The popular poem, _i.e._ the tunable song, had only two purposes, to
amuse and to prepare a way for the Reform. But these did not exhaust all
the possibilities of poetic compositions and, in fact, were not the only
ones to task the powers of the Judeo-German versifiers. An opportunity
for more extended themes was given the badchens in their songs of
contemplation, in which the moralizing tendency needed only to be
developed at the expense of the allegory, in order to change the song
into a rhymed sermon. Nor was the public unprepared for serious matters,
for the greater part of all Judeo-German literature had been merely
treatises of an ethical character in which the element of sadness caused
by centuries of suffering predominated. The perfection of art is to the
mind of a Jew its ability to move to tears. It is expected of the
violinist that he shall play the saddest tunes in the minor key, such as
will make his hearers weep like 'beavers'; the precentor's reputation
depends on his powers to crush his audience, to call forth contrition of
spirit, to make the hearts bleed; and the author who can make his reader
dissolve in tears, no matter how absurd the story, is sure to become
popular with a Jewish public. We have seen how the badchen at the
marriage ceremony bade the bride to weep, and it has also been mentioned
that he delivered the more serious discourses upon that occasion. It was
then that he would spin out hundreds of stanzas upon such subjects as
'The Unhappy Man,' 'Pity,' 'Dialogue of the New-born Soul with the Angel
of Life,' 'Sorrow,' and the like.
In the meanwhile, the old rhymed moral treatises continued in force and
gave rise to compositions of a more regular structure. Two authors must
here be specially mentioned, S. Sobel and Elieser Zwi Zweifel. The first
published, in 1874, a book under the title of 'Destiny, or Discussions
for Pleasant Pastime,' in which he makes use of the popular method of
disputes between various objects in order to inculcate a series of moral
truths. He excels in the use of a vigorous, idiomatic language, while
Zweifel has shown what strength there lies in the employment of the
simplest words for a similar kind of literature. Zweifel's[59] older
productions, only two in number, are, one, a translation from the
Hebrew, the other probably an imitation of a foreign model. The first
contains a series of aphorisms, while the other teaches the wisdom of
life in the testament of a dying father. These verses, like his prose
works, belong among the most cherished writings of the Russian Jews and
have been reprinted in a large number of editions. After his death
another one of his poems was published which differs from its
predecessors in that it is somewhat more elaborate and is entirely
original.
Considering the love of verse on the one hand and the great demand on
the other for a Judeo-German prayer-book for women, which has never
ceased to be a necessity, the book-firm Eisenstadt and Schapiro had the
happy idea to ask the then famous author Abramowitsch[60] to make a
trial translation of a part of the Psalms in verse. This appeared to
them so successful that they had him proceed with the Sabbath-prayers
and the hymns, which were then printed in 1875 at Zhitomir. By the
machinations of the great firm of Romm, in Wilna, who were afraid that
such an excellent translation might seriously interfere with their sale
of their old, stereotyped form of the prayer-book, Abramowitsch was made
to desist from finishing the meritorious task that he had begun, and
even the two books printed were for a long time kept out of circulation.
The Sabbath-prayers he gave not merely in a versified form, but the most
prosaic passages, by slight additions and remodellings, he so changed
that they resemble the songs in a Gentile hymn-book. Still greater has
been the work that he had to perform in making poetry out of the laconic
hymns, for that could be accomplished only by amplifying them to ten and
twenty times their original size. For this purpose he has availed
himself of the current commentaries to the hymns, and this he has done
in such a way that the hymns, in their original form, occur as
conclusions to the poems. Except for a certain monotony of the masculine
rhymes which are employed in them, they are masterpieces of religious
poetry, and it is only a pity that the author has not published yet a
translation of the Psalms, which certainly lend themselves more easily
to poetic diction.
While these sacred poems were being printed in Zhitomir, there appeared
in Warsaw another poetical production by the same author, in its way the
most remarkable work in the whole range of Judeo-German literature. It
bears the title of 'Judel, a Poem in Rhymes,' and in about four
thousand verses tells the unfortunate course of the life of Judel,--the
Jew. When examining it closely, one discovers that, like Goldfaden's
'The Aristocratic Marriage,' it is an allegorical story of the
historical vicissitudes in the development of Judaism and of the
sufferings of the Jew through the centuries. Not only is the story told
unobtrusively, so that one does not at all suspect the allegory, but the
wonderment increases when upon a second and third perusal one becomes
aware of the wealth of Biblical allusions upon which alone the whole
plot is based. The future commentator of this classic will, when it
shall be fully appreciated, find his task made much easier by the many
references to Biblical passages which Abramowitsch has himself made in
footnotes. The value of this gem is still more enhanced by the refined
language used in it,--a characteristic of all of Abramowitsch's works.
Ten years later Goldfaden returned to the allegory of his 'Aristocratic
Marriage,' completing it, after the example of Abramowitsch, in a poem
of about six hundred lines, entitled 'Schabssiel, a Poem in Ten Chapters
(Thoughts after the Riots in Russia).' The master's influence on this
poem is not to be mistaken, for it serves as a pendant to the previous
work; it is as it were a continuation of it. Abramowitsch's poem ends
with the futile attempt of Mephistopheles to tempt Judel to a course of
vice, when he discovers Judel's wife, _i.e._ the Law, faithfully by his
side. In Schabssiel, the sufferings of the Jew are ascribed to his
having departed from the Law, to his having desecrated the Sabbath.
Though somewhat fantastic in its plot, and far from reaching his
predecessor's philosophic grasp of the Jew's history, his work is full
of fine passages and may be counted among the best of his productions.
At about the same time, another young writer, M. Lew, made use of the
form of 'Judel' in a poem whose title 'Hudel' seems to indicate its
obligation to the prototype. There is in this even less of a
philosophical background than in the verses just mentioned, and by its
subject-matter it clearly belongs to the following period, for it
describes not a purely Jewish theme, but one of a more general
character, namely the fall of an orphan who is left to shift for herself
in the world. It is, however, given in this place as being, at least in
outward form, a direct descendant of Abramowitsch's 'Judel.' While not
of the highest poetic value, it is written in a good style and gives
promise of better things should the author choose to proceed in his
poetic career. Mention must here also be made of a versified story,
'Lemech, the Miracle Worker,' by M. Epstein, to which we shall return
later.
Like the allegory, the fable has been a favorite subject of imitation
among the writers from the beginning of this century. We possess such,
partly translations or adaptations, partly original, from Suchostawer,
Dr. Ettinger, Gottlober, Reichersohn, Katzenellenbogen. Of
Suchostawer's, only one, a translation of one of Krylov's fables, 'The
Cat and the Mice,'[61] has come down to us. It was written in 1829, and,
like the fables by Ettinger, circulated in the thirties and forties, is
far superior to any translation from Krylov that has appeared before
1880. The most original production is that by Gottlober called 'The
Parliament,' a poem of more than one thousand lines, in which he gives
an explanation why the lion had been chosen king of all the animals.
While some of the matter contained in it is unquestionably borrowed from
other sources, yet the whole is moulded in so novel a form, with such a
pronounced Jewish setting and biting wit, that it occupies a place by
itself in the history of fables. After the candidacy of all the beasts,
from the donkey to the wolf, had been rejected as incompatible with the
highest security of the rest, the lion appears on the scene, and by his
majestic presence at once silences the contending parties; and he is at
once and unanimously chosen to his high post. "He rules in fairness,
does no wrong, not a sigh is heaved by any of the animals against him;
the forest is ruled as of yore: the weak lie still, the strong go free,
the great are great, the humble are humble: well to him who has sharp
teeth! It has been so of old, and you cannot change the course of
things. But no one need complain of the lion as long as he feels no
hunger in his stomach, for then he is all peace and rest,--God grant
there be many such!"
The whole of Krylov was translated into Judeo-German, though with but
moderate success, in 1879 by Zwi Hirsch Reichersohn, and more weakly
still in 1890 by Israel Singer. Two of the fables have been admirably
rendered by Katzenellenbogen, who has also produced a number of
excellent poems in the popular style which surpass those of Goldfaden in
regularity of structure. He has also translated a few poems from the
Russian and Hebrew, all with the same degree of care displayed in the
renderings from Krylov. His songs have not been disseminated among the
people, the most of them not having been published until quite lately.
The most unique person in Judeo-German literature of the first half of
this century is Dr. Ettinger.[62] All that is known about him is given
in the scanty literary recollections by Gottlober. He there says that
Dr. Ettinger had studied medicine at Lemberg, where he became acquainted
with the Judeo-German writings of Mendel Lefin, who is regarded as the
first man of modern times to use the dialect of everyday life for
literary purposes. He then settled in Zamoszcz, which had been a seat of
Hebrew learning of the Haskala. Being prohibited to practise medicine
with his foreign diploma, he became a colonist in the newly formed
Jewish colonies of the South, but not being successful there, he finally
settled in Odessa. This is all that is given of his biography. It is
further known that he wrote his comedy 'Serkele' in the twenties and
that he composed a large number of poems, a few of which were published
in the _Kol-mewasser_ in the sixties, a few in the _Volksblatt_ in the
eighties. In 1889 his family issued a volume of his poetical works which
forms the basis of our discussion. In this book are contained sixty
fables, a number of poems of various character, and epigrams. About
one-half of the collection consists of translations from the German;
among these are fables and epigrams by Lessing, ballads and poems by
Schiller, Blumauer, and others. The other half is made up of original
compositions. All are of equal excellence both as to the language used
in them and the more mechanical structure of the verses.
In all these poems there is nothing specifically Jewish except the
language, and they might as well have been written in any other language
without losing the least part of their significance. Dr. Ettinger is
thus an exceptional phenomenon among his confreres, but exceptional only
in appearance, as the cause for it is not far to seek. From the few data
of his life we have learned that he received his training in the
beginning of this century in Galicia, where at that time the influence
of the Mendelssohnian school was most potent. He brought with him to
Russia not only a love for enlightenment, but also what then was a
necessary concomitant of that culture, a love for German learning; hence
his exclusive imitation of German originals. At first the privileges of
Western education were not only enjoyed by a small number of learned
men, but there was no attempt made at introducing them to the masses at
large, for that would have been a hazardous occupation for those who
entered in an unequal combat with the superstitious people. It was only
after J. B. Levinsohn had pointed out in his Hebrew works the
desirability of educating them, and after he had undertaken to do so
single-handed, that the other writers, late in the thirties and in the
forties, began to approach the masses in the least offensive manner, by
means of the folksong. Dr. Ettinger's activity, however, fell in the
period preceding the militant energy of the Haskala. If he wished at all
to write in Judeo-German, he could appear only as the interpreter of
German culture to a public imbued with a love for it. What in the
beginning was only a pastime of his leisure hours, soon became a passion
to try his ingenuity, and he proceeded in writing original poems, and
continued that practice even at a time when the main purpose of
Judeo-German literature was to educate the people.
Judeo-German poetry has developed in Russia in precisely the opposite
direction from the one generally taken by that branch of literature
among other nations. Whereas the usual course would have been to pass
from the simple utterings of the folksong to more and more elaborate
forms, the process among the Jews in Russia has been inverted. The first
poetical expressions were those of Dr. Ettinger, who may be regarded as
a dialectic continuator of Schiller and Lessing. After that followed the
school of popular poets of the Gordons, Goldfaden, Linetzki, Ehrenkranz,
Berel Broder. In the seventies a few traces of that school are still to
be found, but the majority of songs produced then smack of the badchen's
art, while Goldfaden himself has deteriorated into a writer of theatre
couplets. The explanation of this is found in the fact that in the
sixties the efforts of the folk-singers were crowned with success. The
Rabbinical schools had graduated several classes of men trained in the
Reform, the Gymnasia and Universities had been thrown wide open to the
Jewish youths, and in the next decade a large number of them had availed
themselves of the highest advantages offered in these institutions of
learning. The cloud of a stubborn ignorance had been successfully
dispelled, the light shone brightly over the whole land. The bard's task
was done; he had no need to spur the people on to progress, for that
duty was now devolved on the large host of younger men who had tasted
the privileges of a Russian education. But these had been identifying
themselves with Russian thought, with Russian ideals. For them German
culture had little of significance, except as it appeared in universal
literature, or had affected Russian ideas. Still less were they
interested in Jewish letters, whether in Hebrew, or in Judeo-German. On
the contrary, they were trying hard to forget their humble beginnings.
Neither for these nor by these could the Judeo-German language be
employed for any literary purposes. The masses had become accustomed to
look with favor on the new education, and one by one the better elements
were disappearing from the narrow world of the Ghetto. There was still
left a large proportion of those who could not avail themselves of the
benefits offered them. They knew no other language than the homely
dialect of their surroundings, and they were still thirsting for
entertainment such as the folk-singers have offered to them. The older
men, the champions of the Haskala, were dead, or too old to write; the
younger men had other interests at heart, and thus it was left to a
mediocre class of writers to supply them with poetry. This part
naturally fell to the badchens. Another quarter of a century, and
Judeo-German literature would have run its course; even the badchen
would have been silenced. But it suddenly rose from its ashes with
renewed vigor after the riots against the Jews in 1881.