
of expression, with the consequence that many discussions arose and
numerous heretical sects came into being. The heathen, however, did not
discriminate; therefore, the heretical had their martyrs as well as the
orthodox; and there is no proof that the former were less ready to die
for their faith than the latter. But, to show the jealousy which variety
in religious opinion will engender, it is recorded that even when
members of the various sects of Christians were suffering martyrdom
together, they refused to recognize each other.
By this time also the doctrine of the superior sanctity of virginity had
become firmly established in the Church. It was probably owing to this
that, in the later persecutions, we frequently find reference made to
women being threatened with unchaste attacks on their persons with the
sole purpose of driving them to the abjuring of their religion. Gibbon,
referring to this, speaks of it in the following manner: "It is related
that pious females, who were prepared to despise death, were sometimes
condemned to a more severe trial, and were called upon to determine
whether they set a higher value upon their religion or upon their
chastity. The youths to whose licentious embraces they were abandoned
received a solemn exhortation from the judge to exert their most
strenuous efforts to maintain the honor of Venus against the impious
virgin who refused to burn incense on her altars. Their violence,
however, was commonly disappointed, and the seasonable interposition of
some miraculous power preserved the chaste spouses of Christ from the
dishonor of even an involuntary defeat. We should not indeed neglect to
remark that the more ancient as well as authentic memorials of the
Church are seldom polluted with these extravagant and indecent
fictions."
There is no doubt that the monks of later times did waste their leisure
in fabricating such miraculous interposition; but there surely is a
flippancy in the tone of what is above quoted, as indeed in Gibbon's
whole treatment of the persecution of the early Christians, which is not
worthy of the great historian.
[Illustration 3: _CHRISTIANS IN THE ARENA After the painting by
L. P. de Laubadère.
Were these poor women, as they awaited in prison their doom,
comforted and encouraged by the presence of the Apostle charged
to "feed my lambs"? We do not know. But the firmness and
constancy with which they endured trials so horrible even unto
death bespeak the marvellous effect of the early enthusiasm of
the Christian faith. These women were in the vanguard of the
Christian army which first met the deadly force of heathen
opposition; and because they did not flinch, but bore the pains
of martyrdom for their faith, that faith ultimately triumphed
and filled the world with its light. For more than two hundred
years, however, the women who embraced this faith were to live
in the daily dread of the terrible cry: "The Christians to the
lions."_]
Eusebius informs us that "the women were no less manly than the men in
behalf of the teaching of the Divine Word, as they endured conflicts
with the men, and bore away equal prizes of virtue. And when they were
dragged away for corrupt purposes, they surrendered their lives to death
rather than their bodies to impurity." He instances the case of a woman
and her two daughters, whom Chrysostom, in an oration in their honor,
names as Domnina, Bernice, and Prosdose. These women, being as beautiful
in their persons as they were virtuous in their minds, were threatened
during the Diocletian persecution with violation. While the guard was
taking them back to the place from which they had fled to avoid this
danger, they took advantage of a moment in which they were not watched
to throw themselves into the river, where they found safety in death.
Another case was that of the wife of the prefect of Rome. Maxentius, the
emperor, being seized with a passionate desire for her, sent officers to
bring her to the palace. The lady begged time in which to adorn herself
for the occasion. This being granted, as soon as she found herself
alone, she stabbed herself, so that the messengers going to her room
found nothing but her dead body. These instances are recorded with great
admiration by both Eusebius and Chrysostom, showing that the leaders of
the early Church deemed it less prejudicial to a woman's salvation for
her to take her own life than to suffer even the involuntary defilement
of her body.