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THE SPANISH SERIES
CORDOVA
THE SPANISH SERIES
_EDITED BY ALBERT F. CALVERT_
SEVILLE
MURILLO
CORDOVA
THE PRADO
THE ESCORIAL
SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOUR
_In preparation--_
GOYA
TOLEDO
MADRID
VELAZQUEZ
GRANADA AND ALHAMBRA
ROYAL PALACES OF SPAIN
LEON, BURGOS, AND SALAMANCA
VALLADOLID, OVIEDO, SEGOVIA,
ZAMORA, AVILA, AND ZARAGOZA
CORDOVA
A CITY OF THE MOORS BY
ALBERT F. CALVERT AND
WALTER M. GALLICHAN
WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY MCMVII
Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty
_To_
_THE DUKE OF SOTOMAYOR_
_Lord High Chamberlain to H.M. the King of Spain, etc._
_My dear Duke,_
_Some of the pleasantest of my many pleasant memories of Spain are
associated with, as indeed they were derived from, the sympathy you have
displayed in my work and the great kindness I ever received from the
Duchess of Sotomayor and yourself. For these, I hope, sufficient
reasons--not as one who seeks to liquidate a heavy debt of hospitality,
but rather rejoices in his obligations--I beg you to accept this
dedication and permit me to associate your illustrious name with this
modest volume._
_I am,
My dear Duke,
Your obliged and ever grateful,
ALBERT F. CALVERT._
PREFACE
It would be unnecessary to enlarge upon the reasons for including a
study of Cordova in this series of Spanish Handbooks: indeed a series of
this description would be incomplete without it. The beautiful,
powerful, and wise Cordova,--‘the City of Cities,’ ‘the Pearl of the
West,’ ‘the Bride of Andalus,’ as the Arabian poets have variously named
it,--the ancient capital of Mohammedan Spain, is still one of the most
curious and fascinating monuments of this singularly interesting
country.
Much water has flowed under the sixteen arches of the bridge which spans
the Guadalquivir since ‘Cordova was to Andalus what the head is to the
body, or what the breast is to the loin’; the Moorish city of the thirty
suburbs and three thousand mosques, whose fame once obscured the glory
of ancient Damascus, is no longer the centre of European culture. ‘The
brightest splendour of the world’ has been lost in centuries of neglect
and decay, and the new light of a modern civilisation has not shone
upon the remains of its mediæval grandeur.
But the Cordova of the great Khalif is still the most African city in
Spain; its mosque remains to give us a clearer and fuller idea of the
power and magnificence of the Moors than anything else in the Peninsula,
not excepting even the Alhambra; and in its narrow, uneven streets and
mysterious, silent _patios_, in the gold and crimson of its fragrant
gardens, the student and the artist may find unending interest and
enchantment.
In selecting the illustrations for this book, the authors have
endeavoured to provide both for the antiquary and the lover of the
beautiful; for those whose acquaintance with Spain must be made through
the medium of the printed page, and for those more fortunate readers who
will, we hope, find this book a memento of their wanderings in
Andalusia.
ALBERT F. CALVERT.
WALTER M. GALLICHAN.
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. THE BRIDE OF ANDALUS 1
II. THE MOORISH CAPTURE 13
III. THE OMEYYAD DYNASTY 23
IV. THE BUILDING OF THE MOSQUE 42
V. IN THE COURT OF ORANGES 57
VI. THE SPLENDOURS OF THE MOSQUE 65
VII. THE CATHEDRAL AND CHURCHES 75
VIII. THE PALACE OF THE KHALIFS AND THE MOORISH BRIDGE 79
IX. ILLUSTRIOUS NATIVES OF CORDOVA 83
APPENDIX I.--THE GREAT MOSQUE OF CORDOVA 96
APPENDIX II.--CORDOVA 100
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE NO.
View of the City and the Bridge south of the Guadalquivir, 1
The Bridge, 2
View of Mosque and Bridge, 3
The Iron Mill on the Guadalquivir, 4
Promenade of ‘Grand Capitaine,’ 5
Market Street, or Calle de la Feria, 6
Plaza del Triunfo and exterior of the Mosque, 7
Entrance Gate of the City, the Column of Triumph, and
the Mosque from the Bridge, 8
The Column of Triumph, 9
Ancient Arab Tower, now the Church of St. Nicholas de
la Villa, 10
The Tower of San Nicolas, 11
Tower of the Cathedral and Patio de Los Naranjos, 12
View of the Patio de Los Naranjos, 13
The Tower of the Cathedral, 14
Entrance to the City from the Bridge, 15
Public Fountain in the Patio de Los Naranjos, 16
Women at the Spring, 17
Well in the Patio de Los Naranjos, 18
Peasant with his Donkey, 19
A Water-Carrier, 20
The Poor Man’s Meal, 21
Muleteers, 22
A Gardener, 23
Girl with a Guitar, 24
A Room in the Provincial Museum: View of the Roman
and Visigoth Section, 25
A Room in the Provincial Museum: View of the Arab
Section, 26
Door of the House of the Innocents, 27
The Door of Don Jerónimo Páez, 28
The Door of the Foundling Hospital, 29
The Tower of Carrahoe, 30
Porch of St. Paul, 31
Ancient Arab Walls, 32
Mosaics of the Four Seasons in the House of S.S. Lugue,
Plaza de la Compania, 33
Architectural Parts of the Catholic Basilicas, 34
Capitals and Fragments of Ornamentation in the Mosque, 35
Architectural Parts of the Catholic Basilicas and other
constructions, 36
Capitals of the Catholic Basilicas preserved in the Mosque,
now the Cathedral, 37
Fragments of the Catholic Basilicas preserved in the
Mosque, now the Cathedral, 38
General View of the Choir and High Altar, 39
Pulpit and Steps of the High Altar, 40
Choir Stalls in the Mosque or Cathedral, 41
Left Side of the Choir Stalls, 42
General View of the Choir in the Mosque, or Cathedral, 43
The Bishop’s Stall in the Choir of the Mosque, or Cathedral, 44
Central Nave in the Cathedral, 45
Central Nave in the Cathedral, 46
Central Nave in the Cathedral, 47
Plan of the Mosque in the time of the Arabs, 48
Plan of the Mosque at the present time, 49
The Bishop’s Gate, 50
Entrance to the Mosque, called the Gate of Camónigos, 51
The Tower of La Mala Muerte, 52
The Cathedral: View of the Transverse Nave, 53
North Angle of the Chapel of Villaviciosa, 54
The Central Nave of the Mosque, 55
The Gate of Pardon, 56
The Gate of Pardon, 57
The Gate of Pardon, 58
The Gate of Pardon, 59
Knocker on the Gate of Pardon, 60
Principal Nave and Mih-rab of the Mosque, 61
Entrance to the Chapel of the Mih-rab, 62
Interior View of the Mosque (from a drawing), 63
General View of the Interior of the Mosque, 64
Interior of the Mosque, 65
Interior of the Cathedral, 66
Interior of the Mosque, 67
Interior of the Cathedral, 68
General View of the Chapel of Villaviciosa, 69
Interior of the Mosque, 70
Interior of the Mosque, 71
Lateral Door of the Mosque, 72
The Chapel of Villaviciosa in the Mosque, 73
Exterior of the Mosque, 74
The Mosque--Moorish Portal on the North Side, built
under Hakem III., 988-1001, 75
Chapel of Trastamara, south side, 76
General View of the Chapel of the Mih-rab, 77
Façade and Gate of Almanzor, 78
The Mosque--Elevation of the Gate of the Sanctuary of
the Koran, 79
Gate corresponding to the Buildings of Al-Hakem II., 80
Portal of the Mih-rab, 81
Arcade of the Entrance to the Vestibule of the Mih-rab, 82
The Maksurrah (now the Villaviciosa Chapel), left side, 83
Right Lateral Portal, within the Precinct of the Maksurrah, 84
Detail of the Hall of Chocolate, 85
Exterior of the Chapel of the Mih-rab, 86
Detail, Arches of the Mih-rab, 87
Detail in the Chapel of the Maksurrah, 88
Mosaic Decoration of the Sanctuary, 89
General View of the Interior of the Chapel of the Maksurrah
and St. Ferdinand, 90
Detail near the Mih-rab, 91
Detail of the Interior of the Mih-rab, 92
Vertical Section of the Dome and Cupola of the Mih-rab, 93
Detail of the Trastamara Chapel, 94
Detail of the Higher Part and Roof of the Chapel of St.
Ferdinand, 95
Sections of the Mosque, 96
Sections of the Mosque and Cathedral, 97
Detail in the Chapel of Trastamara, south side, 98
Detail in the Angle of the Arch of the Mih-rab, left side, 99
Detail in the Angle of the Arch of the Mih-rab, right side, 100
Detail of the Gate of the Mosque, 101
Kufic Inscription of the time of the Khalifate, found in an
Excavation, 102
The Mosque. Kufic Inscription in the Palace, 103
Arabian Inscriptions, 104
Arabian Inscriptions, 105
Basement Panel of the Façade of the Mih-rab, 106
Marble Socle in the Mih-rab, 107
Exterior of the Chapel of San Pedro, north side, in the
Mosque, 108
A Gate on one of the lateral sides, 109
A Kufic Inscription on the additions made to the Mosque
by order of the Khalif Al-Hakem, 110
A Kufic Inscription on the additions made to the Mosque
by order of the Khalif Al-Hakem, 111
Capitals. Entrance Arch, 112
Detail of a Frieze, 113
Detail of a Cornice, 114
Detail of a Cornice, 115
Eastern Side of the Exterior of the Mosque and Detail, 116
Plan of the Arch and Cupola of the Mih-rab, 117
Detail of the Portals of the Maksurrah, 118
Section and Details of the Mih-rab of the Mosque, 119
Details of the Cupola of the Vestibule of the Mih-rab, 120
The Gate of Pardon 121
The Bishop’s Gate 121
The Mosque. Detail of the Trastamara Chapel, 122
The Mosque. The Gate of the Sultan, 122
The Mosque. Interior of the Mih-rab, 123
The Mosque. Arab Arcade above the First Mih-rab, 123
Interior of the Mosque, 124
Interior of the Chapel of San Fernando, 125
Gate of the Cathedral, 126
Principal Entrance to the Mosque, 127
The Mosque. Trastamara Chapel, south side, 128
Eastern Façade of the Mosque, 129
Patio de los Naranjos, 130
Calle del Cardinal Herrero, 131
Tower of the Cathedral, 132
The Mosque. Pulpit of the Angel, 133
The Mosque. Pulpit of the Bull, 134
Cathedral. Choir Stalls, 135
Cathedral. Principal Nave, 136
Gate of St. Catharine, 137
Altar of San Rafael, 138
The House of Páez, 139
General View of the Roman Bridge and Calahorra over the
Guadalquivir, taken from the Arab Mill, 140
Calahorra Castle, 141
General View of the Roman Castle of the Calahorra, 142
Entrance Gate to the Roman Bridge, 143
Almodóvar Gate, 144
The Mills, 145
General View and Roman Bridge over the Guadalquivir, 146
Grating and Court of a Private House, 147
Avenue of the Grand Captain, 148
District and Church of San Lorenzo, 149
General View of the Bank and the Roman Bridge over the
Guadalquivir, 150
Interior of the Plaza de Toros, 151
Horticultural Gardens, 152
The Bank of the Guadalquivir from the Bridge, 153
General View of Cordova, 154
Courtyard of an Inn, 155
A Street and Country Types, 156
A Street and Country Types, 157
Ancient Receptacle for Water of Medina Az-Zahira,
Tenth Century, 158
Plan of Cordova, 159
Many of the photographs included in this volume, other than those taken
by myself, were supplied by Messrs. Rafael Garzon of Granada, Senan and
Gonzalez of Granada, Hauser and Menet of Madrid, Ernst Wasmuth of
Berlin, publisher of Uhde’s _Baudenkmaeler in Spanien und Portugal_, and
Eugen Twietmeyer of Leipzig, publisher of Junghändel’s _Die Baukunst
Spaniens_, and I take this opportunity of acknowledging their kind
permission to reproduce them in this volume.
A. F. C.
CORDOVA
I
THE BRIDE OF ANDALUS
An impression of colour, heat, and somnolence grows upon the stranger as
he rambles through the bright alleys and sunlit plazas of Cordova. He
may be neither painter, poet, nor antiquary; yet the opulence of vivid,
almost garish tones, the romance that lingers about the Moorish
courtyards and the perfumed gardens, and the surviving, pervasive
suggestion of age, will stimulate his senses and imagination. For one
who is capable of deeper and more subtle impressions, the old city will
seem as a consummation of desire and a realisation of fanciful dreams.
The spell of Orientalism will hold him; the splendours of _The Arabian
Nights_ will be brought before his vision; and he will conjure shapes of
sultan, wizard, genii, and sage, and see the lovely retinue of fair
women within the palaces of the swarthy potentates.
Music of reed and string will delight his ears; and loitering by the
walls, on the banks of the swirling Guadalquivir, he will hear the
selfsame song of the bulbul which brought joy and sadness to dark,
inscrutable eyes in olden days. He will watch the blue shadows of mosque
and tower, and see the sun lavish gold on roof and turret, while his eye
will be dazzled by the hues of balconies, by the hot geranium, the gay
dabs of drying garments, hanging like flags against the ardent sapphire
of the Andalusian sky.
Framed in the arch of a city gateway, he will see a lovely vista of
vineyard, olive-crowned hillock, and meditative, grey sierra, rising to
the blue.
He will pace the silent square at night, and discourse with Seneca. His
ears will drink in the stoic counsels of Lucan, and his brain will
grapple with the problems laid down by the sagacious Averroes. He will
hear the Moslem call to prayer, and stand to gaze upon the band of the
devout filing into the Mezquita.
Clamours of battle will assail him, the clash of sword and shield will
startle his slumber, and the night will tremble with the triumphant roar
of the fierce, invading Goths. And in hours, fragrant with the scent of
flowers--placid in contemplation of the simple happiness of Cordova’s
youths and maidens in the Court of Oranges--he will weave romances of
the ancient life, when the town was the seat of the cultured, the home
of the arts, and the sanctuary of the pious.
Doubtless the Cordova of to-day subsists like other towns upon the
industry and the commercial energy of its inhabitants. There are shops
and hotels in the streets; there are signs of handicrafts and of common
daily employments. But there is no bustle, no indication of a strenuous
existence for the people, and the siesta is long and undisturbed. There
is a market, but its produce and merchandise do not suggest the wealth
and commerce of earlier days. The _consumo_, or customs officer, levies
his tax upon almost everything which the hard-faring peasants bring into
the town, and we have seen a conflict between one of these officials and
a countryman over a single live pigeon. The peasant questioned the tax,
and the officer explained the case with the flat of his sword-blade.
This incident is characteristic of Andalusia, and perhaps it may throw a
light upon the discontent which is apt, at times, to manifest itself
violently among the agricultural population of Spain.
Certainly there are days of markets and ferias when Cordova arouses
itself, and trains of mules and asses creep into the place, and flocks
may be seen in the streets. Wine, oil, and fruit are produced in the
environs, and grain-crops flourish on the plain. In mediæval times
Cordova was famed for its mart, where silk and grain were sold. The
district still bears repute for its horse-breeding, but the stock has
suffered deterioration through injudicious selection. An anonymous
American writer, who was here in 1831, speaks of the horses of Cordova
as the finest in Spain, and asserts that they are the descendants of the
pure Arabian breed. One still notes many good horses. It is said that
the water from the Guadalquivir is as nourishing for horses as is the
barley of certain districts of Spain.
The banishment of the Moors hastened the decay of Cordova. For a period
the region was almost stripped of its population, and grass grew in the
plazas and patios of the town. To-day the inhabitants number about fifty
thousand, and though Cordova wears an air of lethargy, the grass does
not spring up in the streets. There seems to be just enough human
activity to keep the town alive, and it is not wholly, as Henry O’Shea
described it, ‘a city of the dead.’ A certain measure of prosperity is
assured for Cordova by the attraction of its antiquity, which brings
strangers from many lands to visit the magnificent Mezquita.
The Spaniard is not a passionate enthusiast of modernity. He is
conservative, and zealous and proud of his ancient towns, and it is
quite probable that the bulk of the natives of Cordova prefer that the
atmosphere of the place shall remain mediæval. And we who resort to
Cordova to reflect upon its past grandeur, and to imbue ourselves with
the spirit of the Moorish days, are assuredly satisfied that it has not
been modernised and marred during the years that have intervened between
the great vandalism after the expulsion of the Arabs and the present
time. We are glad to think that all which remains of majesty and beauty
is now carefully cherished and respected.
Toledo and Avila, both Moorish towns, display an austerity fascinating
by reason of its very grimness. Cordova is beautiful by comparison,
partly on account of its situation in a fertile district, and partly
because its houses are white flower-decked, and cheerful in aspect. It
is more voluptuous than these fortified towns of Castile. The climate is
southern, the air softer, and the buildings are less stern in colouring
and less menacing in appearance. In Cordova, flowery courts invite you
with a smile; in Toledo, frowning gates and barred doors forbid your
entrance. Toledo reminds us that the Moors were warriors and conquerors,
bent upon aggression and the extension of territory; in Cordova one
thinks of the race as sages, artists, worshippers, poets, and lovers.
The palm-trees planted by Abd-er-Rahman, ‘The Servant of the Merciful
God,’ the tropical flowers and fruits, the mosque, and the fountains,
give impress of the milder, pacific, quietly joyous life of the Moors.
We recall the words of the wise ruler: ‘Beautiful palm-tree! thou art,
like me, a stranger in this land; but thy roots find a friendly and a
fertile soil, thy head rises into a genial atmosphere, and the balmy
west breathes kindly among thy branches.’
By these signs we learn to love Cordova as the sanctuary of learning and
devotion rather than as the citadel of the valiant. It is essentially
Oriental. Look at the streets--narrow, crooked, and shady, for, having
no horse vehicles, the Arabs had no need for wider thoroughfares. The
roofs of the houses project and screen the alleys from the sun. Cordova
is clean and bright in contrast to Toledo. The streets are free from
garbage; the interiors of the houses are frequently cleansed, and
flowers are grown by rich and poor. Fruits are cultivated in and around
the town, and one may pluck the fig, orange, lemon, date, peach, plum,
pomegranate, strawberry, and almond.
Standing on the massive bridge which spans the Guadalquivir, one looks
upon the mosque, the city walls, and towers of churches. The Campo de la
Verdad forms a broad promontory washed by the river, and we see quaint
Morisco water-mills, and the lever nets of fishermen. There are
seventeen arches to the bridge, which is of Moorish design, standing
upon piles constructed by the Romans. In the distance rises the range of
the Sierra Morena, a savage wilderness of rock, ravine, and crag,
haunted by the boar, deer, and lynx. Winding through rich meadowland,
the Guadalquivir flows, now in swift shallows, and then in slow deeps,
which from certain points of view resemble landlocked pools. The river
is wide, but not of great depth. Its flood is stained brown from the
soil through which it flows, and at times, when the mountains pay their
tribute of swollen streams, the Guadalquivir speeds in a turbid current,
filling its banks to the brim.
There is a lonely majesty about this tawny river which for many leagues
of its course flows through a desolate, deserted plain. It has but few
trees upon its banks; but here and there are stretches of brushwood
tenanted by nightingales. The stork visits the silent reaches to fish
for eels. Upon its brown banks grows the cold grey cactus. The river
breeds barbel, tench, and big eels, and in the summer shad ascend from
the sea.
In Roman times the Guadalquivir was navigable as far as Cordova, but
to-day the channels have silted up. A few salt pools in the plains show
that the sea once covered large tracts of this part of Andalusia. The
river is now tidal for some miles above Seville, and ships of heavy
tonnage can reach that port. In the middle and upper reaches the river
is unfrequented; it waters grassy wastes and fertile vegas, and murmurs
by groves of olives in its course by Andujar and Cordova.
Antillon, a Spanish writer, accuses the Cordovese of ignorance and
coarse manners. We encountered neither of these qualities during our
stay in the old town. Cordova has its mendicants, whose eyes are keen
for the advent of visitors, and the boys are somewhat troublesome in
their voluntary capacity as guides to the sights of the place. But the
natives of Cordova are sedate, picturesque folk, showing no discourtesy
to the stranger, but rather a disposition to assist him.
There are three principal hostelries--the Suiza and the Oriente are the
visitors’ houses; but those who desire a purely Spanish environment may
find quarters at the little Victoria, which has a very charming patio,
gay with flowers. There are several good cafés. For amusement there is
the Grand Teatro, a large house, in which we saw _The Barber of Seville_
performed. There is, of course, a bull-ring, the Plaza de Toros of every
town in Spain. The chief fights are held during the ferias of May and
September.
But Cordova is the town of dreams, memories, and meditations rather than
of exuberant gaiety. It is a Mecca of the artistic and the studious. For
garish pleasure, sparkling society, and excitement one must go to
Seville, Malaga, or Cadiz. There is a serene solemnity in Cordova,
though it is by no means a gloomy city. The mosque is the attraction and
the wonder of the city, and sacred temples do not dispose to hilarity.
Cordova is eloquent of the gorgeous, heroic past, and its stones contain
sermons upon human destiny and the insecurity of empires. It is a
garden city, antiquated, improgressive, tenacious of the ancient spirit,
and abounding in beauty of form and colour.
Cordova contains only the remnants of its pristine magnificence, but
these are marvellous and precious. The city once boasted of fifty
thousand resplendent palaces, and a hundred thousand inferior houses.
Its mosques numbered seven hundred, and the cleanly Moors built nine
hundred public baths. The city stretched for ten miles along the banks
of the Guadalquivir, flanked with walls, battlements, and towers, and
approached by guarded gates. The common folk spoke in phrases of poetry;
there were no illiterates. Art in every branch flourished in the city;
there were hosts of craftsmen working in brass, gold, and clay. The
libraries were huge, and hither came men of science, philosophers,
poets, and students of all subjects to glean from the store of the
world’s accumulated thought.
Throughout Europe the mention of Cordova brought yearning to the hearts
of the cultured and studious, and men suffered hardship and stress to
pay pilgrimages to this source of learning. Many who journeyed hither
echoed the words of Ibn Sareh, the poet, which he uttered upon entering
the seat of wisdom: ‘God be praised; I am in Cordova, the abode of
science, the throne of the Sultans!’ Seville was ‘the gem,’ ‘the pearl’
of Andalusia; Cordova was called ‘the Bride.’ El-Makkari, the Moorish
chronicler, rehearses many of the poetical tributes paid by Moslem
writers to the splendid city. Setting forth the culture of the city, he
adds, in one place: ‘The Cordovans were further celebrated for the
elegance and richness of their dress, their attention to religious
duties, their strict observance of the hours of prayer, the high respect
and veneration in which they held their mosque, their aversion to wine
and their destruction of wine-vases wherever they found any, their
abhorrence of every illicit practice, their glory in nobility of descent
and military enterprise, and their success in every department of the
sciences.’
Such were the inhabitants of Cordova at the time when the city was the
great capital of the Mohammedan empire. Seville and Toledo yielded
pre-eminence to Cordova, and men spoke in veneration of its four great
wonders: the immense and gorgeous mosque, the bridge over the
Guadalquivir, the city of Ez-Zahra, situated in the suburbs, and the
sciences which were studied in the colleges.
When we read the ancient annals and grow absorbed by the story of
Cordova’s past, we can scarcely realise that the town and its inmates
were real things. The place and the people seem to belong to the realm
of fairy romance; the city seems one of dreams, and the natives pass as
in a pageant of the imagination. And yet we may enter the sacred
mih-rab, commune with the ghosts of warrior and philosopher, and stand
where Tarik stood when he wrested the prized capital from the Goths.
Tangible evidence of a superb civilisation surrounds us in Cordova. We
see examples of early Moorish architecture brought to its highest
artistic manifestation in the mosque. We listen in vain for the voices
of teachers, the song of the singers and poets, and the call of the
muezzin to devotion; but we tread in the footsteps of the long-vanished
Moor, and read his story in the noble lines, chaste embellishments, and
gorgeous details which his skilful hands produced.
II
THE MOORISH CAPTURE
Probably a city of the Carthaginians once stood upon the ground now
covered by Cordova. Phœnicians, Greeks, Trojans, and Tyrians battled in
their day for the rich spoil of Spain, and the armies of Carthage
ravaged the whole of the country. Rome wrought the downfall of the
Carthaginian dominion in Bœtica (Andalusia) and Lusitania (Spain). In
A.D. 205 the Romans began to lay hands on the Iberian Peninsula, and
after long strife they conquered all the land save the territory of the
indomitable Basques of the rocky north.
At Corduba (Cordova) the Romans established a capital of Hispania
Ulterior, and the city was one of importance and prosperity. Under Cæsar
it became the chief town of Bœtica. According to Plutarch, the
government of Spain was given to Julius Cæsar after his prætorship, and
he ruled firmly and justly over Portugal and Andalusia. The conquering
emperor resided in Corduba, and it was here that he was first attacked
with epilepsy.
Beneath the rule of Rome Andalusia prospered. Roads, bridges, and
aqueducts were constructed; cities were enlarged and founded, industries
were developed, and the wealth of the country increased. This spell of
peace and progress was broken by the conflict between Cæsar and Pompey,
and Spain was the scene of some of their fiercest battles. With the
decay of Roman greatness and valour, Bœtica was overrun by the hosts of
the Goths from northern and eastern Europe. Like beasts of prey these
hordes despoiled the Roman cities, shattering temple and amphitheatre,
and laying waste fertile farms and abundant orchards. Rome yielded its
last hold upon fair Bœtica; the Goths seized upon the land, and split it
up into territories ruled by warriors. The invaders were ruthless in
their destruction; they aimed at removing every trace of the Roman
civilisation, and unfortunately they were successful in accomplishing an
almost universal demolition of building, monument, and statue.
Cordova was one of the residences of the Gothic kings. It was known as
Kordhobah among the Goths. There is little doubt that it was a city of
considerable opulence; for when it was sacked by the Moors it yielded
gorgeous robes, embroidered with gold flowers, fine chains of gold,
strings of pearls, and quantities of emeralds and rubies. The sway of
Ludherick, or Roderick, King of the Goths, was first menaced by Tarif
the Berber. Roderick was in dispute with the Lord of Ceuta, a city on
the Strait of Gibraltar, and this quarrel exposed him to the attack of
the covetous territory-hunters of northern Africa.
While Roderick and the Lord of Ceuta contended, Tarif, the redoubtable
leader of the Berber army, landed in Spain, with a force of one hundred
cavalry and four hundred foot-soldiers. Tarif appears to have solicited
reinforcements, in order to meet the Goths at better odds. A force under
Tarik was then sent by Musa Ibn Noseyr, with the object of capturing
Andalusia. As Tarik was crossing the sea, he beheld an apparition of
Mohammed, surrounded by armed Arabs. The Prophet bade the General take
cheer, saying: ‘Take courage, O Tarik, and accomplish what thou art
destined to perform.’ The vision was accepted by the anxious Tarik as an
omen of victory. He rallied his soldiers, and marched upon Cordova,
which was the royal citadel of Roderick. The Gothic king, upon the
tidings of the invasion, came from the north with his army to the
capital, and commanded his officer Theodemir to advance and encounter
Tarik.
Roderick was at this time striving with the sons of Witiza, the
preceding monarch, for his claim to certain territories. Count Julian
and Bishop Oppas sided with the princes, and a large number of the
people stood to their cause. The advent of the forces of Musa served as
an opportunity for the sons of Witiza to strike a blow at Roderick,
their powerful enemy. They decided to join the army of Tarik, and to
oppose the Gothic rule.
The combined hosts of Tarik and the sons of Witiza encamped to the south
of Cordova, after taking Algeciras. Meanwhile the Moorish commander
wrote to his superior for more troops, for Roderick boasted of a large
and valorous following. The great encounter between the Goths and the
Moors was enacted on the plain of Guadalete. Roderick came to the field
in a litter, carried by two mules, and over his head was a brilliantly
jewelled canopy. Aided by the disaffected princes and their adherents,
Tarik made a terrific onslaught upon the ranks of the Goths. It has
been recounted by Moorish historians that Tarik himself went into the
thick of the fight, and killed Roderick with his sword. This account is,
however, doubted by El-Makkari, who asserts that after the battle
Roderick could not be found alive or dead.
The victory was mighty and complete for the Moors. Upon the news of
Tarik’s success, his compatriots began to pour into the country, for the
purpose of colonisation, and in the expectation of enrichment in a land
which had yielded fortune to Carthaginian, Roman, and Visigoth. But
Cordova was still secure in the keeping of the Christians, though
Roderick had been defeated. Naturally the victorious Tarik yearned to
win fresh laurels, and his design was upon the great capital of the
Goths, the remaining stronghold of the routed defenders of Bœtica.
The general selected for the attack upon Cordova was Mughīth Ar-rumi. At
the direction of Tarik, this warrior rode, with seven hundred horsemen,
to lay siege to the city. Some of the Moorish chroniclers state that
Tarik himself led the expedition against the capital; but Mughīth
appears to have been the leader upon whom the conduct of this important
movement fell.
Advancing within a short distance of Cordova, the force encamped in a
forest, and remained cautiously in hiding. At this time many parts of
Andalusia, which are now wholly bare of trees, were well wooded. The
foolish destruction of the forests came later, under the Christian rule,
the reason for the wholesale felling of timber being that trees harbour
birds, and that birds feed upon seed and grain.
Concealed in a dense pinewood, Mughīth Ar-rumi saw the coveted city
almost within his grasp. But the walls were high, stoutly fortified, and
formidable, and the defenders were reputed valiant and stubborn. Scouts
from the Moorish army were sent to view the defences of the city. They
met a shepherd, and from him they extracted the intelligence that the
chief residents of Cordova had quitted, and fled to Toledo for
protection. By threat or bribe, the spies also gathered from the
shepherd that there was one weak spot in the city walls. With this
information they returned to the ambush, and acquainted Mughīth with
that which they had learned.
The Moorish commander bade his warriors prepare for a night attack upon
the city. Darkness and a heavy shower of hail favoured the stealthy
approach of the horsemen to the walls, the hail drowning the sound of
the horses’ hoofs. A halt was called. Mughīth ordered an inspection of
the walls, enjoining a close watch for sentries. The advance party
reported that no sentinels were to be seen at their posts, and that the
city seemed deep in slumber. Upon this the shepherd quietly conducted
the soldiers to the weakest point of the embattlements, where grew a big
fig-tree. One of the Moors clambered into the topmost branch of the
tree, and contrived to gain the summit of the city wall. Unrolling the
coils of his turban, Mughīth threw one end to the man, who used it as a
rope to assist his comrades in scaling the barrier.
The entrance into the city was achieved quietly and with little loss of
time. With scarcely any effort of resistance, the startled inhabitants
fled from their houses, and, headed by the Governor, rushed to a church
for safety. The edifice proved a veritable fastness for a large number
of the people. Mughīth Ar-rumi was baffled. His only course was to cut
off all approach to and egress from the church, trusting that starvation
would compel the imprisoned populace to yield. But he was unaware that a
conduit brought water underground to the building, and that the
defenders were probably able to hold out for some time, having provided
themselves with rations for a state of siege.
A negro, who managed to find a way into the church, was sent as a spy.
This man immediately fell into the hands of the besieged, who were at
first alarmed by his appearance. They had never seen a human creature
with a skin of ebony and hair of wool. Mistaking the hue of the black
man’s skin for uncleanliness, they washed and scrubbed him with great
pains. But, greatly to their wonder, the black covering refused to leave
the man’s skin, and they at length ended the prolonged ablutions. In
seven days the much-scrubbed negro made his escape. To Mughīth he
reported the conduit. Whereupon the general promptly cut off the supply
of water, and thought to bring the people to instant surrender. He was,
however, disappointed, for the band in the church still bravely held out
and defied him.
The extremest measure was at length employed by the impatient Moor. For
three months the refugees had resisted all endeavour to eject them or to
starve them into submission. The church was fired, and the luckless
defenders had no choice between instant death and yielding. They rushed
from the flames, and the Governor of the city was taken captive. The
church was afterwards known as ‘The Church of the Burning.’
So fell the Kordhobah of the Gothic kings. The palace became the
residence of Mughīth, who lived there until he had decided upon the
future government of the city. Before leaving Cordova, the Moorish
general appointed the Jewish residents the rulers of the city. Thus the
oppressed and plundered Hebrew came into possession, and rose to the
position of autocratic director of those who had bitterly persecuted
him. This affront to the dignity of the proud Goths was doubtless
grievous to them in the hour of their defeat. But it was a shrewd policy
of rulership on the part of Mughīth Ar-rumi.
Whether certain of the Moorish writers of this period are correct in
relating that Tarik was before the walls of Cordova, we are not able to
say. It is written that he came with an army, and after waiting nine
days in impatience, being unable to force an entry, he departed, and
left Mughīth to capture the city.
Cordova was now made subject to the Khalif of Damascus; but in 756 it
was independent, under the rule of Abd-er-Rahman I. According to
El-Makkari, Ayub was the first to establish the capital of the
territory of Andalus at Cordova.
Mughīth, the capturer of Cordova, was not only an intrepid soldier, he
was a scholar and poet, and a lover of the arts. After the taking of the
city he went to Damascus, but returned to Cordova and lived in the
palace.
III
THE OMEYYAD DYNASTY
Abd-er-Rahman, a brave prince of a family that had ruled Damascus, was
born in troubled times in the camp before that city. Es-Deffah had
seized upon the throne; the family of the Omeyyads was hurled from
power. While under sentence of death for his attempt to restore the
fortunes of his family, Abd-er-Rahman passed a period of wandering among
Arab herdsmen. His dream was of Andalusia, where the supporters of the
Omeyyads were still numerous and powerful; and by dint of energy and
enthusiasm the young prince contrived to form a corps of one thousand
Arabs.
Abdulmalek Ibn Kattan, who had usurped rulership in Cordova, had been
defeated by the adventurous Balj at the head of a troop of Syrians. The
luckless Abdulmalek, after falling into the hands of Balj, was crucified
in a field outside Cordova, with a hog on one side and a dog on the
other. Until recovered by friends and removed for burial, the body of
the conquered sultan was left upon the cross as a menace to his
followers.
But Balj enjoyed only a short spell of power, for at the end of eleven
months he was forced to encounter the redoubtable prince of the
Omeyyads, whose army of Arabs was largely augmented by fierce partisans
in Spain.
Marching upon Cordova, Abd-er-Rahman besieged the city. Balj was
wounded, and his injuries caused his death. From this time, for about
three centuries, the capital of Andalusia was held by the Omeyyad line,
and during this rule the city reached the highest stage of its might and
magnificence. The Arab writers state that the independent khalifate of
Cordova was founded by Abd-er-Rahman I., after conquering Yusuf, who
reigned in the city. Yusuf resisted the Omeyyad troops outside the walls
of Cordova, and, being worsted, he retired. Abd-er-Rahman then entered
the city, and appointing the command to Abu Othman, went in pursuit of
the remnant of Yusuf’s army. Meanwhile Yusuf counter-marched, returned
to Cordova, and assailed Abu Othman, promising him future security for
himself and his relatives if he would surrender.
It is said that Othman refused to accept the terms of surrender. But
eventually Yusuf and Abd-er-Rahman came to an agreement, and both
monarchs lived in the city (A.D. 757) in amity. The treaty was, however,
afterwards broken by Yusuf, who left his palace, collected a force, and
made war in Andalusia. He was frustrated by the Governor of Seville, but
after the conflict Yusuf escaped to Toledo. Here he was recognised in
the street, and murdered, by spies who hoped to receive reward for their
fealty to Abd-er-Rahman. Yusuf’s head was sent to Cordova, and nailed to
an arch of the bridge, together with the head of his son.
Upon attaining the throne, Abd-er-Rahman began to turn his energies to
the development of Cordova. He had a passion for building. A new palace
arose, mosques and baths were erected, and an aqueduct was constructed
to bring pure water from the mountains. In 786 Abd-er-Rahman supervised
the building of the huge and splendid Mezquita.
In character the first Omeyyad ruler was humane, eloquent, and brave. He
had red hair, a fresh skin, and high cheek-bones. His form was tall and
supple, and he was fond of exercise, especially the sport of falconry.
His dress was always of white linen, and he lived simply.
There are, however, blots upon the reputation of Abd-er-Rahman I. He was
of violent temper, and subject to strong prejudices. His treatment of
Abu Othman, Temain, and other allies, who had assisted him in gaining
power, was not generous. He reigned for over thirty-three years, and was
buried in Cordova.
Hisham, son of Abd-er-Rahman, succeeded in the government of Cordova. He
was esteemed as a wise king, and under his direction the work of
building and adorning the Mezquita was continued. Hisham founded schools
for teaching the Arabic language, and he restored the long bridge over
the Guadalquivir.
The next ruler was Hakem, who continued the work of enlarging and
improving the mosque. This sovereign was soon confronted with the trials
of a rebellion in the city, and a very grievous period of famine. A poet
of Cordova wrote:
‘Time has brought on sterility and famine, but the calamity itself
has proved a benefit to Al-Hakem.
It has insured his rule, and delivered him of many a rebellious
subject.’
Hakem was the first king to give regular pay to the army. He left a
family of twenty boys and twenty girls, and the throne descended to one
of his sons, Abd-er-Rahman II.
The fourth Omeyyad sultan was an encourager of poets, painters, and
philosophers. Abu Meruan, the illustrious historian, lived in this
reign, and Ziryāb, the distinguished musician, was a court favourite.
When Ziryāb was on his way to the city of culture and the arts, his
royal patron went out to receive him with honour and pomp. Being himself
a poet and a passionate worshipper of music, Abd-er-Rahman II. was a
true friend of all artists.
Ziryāb, the composer, was singularly versatile. We read that he invented
a new process for making linen white, that he introduced asparagus into
Andalusia, invented a crystal ware, and taught the use of leather beds.
It is interesting to learn that the harem of the second Abd-er-Rahman
contained several cultured women. One of these was Tarūb, a favourite
concubine, to whom the monarch addressed these lines:
‘When the sun rises every day to give us light, it reminds
me of Tarūb.
I am the happiest of mortals, since I am successful in love
and prosperous in war.’
Another beauty of the court was Kalam, a woman of learning. She recited
poetry and was gifted in music.
We may pass over the somewhat uneventful period of rule under Mohammed
and Abdullah, and enter upon the reign of the illustrious Abd-er-Rahman
III. (912-961), the greatest of the Omeyyads, and the most enlightened
of the trio of monarchs bearing his name. This was the crowning, the
most glorious, hour of Cordova’s splendour. The Moors were in possession
of almost the whole of Spain. Draw a line on the map of the country from
the north-eastern limit of the Pyrenees to Coimbra, north of Lisbon, and
you will divide the region of the conquered Iberians of the Biscayan
mountains from the kingdom of the Mohammedans. All the districts below
the line were governed by the Moors. In 1360 only Granada remained as
the remnant of Moorish might in Spain.
Abd-er-Rahman III. lived in a gorgeous palace in the northern quarter of
Cordova. This was but one of the sumptuous houses of the city in the
height of its grandeur, for, on the authority of several chroniclers,
there were fifty thousand palaces in Cordova, besides three hundred
mosques. One of these palaces was known as Damascus; others were called
the Palace of the Garden, the Palace of Contentment, and the Palace of
Flowers. The glitter of Cordova shone afar throughout the Moslem world.
Ibn Said, the historian, wrote a full description of ‘the beauties of
the kingdom of Cordova,’ containing information concerning the
population, industries, and buildings of the fair and opulent city. The
water from the aqueduct was collected in a large reservoir, in which
stood the image of a lion, covered with gold, and having jewels for the
eyes. The stream poured in at the hind part of the lion, and gushed from
the mouth, and the overflow ran to the Guadalquivir.
A palace upon arches was built over the river. Dimascus, the chief
palace, had roofs supported by marble columns, and dazzling floors of
mosaics. Walls surrounded the city, which was approached by beautiful
gates, bearing such names as Bab Koriah (the Gate of Coria),
Bábu-el-Tamen (the Gate of the Gardens), and Bábu-el-Jemi (the Gate of
the Great Mosque).
The wise, the studious, and those skilled in the arts and the crafts
flocked to Cordova during the reign of Abd-er-Rahman III. Surrounded by
the learned in his splendid palace, the great Khalif lived in an
atmosphere of thought and beauty. Literary men came nightly to recite
their stories to the sultan and his nobles, musicians played their
compositions, and masters of science expounded their theories and
discoveries.
Amid the counsels of the intellectual and the prudent Abd-er-Rahman
ruled with discretion, justice, and tolerance; Spain had reached the
height of its civilisation. The land was made to yield of its richest;
fruits and flowers of the tropics flourished; the steeds of Arabia were
bred in the vales around the city; workers in clay, wood, and metals
plied their crafts with loving industry; and the world wondered at this
spectacle of might, culture, and peace.
It was Abd-er-Rahman III. who caused the building of Medinat-Ez-Zahra, a
city situated at a distance of four miles and a third from Cordova. This
marvellous suburb contained markets, taverns, baths, and institutions of
learning. A stupendous mosque was erected. El-Makkari speaks of the
magnificent palace, wherein the Khalif was served by an army of
servants; the gardens, and the fishponds teeming with well-fed fish, who
were regaled with a daily allowance of twelve thousand loaves of bread.
Forty years were spent in the making of Ez-Zahra. Ten thousand workmen
and three thousand horses and mules were employed in the labour. The
columns came from Carthage, Rome, and Constantinople; the walls and
roof of the palace were of marble adorned with gold.
Upon viewing the majestic city, a Moorish writer cried: ‘Praise be to
God Most High for allowing His humble creatures to design and build such
enchanting palaces as this, and who permitted them to inhabit them as a
sort of recompence in this world, and in order that the faithful might
be encouraged to follow the path of virtue, by the reflection that,
delightful as were these pleasures, they were still far below those
reserved for the true believer in the Celestial Paradise.’
When the messengers of Constantine came to Ez-Zahra, they were awed and
made speechless by the majestic grandeur of the palace. Alas! to-day not
a vestige of Medinat-Ez-Zahra survives. The ruthless Berbers razed the
fair city to the ground in 1010, leaving not a stone to remind the
beholder of its past glory.
The last Abd-er-Rahman possessed a love of ceremony and splendour. He
built palaces, mosques, and halls to appease this passion of
ostentation; and we read that when potentates journeyed to seek his
presence, he caused elaborate buildings to be erected for their nightly
reception along the route. In reading of the Mezquita, we shall see how
much of his time and wealth were devoted to improving and embellishing
the great structure.
Upon the city of Ez-Zahra Abd-er-Rahman spent huge sums from the
treasury. It was built to please one of his concubines, after whom it
was named, and a statue of the fair favourite was carved in relief over
the chief gateway. The palaces were of massive plan and beautiful
design. Dark hills formed the background to the city, and referring to
the situation Ez-Zahra said: ‘See, O master, how beautiful this girl
looks in the arms of yonder Ethiopian.’ The sombre hills were, however,
an eyesore to Abd-er-Rahman, and he proposed to remove them; but this
feat of engineering was not carried out, and to relieve the blackness of
the slopes the Sultan caused them to be planted with fig and almond
trees.
Hakem II., who succeeded Abd-er-Rahman, was a just ruler, distinguished
for his humility. He was a zealous ascetic, and he passed laws
condemning the use of wine. To enforce abstinence from the juice of the
grape, he rooted up the vineyards. We shall see later how this Khalif
devoted himself to enriching the Mezquita.
We have now reached the reign of the powerful Almanzor, or Almansur, a
romantic and ambitious personage, who came to Cordova as a poor student.
During the days of his poverty he made a scanty livelihood by writing
letters, and became the protégé of Aurora, mother of Hisham II. After
attaining this post, he appears to have made quick advance towards
preferment, for he was soon appointed kadi of a town, and obtained a
position as a civil servant in the city of Seville. Returning to
Cordova, he paid homage to his patroness Aurora, and gave her costly
gifts. His next appointment was as master of the mint, and we learn that
he built himself a mansion of silver.