Chapter I

Scanned by Derek Thompson

[Illustration]

Himalayan Journals

OR,

NOTES OF A NATURALIST

IN BENGAL, THE SIKKIM AND NEPAL HIMALAYAS,

THE KHASIA MOUNTAINS, &C.

by J.D. Hooker,

K.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

1891

Contents

PREFACE

CHAPTER I

Sunderbunds vegetation—Calcutta Botanic Garden—Leave for

Burdwan—Rajah’s gardens and menagerie—Coal-beds, geology, and plants

of—Lac insect and plant—Camels—Kunker—Cowage—Effloresced soda on

soil—Glass, manufacture of—Atmospheric vapours—Temperature, etc.—Mahowa

oil and spirits—Maddaobund—Jains—Ascent of Paras-nath—Vegetation of

that mountain.

CHAPTER II

Doomree—Vegetation of table-land—Lieutenant Beadle—Birds—Hot springs of

Soorujkoond—Plants near them—Shells in

them—Cholera-tree—Olibanum—Palms, form of—Dunwah pass—Trees, native and

planted —Wild peacock—Poppy fields—Geography and geology of Behar and

Central India—Toddy-palm—Ground, temperature of—Baroon—Temperature of

plants—Lizard—Cross the Soane—Sand, ripple-marks on—Kymore

hills—Ground, temperature of—Limestone—Rotas fort and palace—Nitrate of

lime—Change of climate—Lime stalagmites, enclosing leaves—Fall of

Soane—Spiders, etc.—Scenery and natural history of upper Soane

valley—_Hardwickia binata_—Bhel

fruit—Dust-storm—Alligator—Catechu—_Cochlospermum_—Leaf-bellows—

Scorpions—Tortoises—Florican—Limestone

spheres—Coles—Tiger-hunt—Robbery.

CHAPTER III

Ek-powa Ghat—Sandstones—Shahgunj—Table-land, elevation,

etc.—Gum-arabic—Mango—Fair—Aquatic plants—Rujubbund—Storm—False sunset

and sunrise—Bind hills—Mirzapore—Manufactures, imports,

etc.—Climate—Thuggee—Chunar—Benares—Mosque—Observatory—Sar-nath—

Ghazeepore—Rose-gardens—Manufactory of attar—Lord Cornwallis’

tomb—Ganges, scenery and natural history

of—Pelicans—Vegetation—Insects—Dinapore—Patna—Opium godowns and

manufacture—Mudar, white and purple—Monghyr islets—Hot springs of

Seetakoond—Alluvium of Ganges—Rocks of Sultun-gunj—Bhaugulpore—Temples

of Mt. Manden—Coles and native tribes—Bhaugulpore rangers—Horticultural

gardens.

CHAPTER IV

Leave Bhaugulpore—Kunker—Colgong—Himalaya, distant view of—Cosi, mouth

of—Difficult

navigation—Sand-storms—Caragola-Ghat—Purnea—Ortolans—Mahanuddy,

transport of pebbles, etc.—Betel-pepper, cultivation

of—Titalya—Siligoree—View of outer

Himalaya—Terai—Mechis—Punkabaree—Foot of mountains—Ascent to

Dorjiling—Cicadas—Leeches—Animals—Kursiong, spring vegetation

of—Pacheem—Arrive at Dorjiling—Dorjiling, origin and settlement

of—Grant of land from Rajah—Dr. Campbell appointed

superintendent—Dewan, late and present—Aggressive conduct of the

latter—Increase of the station—Trade—Titalya fair—Healthy climate for

Europeans and children—Invalids, diseases prejudicial to.

CHAPTER V

View from Mr. Hodgson’s of range of snowy mountains—Their extent and

elevation—Delusive appearance of elevation—Sinchul, view from and

vegetation of—Chumulari—Magnolias, white and purple—_Rhododendron

Dalhousiæ, arboreum_ and _argentium_—Natives of Dorjiling—Lepchas,

origin, tradition of flood, morals, dress, arms, ornaments, diet—Cups,

origin and value—Marriages—Diseases—Burial—Worship and

religion—Bijooas—Kumpa Rong, or Arrat—Limboos, origin, habits,

language, etc.—Moormis—Magras—Mechis—Comparison of customs with those

of the natives of Assam, Khasia, etc.

CHAPTER VI

Excursion from Dorjiling to Great Rungeet—Zones of

vegetation—Tree-ferns—Palms, upper limit of—Leebong, tea

plantations—Ging—Boodhist remains—Tropical vegetation—Pines—Lepcha

clearances—Forest fires—Boodhist monuments—Fig—Cane-bridge and raft

over Rungeet—Sago-palm—India-rubber—Yel Pote—Butterflies and other

insects—Snakes—Camp—Temperature and humidity of atmosphere—Junction of

Teesta and Rungeet—Return to Dorjiling—Tonglo, excursion to—Bamboo,

flowering—Oaks—_Gordonia_—Maize, hermaphrodite

flowered—Figs—Nettles—Peepsa—Simonbong, cultivation at—European fruits

at Dorjiling—Plains of India.

CHAPTER VII

Continue the ascent of Tonglo—Trees—Lepcha construction of

hut—Simsibong—Climbing-trees—Frogs—Magnolias,

etc.—Ticks—Leeches—Cattle, murrain amongst—Summit of

Tonglo—Rhododendrons—_Skimmia_—Yew—Rose—Aconite—Bikh poison—English

genera of plants—Ascent of tropical orders—Comparison with south

temperate zone—Heavy rain—Temperature, etc.—Descent—Simonbong

temple—Furniture therein—Praying-cylinder—Thigh-bone trumpet—Morning

orisons—Present of Murwa beer, etc.

CHAPTER VIII

Difficulty in procuring leave to enter Sikkim—Obtain permission to

travel in East Nepal—Arrangements—Coolies—Stores—Servants—Personal

equipment—Mode of travelling—Leave Dorjiling—Goong ridge—Behaviour of

Bhotan coolies—Nepal frontier—Myong valley—Ilam—Sikkim

massacre—Cultivation—Nettles—Camp at Nanki on Tonglo—Bhotan coolies run

away—View of Chumulari—Nepal peaks to west—Sakkiazong—_Buceros_—Road to

Wallanchoon—Oaks—Scarcity of water—Singular view of

mountain-valleys—Encampment—My tent and its furniture—Evening

occupations—Dunkotah-Cross ridge of Sakkiazong—Yews—Silver-firs-View of

Tambur valley—Pemmi river—Pebbly terraces—Geology—Holy springs—Enormous

trees—_Luculia gratissima_—Khawa river, rocks of—Arrive at

Tambur—Shingle and gravel terraces—Natives, indolence of—Canoe

ferry—Votive offerings—Bad road—Temperature, etc.—Chingtam village,

view from—Mywa river and Guola—House—Boulders—Chain-bridge—Meepo,

arrival of—Fevers.

CHAPTER IX

Leave Mywa—Suspension bridge—Landslips—Vegetation—Slope of

river-bed—Bees’ nests—Glacial phenomena—Tibetans, clothing, ornaments,

amulets, salutation, children, dogs—Last Limboo village,

Taptiatok—Beautiful scenery—Tibet village of

Lelyp—_Opuntia—Edgeworthia_—Crab-apple—Chameleon and

porcupine—Praying-machine—_Abies Brunoniana_—European plants—Grand

scenery—Arrive at Wallanchoon—Scenery around—Trees—Tibet houses—Manis

and Mendongs—Tibet household—Food—Tea-soup—Hospitality—Yaks and Zobo,

uses and habits of—Bhoteeas—Yak-hair tents—Guobah of

Walloong—Jatamansi—Obstacles to proceeding—Climate and

weather—Proceed—Rhododendrons, etc.—Lichens—_Poa annua_ and Shepherd’s

purse—Tibet camp—Tuquoroma—Scenery of pass—Glaciers and

snow—Summit—Plants, woolly, etc.

CHAPTER X

Return from Wallanchoon pass—Procure a bazaar at village—Dance of

Lamas—Blackening face, Tibetan custom of—Temple and convent—Leave for

Kanglachem pass—Send part of party back to Dorjiling—Yangma

Guola—Drunken Tibetans—Guobah of Wallanchoon—Camp at foot of Great

Moraine—View from top—Geological speculations—Height of moraines—Cross

dry lake-bed—Glaciers—More moraines—Terraces—Yangma temples—Jos, books

and furniture—Peak of Nango—Lake—Arrive at

village—Cultivation—Scenery—Potatos—State of my provisions—Pass through

village—Gigantic boulders—Terraces—Wild sheep—Lake-beds—Sun’s

power—Piles of gravel and detritus—Glaciers and moraines—Pabuk,

elevation of—Moonlight scene—Return to Yangma—Temperature,

etc.—Geological causes of phenomena in valley—Scenery of valley on

descent.

CHAPTER XI

Ascend to Nango mountain—Moraines—Glaciers—Vegetation—_Rhododendron

Hodgsoni_—Rocks—Honey-combed surface of snow—Perpetual snow—Top of

pass—View—Elevation—Geology—Distance of

sound—Plants—Temperature—Scenery—Cliffs of granite and hurled

boulders—Camp—Descent—Pheasants—Larch—Himalayan pines—Distribution of

Deodar, note on—Tassichooding temples—Kambachen

village—Cultivation—Moraines in valley, distribution of—Picturesque

lake-beds, and their vegetation—Tibetan sheep and goats—_Cryptogramma

crispa_—Ascent to Choonjerma pass—View of Junnoo—Rocks of its

summit—Misty ocean—Nepal peaks—Top of pass—Temperature, and

observations—Gorgeous sunset—Descent to Yalloong valley—Loose

path—Night scenes—Musk deer.

CHAPTER XII

Yalloong valley—Find Kanglanamo pass closed—Change route for the

southward—_Picrorhiza_—View of Kubra—_Rhododendron Falconeri_—Yalloong

river—Junction of gneiss and clay-slate—Cross Yalloong

range—View—Descent—Yew—Vegetation—Misty weather—Tongdam

village—Khabang—Tropical vegetation—Sidingbah mountain—View of

Kinchinjunga—Yangyading village—Slopes of hills, and courses of

rivers—Khabili valley—Ghorkha Havildar’s bad conduct—Ascend

Singalelah—Plague of ticks—Short commons—Cross Islumbo pass—Boundary of

Sikkim—Kulhait valley—Lingcham—Reception by Kajee—Hear of Dr.

Campbell’s going to meet Rajah—Views in valley—Leave for Teesta

river—Tipsy Kajee—Hospitality—Murwa beer—Temples—_Acorus Calamus_—Long

Mendong—Burning of dead—Superstitions—Cross Great Rungeet—Boulders,

origin of—Purchase of a dog—Marshes—Lamas—Dismiss Ghorkhas—Bhoteea

house—Murwa beer.

CHAPTER XIII

Raklang pass—Uses of nettles—Edible plants—Lepcha war—Do-mani

stone—Neongong—Teesta valley—Pony, saddle, etc.—Meet

Campbell—Vegetation and scenery—Presents—Visit of Dewan—Characters of

Rajah and Dewan—Accounts of Tibet—Lhassa—Siling—Tricks of Dewan—Walk up

Teesta—Audience of Rajah—Lamas—Kajees—Tchebu Lama, his character and

position—Effects of interview—Heir-apparent—Dewan’s

house—Guitar—Weather—Fall of river—Tibet officers—Gigantic

trees—Neongong lake—Mainom, ascent of—Vegetation—Camp on

snow—Silver-firs—View from top—Kinchin, etc.—Geology—Vapours—Sunset

effect—Elevation—Temperature, etc.—Lamas of Neongong—Temples—Religious

festival Bamboo, flowering—Recross pass of Raklang—Numerous temples,

villages, etc.—Domestic animals—Descent to Great Rungeet.

CHAPTER XIV

Tassiding, view of and from—Funereal cypress—Camp at Sunnook—Hot

vapours—Lama’s house—Temples, decorations, altars, idols, general

effect—Chaits—Date of erection—Plundered by Ghorkas—Cross Ratong—Ascend

to Pemiongehi—Relation of river-beds to strike of rocks—Slopes of

ravines—Pemiongehi, view of—Vegetation—Elevation—Temple, decorations,

etc.—Former capital of Sikkim—History of Sikkim—Nightingales—Campbell

departs—Tchonpong—_Edgeworthia_—Cross Rungbee and Ratong—Hoar-frost on

plantains—Yoksun—Walnuts—View—Funereal cypresses—Doobdi—Gigantic

cypresses—Temples—Snow-fall—Sikkim, etc.—Toys.

CHAPTER XV

Leave Yoksun for Kinchinjunga—Ascend Ratong valley—Salt-smuggling over

Ratong—Landslips—Plants—Buckeem—Blocks of gneiss—Mon

Lepcha—View—Weather—View from Gubroo—Kinchinjunga, tops

of—Pundimcliff—Nursing—Vegetation of Himalaya—_Coup d’œil_ of

Jongri—Route to Yalloong—Arduous route of salt-traders from

Tibet—Kinchin, ascent of—Lichens—Surfaces sculptured by snow and

ice—Weather at Jongri—Snow—Shades for eyes.

CHAPTER XVI

Ratong river below Mon Lepcha—Ferns—Vegetation of Yoksun,

tropical—_Araliaceæ_, fodder for cattle—Rice-paper plant—Geology of

Yoksun—Lake—Old temples—Funereal cypresses—Gigantic

chart—Altars—Songboom—Weather—Catsuperri—Velocity of Ratong—Worship at

Catsuperri lake—Scenery—Willow—Lamas and ecclesiastical establishments

of Sikkim—Tengling—Changachelling temples and monks—Portrait of myself

on walls—Block of mica-schist—Lingcham Kajee asks for

spectacles—Hee-hill—Arrive at Little Rungeet—At Dorjiling—Its deserted

and wintry appearance.

CHAPTER XVII

Dispatch

collections—Acorns—Heat—Punkabaree—Bees—Vegetation—Haze—Titalya—

Earthquake—Proceed to Nepal frontier—Terai, geology of—Physical

features of Himalayan valleys—Elephants, purchase of,

etc.—River-beds—Mechi river—Return to Titalya—Leave for Teesta—Climate

of plains—Jeelpigoree—Cooches—Alteration in the appearance of country

by fires, etc.—Grasses—Bamboos—Cottages—Rajah of Cooch Behar—Condition

of people—Hooli festival—Ascend

Teesta—Canoes—Cranes—Forest—Baikant-pore—Rummai—Religion—Plants at foot

of mountains—Exit of Teesta—Canoe voyage down to Rangamally—English

genera of plants—Birds—Beautiful scenery—Botanizing on

elephants—Willow—Siligoree—Cross Terai—Geology—Iron—Lohar-ghur—Coal and

sandstone beds—Mechi fisherman—Hailstorm—Ascent to Kursiong—To

Dorjiling—Vegetation—Geology—Folded quartz-beds—Spheres of

feldspar—Lime deposits.

CHAPTER XVIII

Arrangements for second journey into Sikkim—Opposition of Dewan—Lassoo

Kajee—Tendong—Legend of flood—Lama of Silok-foke—Namtchi—Tchebu

Lama—Top of Tendong—Gigantic oak—Plants—Teesta valley—Commencement of

rains—Bhomsong—Ascent to Lathiang—View—Bad road—Orchids—Gorh—Opposition

of Lama—Arrival of Meepo—Cross Teesta—Difficulties of

travelling—Lepchas swimming—Moxa for sprains—Singtam—Grandeur of view

of Kinchinjunga—Wild men—Singtam Soubah—Landslips—Bees’ nests and

honey-seekers—Leeches, etc.—Chakoong—Vegetation—Gravel

terraces—Unpleasant effects of wormwood—Choongtam, scenery and

vegetation of—Inhabitants—Tibetan salute—Lamas—Difficulty of procuring

food—Contrast of vegetation of inner and outer

Himalaya—Rhododendrons—Yew—_Abies Brunoniana_—Venomous snakes—Hornets

and other insects—Choongtam temple—Pictures of Lhassa—Minerals—Scenery.

CHAPTER XIX

Routes from Choongtam to Tibet frontier—Choice of that by the Lachen

river—Arrival of supplies—Departure—Features of the valley—Eatable

_Polygonum_—Tumlong—Cross Taktoong river—Pines, larches, and other

trees—Chateng pool—Water-plants and insects—Tukcham mountain—Lamteng

village—Inhabitants—Alpine monkey—Botany of temperate Himalaya—European

and American fauna—Japanese and Malayan genera—Superstitious objections

to shooting—Customs of people—Rain—Run short of provisions—Altered

position of Tibet frontier—Zemu Samdong—Imposition—Vegetation—Uses of

pines—Ascent to Thlonok river—Balanophora wood for making

cups—Snow-beds—Eatable mushrooms and _Smilacina_—Asarabacca—View of

Kinchinjunga—Arum-roots, preparation of for food—Liklo

mountain—Behaviour of my party—Bridge constructed over Zemu—Cross

river—Alarm of my party—Camp on Zemu river.

CHAPTER XX

Camp on Zemu river—Scenery—Falling rocks—Tukcham mountain—Height of

glaciers—Botany—Gigantic rhubarb—Insects—Storm—Temperature of

rivers—Behaviour of Lachen Phipun—Hostile conduct of Bhoteeas—View from

mountains above camp—Descend to Zemu Samdong—Vegetation—Letters from

Dorjiling—Arrival of Singtam Soubah—Presents from Rajah—Parties

collecting arum-roots—Insects—Ascend Lachen river—Thakya-zong—Tallum

Samdong

village—Cottages—Mountains—Plants—Entomology—Weather—Halo—Diseases—

Conduct of Singtam Soubah—His character and illness—Agrees to take me

to Kongra Lama—Tungu—Appearance of country—Houses—Poisoning by

aram-roots—Yaks and calves—Tibet ponies—Journey to Kongra Lama—Tibetan

tents—Butter, curds, and churns—Hospitality—Kinchinjhow and

Chomiomo—Magnificent scenery—Reach Kongra Lama pass.

CHAPTER XXI

Top of Kongra Lama—Tibet frontier—Elevation—View—Vegetation—Descent to

Tungu—Tungu-choo—Ponies—Kinchinjhow and Chango-khang mountains—Palung

plains—Tibetans—Dogs—Dingcham province of

Tibet—Inhabitants—Dresses—Women’s ornaments—Blackening

faces—Coral—Tents—Elevation of Palung—Lama—Shawl-wool

goats—Shearing—Siberian plants—Height of glaciers, and perpetual

snow—Geology—Plants, and wild animals—Marmots—Insects—Birds—Choongtam

Lama—Religious exercises—Tibetan hospitality—_Delphinium_—Perpetual

snow—Temperature at Tungu—Return to Tallum Samdong—To

Lamteng—Houses—Fall of barometer—Cicadas—Lime

deposits—Landslips—Arrival at Choongtam—Cobra—Rageu—Heat of

climate—Velocity and volume of rivers measured—Leave for Lachoong

valley—Keadom—General features of valley—Lachoong village—Tunkra

mountain—Moraines—Cultivation—Lachoong Phipun—Lama ceremonies beside a

sick-bed.

CHAPTER XXII

Leave Lachoong for Tunkra pass—Moraines and their vegetation—Pines of

great dimensions—Wild currants—Glaciers—Summit of

pass—Elevation—Views—Plants—Winds—Choombi district—Lacheepia

rock—Extreme cold—Kinchinjunga—Himalayan grouse—Meteorological

observations—Return to Lachoong—Oaks—Ascend to Yeumtong—Flats and

debacles—Buried pine-trunks—Perpetual snow—Hot springs—Behaviour of

Singtam Soubah—Leave for Momay Samdong—Upper limit of

trees—Distribution of plants—Glacial terraces, etc.—Forked

Donkia—Moutonneed rocks—Ascent to Donkia

pass—Vegetation—Scenery—Lakes—Tibet—Bhomtso—Arun river—Kiang-lah

mountains—Yaru-Tsampu river—Appearance of

Tibet—Kambajong—Jigatzi—Kinchinjhow, and Kinchinjunga—Chola

range—Deceptive appearance of distant landscape—Perpetual

snow—Granite—Temperatures—Pulses—Plants—Tripe de roche—Return to

Momay—Dogs and yaks—Birds—Insects—Quadrupeds—Hot

springs—Marmots—Kinchinjhow glacier.

CHAPTER XXIII

Donkia glaciers—Moraines—Dome of ice—Honey-combed surface—Rocks of

Donkia—Metamorphic action of granite veins—Accident to

instruments—Sebolah pass—Bees and May-flies—View—Temperature—Pulses of

party—Lamas and travellers at Momay—Weather and climate—Dr. Campbell

leaves Dorjiling for Sikkim—Leave Momay—Yeumtong—Lachoong—Retardation

of vegetation at low elevations—Choongtam—Landslips and debacle—Meet

Dr. Campbell—Motives for his journey—Second visit to Lachen

valley—Autumnal tints—Red currants—Lachen

Phipun—Tungu—Scenery—Animals—Poisonous

rhododendrons—Fire-wood—Palung—Elevations—Sitong—Kongra

Lama—Tibetans—Enter Tibet—Desolate

scenery—Plants—Animals—Geology—Cholamoo lakes—Antelopes—Return to

Yeumtso—Dr. Campbell lost—Extreme cold—Headaches—Tibetan Dingpun and

guard—Arms and accoutrements—Temperature of Yeumtso—Migratory

birds—Visit of Dingpun—Yeumtso lakes.

CHAPTER XXIV

Ascent of Bhomtso—View of snowy mountains—Chumulari—Arun

river—Kiang-lah mountains—Jigatzi—Lhassa—Dingcham province of

Tibet—Misapplication of term “Plain of Tibet”—Sheep, flocks

of—Crops—Probable elevation of Jigatzi—Yaru-Tsampu river—Tame

elephants—Wild horses—Dryness of air—Sunset beams—Rocks of

Kinchinjhow—Cholamoo lakes—Limestone—Dip and strike of rocks—Effects of

great elevation on party—Ascent of Donkia—Moving piles of debris—Cross

Donkia pass—Second visit to Momay Samdong—Hot springs—Descent to

Yeumtong—Lachoong—Retardation of vegetation again noticed—Jerked

meat—Fish—Lose a thermometer—Lepcha lad sleeps in hot

spring—Keadom—_Bucklandia_—Arrive at

Choongtam—Mendicant—Meepo—Lachen-Lachoong river—Wild grape—View from

Singtam of Kinchinjunga—Virulent nettle.

CHAPTER XXV

Journey to the Rajah’s residence at Tumloong—Ryott valley—Rajah’s

house—Tupgain Lama—Lagong nunnery—Phadong Goompa—Phenzong ditto—Lepcha

sepoys—Proceedings at Tumloong—Refused admittance to Rajah—Women’s

dresses—Meepo’s and Tchebu Lama’s families—Chapel—Leave for Chola

pass—Ryott river—Rungpo, view from—Deputation of Kajees,

etc.—Conference—Laghep—Eatable fruit of

_Decaisnea—Cathcartia_—Rhododendrons—Phieung-goong—Pines—Rutto

river—Barfonchen—Curling of rhododendron leaf—Woodcock—Chola pass—Small

lakes—Tibet guard and sepoys—Dingpun—Arrival of Sikkim sepoys—Their

conduct—Meet Singtam Soubah—Chumanako—We are seized by the Soubah’s

party—Soubah’s conduct—Dingpun Tinli—Treatment of Dr. Campbell—Bound

and guarded—Separated from Campbell—Marched to Tumloong—Motives for

such conduct—Arrive at Rungpo—At Phadong—Presents from Rajah—Visits of

Lama—Of Singtam Soubah—I am cross-questioned by Amlah—Confined with

Campbell—Seizure of my Coolies—Threats of attacking Dorjiling.

CHAPTER XXVI

Dr. Campbell is ordered to appear at Durbar—Lamas called to

council—Threats—Scarcity of food—Arrival of Dewan—Our jailer,

Thoba-sing—Temperature, etc., at Tumloong—Services of Goompas—Lepcha

girl—Jews’-harp—Terror of servants—Ilam-sing’s family—Interview with

Dewan—Remonstrances—Dewan feigns sickness—Lord Dalhousie’s letter to

Rajah—Treatment of Indo-Chinese—Concourse of Lamas—Visit of Tchebu

Lama—Close confinement—Dr. Campbell’s illness—Conference with

Amlah—Relaxation of confinement—Pemiongchi Lama’s intercession—Escape

of Nimbo—Presents from Rajah, Ranee, and people—Protestations of

friendship—Mr. Lushington sent to Dorjiling—Leave Tumloong—Cordial

farewell—Dewan’s merchandize—Gangtok Kajee—Dewan’s

pomp—Governor-General’s letter—Dikkeeling—Suspicion of poison—Dinner

and pills—Tobacco—Bhotanese colony—Katong-ghat on Teesta—Wild

lemons—Sepoys’ insolence—Dewan alarmed—View of Dorjiling—Threats of a

rescue—Fears of our escape—Tibet flutes—Negotiate our release—Arrival

at Dorjiling—Dr. Thomson joins me—Movement of troops at

Dorjiling—Seizure of Rajah’s Terai property.

CHAPTER XXVII

Leave Dorjiling for Calcutta—Jung Bahadoor—Dr. Falconer—Improvements in

Botanic Gardens—Palmetum—Victoria—_Amherstia_—Orchids spread by

seed—Banyan—_Cycas_—Importation of American plants in ice—Return to

Dorjiling—Leave with Dr. Thomson for the Khasia mountains—Mahanuddy

river—Vegetation of banks—Maldah—Alligators—Rampore-Bauleah—Climate of

Ganges—Pubna—Jummul river—Altered course of Burrampooter and

Megna—Dacca—Conch shells—Saws—Cotton

muslins—Fruit—Vegetation—Elevation—Rose of Bengal—Burrampooter—Delta of

Soormah river—Jheels—Soil—Vegetation—Navigation—Mosquitos—Atmospheric

pressure—Effects of geological changes—Imbedding of plants—Teelas or

islets—Chattuc—Salubrious climate—Rains—Canoes—Pundua—Mr. Harry

Inglis—Terrya Ghat—Ascent to Churra—Scenery and vegetation at foot of

mountains—Cascades.

CHAPTER XXVIII

Churra, English station of—Khasia people—Garrow

people—Houses—Habits—Dress—Arms—Dialects—Marriages—Food—Funerals—Superstitions—Flat

of Churra—Scenery—Lime and coal—Mamloo—Cliffs—Cascades—_Chamærops_

palm—Jasper-rocks—Flora of

Churra—Orchids—Rhododendrons—Pine—Climate—Extraordinary rain-fall—Its

effects—Gardens of Lieuts. Raban and Cave—Leave Churra to cross the

mountain range—Coal, shale, and under-clay—Kala-panee

river—Lailangkot—_Luculia Pinceana_—Conglomerate—Surureem

wood—Boga-panee river—View of Himalaya—Greenstone—Age of

pine-cones—Moflong plants—_Coix_—Chillong mountain—Extensive

view—Road to Syong—Broad valleys—Geology—Plants—Myrung—Granite

blocks—Kollong rock—Pine-woods—Features of country—Orchids—Iron

forges.

CHAPTER XXIX

View of Himalaya from the Khasia—Great masses of

snow—Chumulari—Donkia—Grasses—Nunklow—Assam valley and

Burrampooter—Tropical forest—Bor-panee—Rhododendrons—Wild

elephants—Blocks of Syenite—Return to Churra—Coal—August

temperature—Leave for Chela—Jasper hill—Birds—_Arundina_—Habits of

leaf-insects—Curious village—Houses—Canoes—Boga-panee

river—Jheels—Chattuc—Churra—Leave for Jyntea hills—Trading

parties—Dried

fish—Cherries—Cinnamon—Fraud—Pea-violet—Nonkreem—Sandstone—Pines—

Granite boulders—Iron washing—Forges—Tanks—Siberian _Nymphæa_—Barren

country—Pomrang—_Podostemon_—Patchouli plant—Mooshye—Enormous stone

slabs—Pitcher-plant—Joowye—Cultivation and

vegetation—_Hydropeltis_—Sulky hostess—Nurtiung—_Hamamelis

chinensis_—Bor-panee river—Sacred grove and gigantic stone

structures—Altars—Pyramids, etc.—Origin of names—_Yandaca

cœrulea_—Collections—November vegetation—Geology of

Khasia—Sandstone—Coal—Lime—Gneiss—Greenstone—Tidal action—Strike of

rocks—Comparison with Rajmahal hills and the Himalaya.

CHAPTER XXX

Best voyage to Silhet—River—Palms—Teelas—Botany—Fish weirs—Forests of

Cachar—Sandal-wood, etc.—Porpoises—Alligators—Silchar—Tigers—Rice

crops—Cookies—Munniporees—Hockey—Varnish—Dance—Nagas—Excursion to

Munnipore frontier—Elephant bogged—Bamboos—_Cardiopteris_—Climate,

etc., of Cachar—Mosquitos—Fall of

banks—Silhet—Oaks—_Stylidium_—Tree-ferns—Chattuc—Megna—Meteorology—

Palms—Noa-colly—Salt- smuggling—Delta of Ganges and Megna—Westward

progress of Megna—Peat—Tide—Waves—Earthquakes—Dangerous

navigation—Moonlight scenes—Mud island—Chittagong—Mug

tribes—Views—Trees—Churs—Flagstaff hill—Coffee—Pepper—Tea,

etc.—Excursions from Chittagong—_Dipterocarpi_ or Gurjun oil

trees—Earthquake—Birds—Papaw—Bleeding of stems—Poppy and Sun

fields—Seetakoond—Bungalow and hill—Perpetual

flame—_Falconeria—Cycas_—Climate—Leave for Calcutta—Hattiah

island—Plants—Sunderbunds—Steamer—Tides—_Nipa

fruticans_—Fishing—Otters—Crocodiles—_Phœnix paludosa_—Departure from

India.

APPENDIX

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LITHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

Plate I. The Dhak, _Butea frondosa,_ and _Cochlospermum gossypium,_ with the Kymore Hills in the background.

Plate II. View of Kinchinjunga from Mr. Hodgson’s bungalow at Dorjiling, from a sketch by W. Tayler, Esq., B.C.S.

Plate III. From Chingtam, looking up the Tambur Valley.

Plate IV. Nango mountain, from the summit of the great moraine in Yangma Valley, looking eastward.

Plate V. Junnoo mountain from the Choonjerma Pass.

Plate VI. View of Kinchinjunga from Singtam, looking north-westward.

Plate VII. Kinchinjunga from the Thlonok river, with rhododendrons in flower.

Plate VIII. Tibet and Cholamoo lake from the summit of the Donkia pass, looking north-west.

Plate IX. Kinchinjhow, Donkia, and Cholamoo lake, from the summit of Bhomtso, looking south; the summit of Chumulari is introduced in the extreme left of the view.

Plate X. The table-land and station of Churra, with the Jheels, course of the Soormah river, and Tipperah hills in the extreme distance, looking south.

Plate XI. The Bhotan Himalaya, Assam valley, and Burrampooter river, from Nunklow, looking north.

Plate XII. Seetakoond hill.

WOOD ENGRAVINGS

Fig. 1. Old tamarind trees.

Fig. 2. Crossing the Soane River above Tura, with the Kymore Hills in the background.

Fig. 3. Equatorial sun-dial, Benares Observatory.

Fig. 4. Equinoctial sun-dial, Benares Observatory.

Fig. 5. Azimuth circle, Benares Observatory.

Fig. 6. Monghyr on the Ganges.

Fig. 7. Punkabaree, Sikkim Terai, and Balasun River. The trees in the foreground are _Araliaceæ_.

Fig. 8. Lepcha girl and Boodhist priest. From a sketch by Miss Colvile.

Fig. 9. _Pinus longifolia,_ in the great Rungeet Valley.

Fig. 10. Construction of a cane suspension-bridge.

Fig. 11. Lepcha boy carrying a bamboo water-vessel. From a sketch by Miss Colvile.

Fig. 12. Amulet usually worn by Lepchas.

Fig. 13. Trunk-like root of _Wightia gigantea,_ ascending a tree, which its stout rootlets clasp.

Fig. 14. Interior of Boodhist temple at Simonbong.

Fig. 15. Trumpet made of a human thigh-bone.

Fig. 16. Tibetan amulet set with turquoises.

Fig. 17. Head of Tibet Mastiff. From a sketch taken in the zoological gardens by C. Jenyns, Esq.

Fig. 18. View on the Tambur River, with _Ambies brunoniana_.

Fig. 19. Wallanchoon village, East Nepal.

Fig. 20. Head of a Tibetan demon. From a model in the possession of Captain H. Strachey.

Fig. 21. Ancient moraines surrounding the lower lake-bed in the Yangma valley (looking west).

Fig. 22. Second lake-bed in the Yangma valley, with Nango mountain, (looking east).

Fig. 23. Diagram of the terraces and glacial boulders, etc., at the fork of the Yangma valley (looking north-west up the valley). The terraces are represented as much too level and angular, and the boulders too large, the woodcut being intended as a diagram rather than as a view.

Fig. 24. View of the head of the Yangma valley, and ancient moraines of debris, which rise in confused hills several hundred feet above the floor of the valley below the Kanglachem pass (elevation 16,000 feet).

Fig. 25. Skulls of _Ovis ammon._ Sketched by J. E. Winterbottom, Esq.

Fig. 26. Ancient moraines, in which small lake-beds occur, in the Kambachen valley (elevation 11,400 feet).

Fig. 27. Brass box to contain amulets, from Tibet.

Fig. 28. Pemiongchi goompa (or temple) with Chaits in the foreground.

Fig. 29. Costumes of Sikkim lamas and monks, with the bell, mani, dobje, and trident.

Fig. 30. The Do-mani stone, with gigantic Tibetan characters.

Fig. 31. Implements of worship in the Sikkim temples.

Fig. 32. Chaits at Tassiding, with decayed funereal cypresses.

Fig. 33. Vestibule of temple at Tassiding.

Fig. 34. Southern temple, at Tassiding.

Fig. 35. Middle temple, at Tassiding, with mounted yaks.

Fig. 36. Chair, altar, and images in the great temple at Tassiding.

Fig. 37. Ground-plan of southern temple at Tassiding.

Fig. 38. Interior of temple at Pemiongchi, the walls covered with allegorical paintings.

Fig. 39. Doobdi temple, with young and old funereal cypress.

Fig. 40. Summit of Kinchinjunga, with Pundim on the right; its black cliff traversed by white granite veins.

Fig. 41. Image of Maitrya, the coming Boodh.

Fig. 42. Stone altar, and erection for burning juniper ashes.

Fig. 43. Facsimile of the vermilion seal of the Dhurma Rajah of Bhotan, head of the Dookpa sect of Boodhists.

Fig. 44. A Mech, native of the Sikkim Terai. Sketched by Miss Colvile.

Fig. 45. Mech pocket-comb (of wood).

Fig. 46. Pandanus in the Teesta valley.

Fig. 47. Cane-bridge over the Lachen-Lachoong river, below Choongtam. Tukcham mountain is brought into the view, as seen from a higher elevation.

Fig. 48. _Juniperus recurva,_ the weeping juniper.

Fig. 49. Lamteng village, with Tukcham in the distance.

Fig. 50. Black juniper and young larch.

Fig. 51. Tungu village, with yaks in the foreground.

Fig. 52. Women’s head-dresses—the two outer, Lepcha girls; the two inner, Tibetan women.

Fig. 53. Tibet marmot. Sketched by J. E. Winterbottom, Esq.

Fig. 54. Lachoong valley (looking south), larch tree in the foreground.

Fig. 55. Conical ancient moraines in the Lachoong valley, with _Abies brunoniana_ and _smithiana_.

Fig. 56. Head and legs of Tibet marmot. Sketched by J. E. Winterbottom, Esq.

Fig. 57. Block of gneiss with granite bands, on the Kinchinjhow glacier.

Fig. 58. Summit of forked Donkia mountain, with Goa antelopes in the foreground; from 17,500 feet elevation.

Fig. 59. View of the eastern top of Kinchinjhow, and Tibet in the distance, with wild sheep in the foreground; from an elevation of 18,000 feet.

Fig. 60. Head of Chiru antelope, the unicorn of Tibet. From a sketch by Lieut. H. Maxwell.

Fig. 61. A Phud, or Tibetan mendicant. Sketched at Dorjiling by Miss Colvile.

Fig. 62. Tea (brick of), tea-pot, wooden cup, etc.

Fig. 63. Portrait of Aden Tchebu Lama. Sketched by Lieut. H. Maxwell.

Fig. 64. Silver chain and hooks, ornamented with turquoises, used to fasten women’s cloaks.

Fig. 65. Horns of the Showa stag of Tibet (_Cervus wallichii_). Sketched by Lieut. H. Maxwell.

Fig. 66. Rajah’s house at Tumloong, in the foreground the cottage in which Dr. Campbell was confined, with the Dewan’s retinue passing. This is partly executed from memory.

Fig. 67. Tibetan tobacco-pipe and tinder-pouch, with steel attached.

Fig. 68. Lepcha sepoys, the right hand figures, and Tibetan ones on the left.

Fig. 69. Dr. Falconer’s residence, Calcutta Botanic Gardens; from Sir L. Peel’s grounds, looking across the Hoogly.

Fig. 70. View in the Jheels of Bengal, with Khasia mountains in the distance.

Fig. 71. Living bridge, formed of the aerial roots of figs.

Fig. 72. Dewan’s ear-ring of pearl and turquoises.

Fig. 73. Waterfalls at Mamloo, with fan-palms.

Fig. 74. Kollong rock.

Fig. 75. Chela, on the Boga-panee river.

Fig. 76. Nonkreem village, with boulders of denudation.

Fig. 77. Bellows of iron smelters in the Khasia mountains.

Fig. 78. Old bridge at Amwee.

Fig. 79. Stones at Nurtiung.

Fig. 80. _Dipterocarpus turbinatus,_ gurjun or wood-oil tree.

[Illustration: Dhurma Rajah’s Seal]

To CHARLES DARWIN, F.R.S., etc.

This volume is dedicated,

by his affectionate friend,

J. D. HOOKER

Kew, _Jan_. 12_th_, 1854

PREFACE

Having accompanied Sir James Ross on his voyage of discovery to the

Antarctic regions, where botany was my chief pursuit, on my return I

earnestly desired to add to my acquaintance with the natural history of

the temperate zones, more knowledge of that of the tropics than I had

hitherto had the opportunity of acquiring. My choice lay between India

and the Andes, and I decided upon the former, being principally

influenced by Dr. Falconer, who promised me every assistance which his

position as Superintendent of the H.E.I.C. Botanic Garden at Calcutta,

would enable him to give. He also drew my attention to the fact that we

were ignorant even of the geography of the central and eastern parts of

these mountains, while all to the north was involved in a mystery

equally attractive to the traveller and the naturalist.

On hearing of the kind interest taken by Baron Humboldt in my proposed

travels, and at the request of my father (Sir William Hooker), the Earl

of Carlisle (then Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests) undertook to

represent to Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of securing my

collections for the Royal Gardens at Kew; and owing to the generous

exertions of that nobleman, and of the late Earl of Auckland (then

First Lord of the Admiralty), my journey assumed the character of a

Government mission, £400 per annum being granted by the Treasury for

two years.

I did not contemplate proceeding beyond the Himalaya and Tibet, when

Lord Auckland desired that I should afterwards visit Borneo, for the

purpose of reporting on the capabilities of Labuan, with reference to

the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo, spices, guttapercha,

etc. To this end a commission in the navy (to which service I was

already attached) was given me, such instructions were drawn up as

might facilitate my movements in the East, and a suitable sum of money

was placed at my disposal.

Soon after leaving England, my plans became, from various causes,

altered. The Earl of Auckland[1] was dead; the interest in Borneo had

in a great measure subsided; H.M.S. “Mæander,” to which I had been

attached for service in Labuan, had left the Archipelago; reports of

the unhealthy nature of the coast had excited alarm; and the results of

my researches in the Himalaya had proved of more interest and advantage

than had been anticipated. It was hence thought expedient to cancel the

Borneo appointment, and to prolong my services for a third year in

India; for which purpose a grant of £300 (originally intended for

defraying the expense of collecting only, in Borneo) was transferred as

salary for the additional year to be spent in the Himalaya.

[1] It is with a melancholy satisfaction that I here record the

intentions of that enlightened nobleman. The idea of turning to public

account what was intended as a scientific voyage, occurred to his

lordship when considering my application for official leave to proceed

to India; and from the hour of my accepting the Borneo commission with

which he honoured me, he displayed the most active zeal in promoting

its fulfilment. He communicated to me his views as to the direction in

which I should pursue my researches, furnished me with official and

other information, and provided me with introductions of the most

essential use.

The portion of the Himalaya best worth exploring, was selected for me

both by Lord Auckland and Dr. Falconer, who independently recommended

Sikkim, as being ground untrodden by traveller or naturalist. Its ruler

was, moreover, all but a dependant of the British government, and it

was supposed, would therefore be glad to facilitate my researches.

No part of the snowy Himalaya eastward of the northwest extremity of

the British possessions had been visited since Turner’s embassy to

Tibet in 1789; and hence it was highly important to explore

scientifically a part of the chain which, from its central position,

might be presumed to be typical of the whole range. The possibility of

visiting Tibet, and of ascertaining particulars respecting the great

mountain Chumulari,[2] which was only known from Turner’s account, were

additional inducements to a student of physical geography; but it was

not then known that Kinchinjunga, the loftiest known mountain on the

globe, was situated on my route, and formed a principal feature in the

physical geography of Sikkim.

[2] My earliest recollections in reading are of “Turner’s Travels in

Tibet,” and of “Cook’s Voyages.” The account of Lama worship and of

Chumulari in the one, and of Kerguelen’s Land in the other, always

took a strong hold on my fancy. It is, therefore, singular that

Kerguelen’s Land should have been the first strange country I ever

visited (now fourteen years ago), and that in the first King’s ship

which has touched there since Cook’s voyage, and whilst following the

track of that illustrious navigator in south polar discovery. At a

later period I have been nearly the first European who has approached

Chumulari since Turner’s embassy.

My passage to Egypt was provided by the Admiralty in H.M. steam-vessel

“Sidon,” destined to convey the Marquis of Dalhousie, Governor-General

of India, thus far on his way. On his arrival in Egypt, his Lordship

did me the honour of desiring me to consider myself in the position of

one of his suite, for the remainder of the voyage, which was performed

in the “Moozuffer,” a steam frigate belonging to the Indian Navy. My

obligations to this nobleman had commenced before leaving England, by

his promising me every facility he could command; and he thus took the

earliest opportunity of affording it, by giving me such a position near

himself as ensured me the best reception everywhere; no other

introduction being needed. His Lordship procured my admission into

Sikkim, and honoured me throughout my travels with the kindest

encouragement.

During the passage out, some days were spent in Egypt, at Aden, Ceylon,

and Madras. I have not thought it necessary to give here the

observations made in those well-known countries; they are detailed in a

series of letters published in the “London Journal of Botany,” as

written for my private friends. Arriving at Calcutta in January, I

passed the remainder of the cold season in making myself acquainted

with the vegetation of the plains and hills of Western Bengal, south of

the Ganges, by a journey across the mountains of Birbhoom and Behar to

the Soane valley, and thence over the Vindhya range to the Ganges, at

Mirzapore, whence I descended that stream to Bhaugulpore; and leaving

my boat, struck north to the Sikkim Himalaya. This excursion is

detailed in the “London Journal of Botany,” and the Asiatic Society of

Bengal honoured me by printing the meteorological observations made

during its progress.

During the two years’ residence in Sikkim which succeeded, I was laid

under obligations of no ordinary nature to Brian H. Hodgson, Esq.,

B.C.S., for many years Resident at the Nepal Court; whose guest I

became for several months. Mr. Hodgson’s high position as a man of

science requires no mention here; but the difficulties he overcame, and

the sacrifices he made, in attaining that position, are known to few.

He entered the wilds of Nepal when very young, and in indifferent

health; and finding time to spare, cast about for the best method of

employing it: he had no one to recommend or direct a pursuit, no

example to follow, no rival to equal or surpass; he had never been

acquainted with a scientific man, and knew nothing of science except

the name. The natural history of men and animals, in its most

comprehensive sense, attracted his attention; he sent to Europe for

books, and commenced the study of ethnology and zoology. His labours

have now extended over upwards of twenty-five years’ residence in the

Himalaya. During this period he has seldom had a staff of less than

from ten to twenty persons (often many more), of various tongues and

races, employed as translators and collectors, artists, shooters, and

stuffers. By unceasing exertions and a princely liberality, Mr. Hodgson

has unveiled the mysteries of the Boodhist religion, chronicled the

affinities, languages, customs, and faiths of the Himalayan tribes; and

completed a natural history of the animals and birds of these regions.

His collections of specimens are immense, and are illustrated by

drawings and descriptions taken from life, with remarks on the

anatomy,[3] habits, and localities of the animals themselves. Twenty

volumes of the Journals, and the Museum of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, teem with the proofs of his indefatigable zeal; and throughout

the cabinets of the bird and quadruped departments of our national

museum, Mr. Hodgson’s name stands pre-eminent. A seat in the Institute

of France, and the cross of the Legion of Honour, prove the estimation

in which his Boodhist studies are held on the continent of Europe. To

be welcomed to the Himalaya by such a person, and to be allowed the

most unreserved intercourse, and the advantage of all his information

and library, exercised a material influence on the progress I made in

my studies, and on my travels. When I add that many of the subjects

treated of in these volumes were discussed between us, it will be

evident that it is impossible for me to divest much of the information

thus insensibly obtained, of the appearance of being the fruits of my

own research.

[3] In this department he availed himself of the services of Dr.

Campbell, who was also attached to the Residency at Nepal, as surgeon

and assistant political agent.

Dr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Dorjiling, is likewise the

Governor-General’s agent, or medium of communication between the

British Government and the Sikkim Rajah; and as such, invested with

many discretionary powers. In the course of this narrative, I shall

give a sketch of the rise, progress, and prospects of the Sanatarium,

or Health-station of Dorjiling, and of the anomalous position held by

the Sikkim Rajah. The latter circumstance led indirectly to the

detention of Dr. Campbell (who joined me in one of my journeys) and

myself, by a faction of the Sikkim court, for the purpose of obtaining

from the Indian Government a more favourable treaty than that then

existing. This mode of enforcing a request by _douce violence_ and

detention, is common with the turbulent tribes east of Nepal, but was

in this instance aggravated by violence towards my fellow-prisoner,

through the ill will of the persons who executed the orders of their

superiors, and who had been punished by Dr. Campbell for crimes

committed against both the British and Nepalese governments. The

circumstances of this outrage were misunderstood at the time; its

instigators were supposed to be Chinese; its perpetrators Tibetans; and

we the offenders were assumed to have thrust ourselves into the

country, without authority from our own government, and contrary to the

will of the Sikkim Rajah; who was imagined to be a tributary of China,

and protected by that nation, and to be under no obligation to the East

Indian government.

With regard to the obligations I owe to Dr. Campbell, I confine myself

to saying that his whole aim was to promote my comfort, and to secure

my success, in all possible ways. Every object I had in view was as

sedulously cared for by him as by myself: I am indebted to his

influence with Jung Bahadoor[4] for the permission to traverse his

dominions, and to visit the Tibetan passes of Nepal. His prudence and

patience in negotiating with the Sikkim court, enabled me to pursue my

investigations in that country. My journal is largely indebted to his

varied and extensive knowledge of the people and productions of these

regions.

[4] It was in Nepal that Dr. Campbell gained the friendship of Jung

Bahadoor, the most remarkable proof of which is the acceding to his

request, and granting me leave to visit the eastern parts of his

dominions; no European that I am aware of, having been allowed, either

before or since, to travel anywhere except to and from the plains of

India and valley of Katmandu, in which the capital city and British

residency are situated.

In all numerical calculations connected with my observations, I

received most essential aid from John Muller, Esq., Accountant of the

Calcutta Mint, and from his brother, Charles Muller, Esq., of Patna,

both ardent amateurs in scientific pursuits, and who employed

themselves in making meteorological observations at Dorjiling, where

they were recruiting constitutions impaired by the performance of

arduous duties in the climate of the plains. I cannot sufficiently

thank these gentlemen for the handsome manner in which they volunteered

me their assistance in these laborious operations. Mr. J. Muller

resided at Dorjiling during eighteen months of my stay in Sikkim, over

the whole of which period his generous zeal in my service never

relaxed; he assisted me in the reduction of many hundreds of my

observations for latitude, time, and elevation, besides adjusting and

rating my instruments; and I can recall no more pleasant days than

those thus spent with these hospitable friends.

Thanks to Dr. Falconer’s indefatigable exertions, such of my

collections as reached Calcutta were forwarded to England in excellent

order; and they were temporarily deposited in Kew Gardens until their

destination should be determined. On my return home, my scientific

friends interested themselves in procuring from the Government such aid

as might enable me to devote the necessary time to the arrangement,

naming, and distributing of my collections, the publication of my

manuscripts, etc. I am in this most deeply indebted to the

disinterested and generous exertions of Mr. L. Horner, Sir Charles

Lyell, Dr. Lindley, Professor E. Forbes, and many others; and most

especially to the Presidents of the Royal Society (the Earl of Rosse),

of the Linnean (Mr. R. Brown), and Geological (Mr. Hopkins), who in

their official capacities memorialized in person the Chief Commissioner

of Woods and Forests on this subject; Sir William Hooker at the same

time bringing it under the notice of the First Lord of the Treasury.

The result was a grant of £400 annually for three years.

Dr. T. Thomson joined me in Dorjiling in the end of 1849, after the

completion of his arduous journeys in the North-West Himalaya and

Tibet, and we spent the year 1850 in travelling and collecting,

returning to England together in 1851. Having obtained permission from

the Indian Government to distribute his botanical collections, which

equal my own in extent and value, we were advised by all our botanical

friends to incorporate, and thus to distribute them. The whole

constitute an Herbarium of from 6000 to 7000 species of Indian plants,

including an immense number of duplicates; and it is now in process of

being arranged and named, by Dr. Thomson and myself, preparatory to its

distribution amongst sixty of the principal public and private herbaria

in Europe, India, and the United States of America.

For the information of future travellers, I may state that the total

expense of my Indian journey, including outfit, three years and a half

travelling, and the sending of my collections to Calcutta, was under

£2000 (of which £1200 were defrayed by government), but would have come

to much more, had I not enjoyed the great advantages I have detailed.

This sum does not include the purchase of books and instruments, with

which I supplied myself, and which cost about £200, nor the freight of

the collections to England, which was paid by Government. Owing to the

kind services of Mr. J. C. Melvill, Secretary of the India House, many

small parcels of seeds, etc., were conveyed to England, free of cost;

and I have to record my great obligations and sincere thanks to the

Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, for conveying,

without charge, all small parcels of books, instruments and specimens,

addressed to or by myself.

It remains to say something of the illustrations of this work. The maps

are from surveys of my own, made chiefly with my own instruments, but

partly with some valuable ones for the use of which I am indebted to my

friend Captain H. Thuillier, Deputy Surveyor-General of India, who

placed at my disposal the resources of the magnificent establishment

under his control, and to whose innumerable good offices I am very

greatly beholden.

The landscapes, etc. have been prepared chiefly from my own drawings,

and will, I hope, be found to be tolerably faithful representations of

the scenes. I have always endeavoured to overcome that tendency to

exaggerate heights, and increase the angle of slopes, which is I

believe the besetting sin, not of amateurs only, but of our most

accomplished artists. As, however, I did not use instruments in

projecting the outlines, I do not pretend to have wholly avoided this

snare; nor, I regret to say; has the lithographer, in all cases, been

content to abide by his copy. My drawings will be considered tame

compared with most mountain landscapes, though the subjects comprise

some of the grandest scenes in nature. Considering how conventional the

treatment of such subjects is, and how unanimous artists seem to be as

to the propriety of exaggerating those features which should

predominate in the landscape, it may fairly be doubted whether the

total effect of steepness and elevation, especially in a mountain view,

can, on a small scale, be conveyed by a strict adherence to truth. I

need hardly add, that if such is attainable, it is only by those who

have a power of colouring that few pretend to. In the list of plates

and woodcuts I have mentioned the obligations I am under to several

friends for the use of drawings, etc.

With regard to the spelling of native names, after much anxious

discussion I have adopted that which assimilates most to the English

pronunciation. For great assistance in this, for a careful revision of

the sheets as they passed through the press, and for numerous valuable

suggestions throughout, I am indebted to my fellow-traveller, Dr.

Thomas Thomson.

[Illustration: View of Kinchinjunga from Singtam, looking

north-westward]

Chapter I

Sunderbunds vegetation—Calcutta Botanic Garden—Leave for

Burdwan—Rajah’s gardens and menagerie—Coal-beds, geology, and plants

of—Lac insect and plant—Camels—Kunker—Cowage—Effloresced soda on

soil—Glass, manufacture of—Atmospheric vapours—Temperature, etc.—Mahowa

oil and spirits—Maddaobund—Jains—Ascent of Paras-nath—Vegetation of

that mountain.

I left England on the 11th of November, 1847, and performed the voyage

to India under circumstances which have been detailed in the

Introduction. On the 12th of January, 1848, the “Moozuffer” was

steaming amongst the low swampy islands of the Sunderbunds. These

exhibit no tropical luxuriance, and are, in this respect, exceedingly

disappointing. A low vegetation covers them, chiefly made up of a

dwarf-palm (_Phœnix paludosa_) and small mangroves, with a few

scattered trees on the higher bank that runs along the water’s edge,

consisting of fan-palm, toddy-palm, and _Terminalia._ Every now and

then, the paddles of the steamer tossed up the large fruits of _Nipa

fruticans,_ a low stemless palm that grows in the tidal waters of the

Indian ocean, and bears a large head of nuts. It is a plant of no

interest to the common observer, but of much to the geologist, from the

nuts of a similar plant abounding in the tertiary formations at the

mouth of the Thames, and having floated about there in as great

profusion as here, till buried deep in the silt and mud that now forms

the island of Sheppey.[5]

[5] Bowerbank “On the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the Isle of Sheppey,”

and Lyell’s “Elements of Geology,” 3rd ed. p. 201.

Higher up, the river Hoogly is entered, and large trees, with villages

and cultivation, replace the sandy spits and marshy jungles of the

great Gangetic delta. A few miles below Calcutta, the scenery becomes

beautiful, beginning with the Botanic Garden, once the residence of

Roxburgh and Wallich, and now of Falconer,—classical ground to the

naturalist. Opposite are the gardens of Sir Lawrence Peel; unrivalled

in India for their beauty and cultivation, and fairly entitled to be

called the Chatsworth of Bengal. A little higher up, Calcutta opened

out, with the batteries of Fort William in the foreground, thundering

forth a salute, and in a few minutes more all other thoughts were

absorbed in watching the splendour of the arrangements made for the

reception of the Governor-General of India.

During my short stay in Calcutta, I was principally occupied in

preparing for an excursion with Mr. Williams of the Geological Survey,

who was about to move his camp from the Damooda valley coal-fields,

near Burdwan, to Beejaghur on the banks of the Soane, where coal was

reported to exist, in the immediate vicinity of water-carriage, the

great desideratum of the Burdwan fields.

My time was spent partly at Government-House, and partly at Sir

Lawrence Peel’s residence. The former I was kindly invited to consider

as my Indian home, an honour which I appreciate the more highly, as the

invitation was accompanied with the assurance that I should have entire

freedom to follow my own pursuits; and the advantages which such a

position afforded me, were, I need not say, of no ordinary kind.

At the Botanic Gardens I received every assistance from Dr.

McLelland,[6] who was very busy, superintending the publication of the

botanical papers and drawings of his friend, the late Dr. Griffith, for

which native artists were preparing copies on lithographic paper.

[6] Dr. Falconer’s _locum tenens,_ then in temporary charge of the

establishment.

Of the Gardens themselves it is exceedingly difficult to speak; the

changes had been so very great, and from a state with which I had no

acquaintance. There had been a great want of judgment in the

alterations made since Dr. Wallich’s time, when they were celebrated as

the most beautiful gardens in the east, and were the great object of

attraction to strangers and townspeople. I found instead an unsightly

wilderness, without shade (the first requirement of every tropical

garden) or other beauties than some isolated grand trees, which had

survived the indiscriminate destruction of the useful and ornamental

which had attended the well-meant but ill-judged attempt to render a

garden a botanical class-book. It is impossible to praise too highly

Dr. Griffith’s abilities and acquirements as a botanist, his

perseverance and success as a traveller, or his matchless industry in

the field and in the closet; and it is not wonderful, that, with so

many and varied talents, he should have wanted the eye of a

landscape-gardener, or the education of a horticulturist. I should,

however, be wanting in my duty to his predecessor, and to his no less

illustrious successor, were these remarks withheld, proceeding, as they

do, from an unbiassed observer, who had the honour of standing in an

equally friendly relation to all parties. Before leaving India, I saw

great improvements, but many years must elapse before the gardens can

resume their once proud pre-eminence.

I was surprised to find the Botanical Gardens looked upon by many of

the Indian public, and even by some of the better informed official

men, as rather an extravagant establishment, more ornamental than

useful. These persons seemed astonished to learn that its name was

renowned throughout Europe, and that during the first twenty years

especially of Dr. Wallich’s superintendence, it had contributed more

useful and ornamental tropical plants to the public and private gardens

of the world than any other establishment before or since.[7] I speak

from a personal knowledge of the contents of our English gardens, and

our colonial ones at the Cape, and in Australia, and from an inspection

of the ponderous volumes of distribution lists, to which Dr. Falconer

is daily adding. The botanical public of Europe and India is no less

indebted than the horticultural to the liberality of the Hon. East

India Company, and to the energy of the several eminent men who have

carried their views into execution.[8] The Indian government, itself,

has already profited largely by these gardens, directly and indirectly,

and might have done so still more, had its efforts been better seconded

either by the European or native population of the country. Amongst its

greatest triumphs may be considered the introduction of the tea-plant

from China, a fact I allude to, as many of my English readers may not

be aware that the establishment of the tea-trade in the Himalaya and

Assam is almost entirely the work of the superintendents of the gardens

of Calcutta and Seharunpore.

[7] As an illustration of this, I may refer to a Report presented to

the government of Bengal, from which it appears that between January,

1836, and December, 1840, 189,932 plants were distributed gratis to

nearly 2000 different gardens.

[8] I here allude to the great Indian herbarium, chiefly formed by the

staff of the Botanic Gardens under the direction of Dr. Wallich, and

distributed in 1829 to the principal museums of Europe. This is the

most valuable contribution of the kind ever made to science, and it is

a lasting memorial: of the princely liberality of the enlightened men

who ruled the counsels of India in those days. No botanical work of

importance has been published since 1829, without recording its sense

of the obligation, and I was once commissioned by a foreign

government, to purchase for its national museum, at whatever cost, one

set of these collections, which was brought to the hammer on the death

of its possessor. I have heard it remarked that the expense attending

the distribution was enormous, and I have reason to know that this

erroneous impression has had an unfavourable influence upon the

destination of scarcely less valuable collections, which have for

years been lying untouched in the cellars of the India House. I may

add that officers who have exposed their lives and impaired their

health in forming similar ones at the orders and expense of the Indian

government, are at home, and thrown upon their own resources, or the

assistance of their scientific brethren, for the means of publishing

and distributing the fruits of their labours.

From no one did I receive more kindness than from Sir James Colvile,

President of the Asiatic Society, who not only took care that I should

be provided with every comfort, but presented me with a completely

equipped palkee, which, for strength and excellence of construction,

was everything that a traveller could desire. Often _en route_ did I

mentally thank him when I saw other palkees breaking down, and

travellers bewailing the loss of those forgotten necessaries, with

which his kind attention had furnished me.

I left Calcutta to join Mr. Williams’ camp on the 28th of January,

driving to Hoogly on the river of that name, and thence following the

grand trunk-road westward towards Burdwan. The novelty of

palkee-travelling at first renders it pleasant; the neatness with which

every thing is packed, the good-humour of the bearers, their merry

pace, and the many more comforts enjoyed than could be expected in a

conveyance _horsed by men_, the warmth when the sliding doors are shut,

and the breeze when they are open, are all fully appreciated on first

starting, but soon the novelty wears off, and the discomforts are so

numerous, that it is pronounced, at best, a barbarous conveyance. The

greedy cry and gestures of the bearers, when, on changing, they break a

fitful sleep by poking a torch in your face, and vociferating

“Bucksheesh, Sahib;” their discontent at the most liberal largesse, and

the sluggishness of the next set who want bribes, put the traveller out

of patience with the natives. The dust when the slides are open, and

the stifling heat when shut during a shower, are conclusive against the

vehicle, and on getting out with aching bones and giddy head at the

journey’s end, I shook the dust from my person, and wished never to see

a palkee again.

On the following morning I was passing through the straggling villages

close to Burdwan, consisting of native hovels by the road side, with

mangos and figs planted near them, and palms waving over their roofs.

Crossing the nearly dry bed of the Damooda, I was set down at Mr.

M‘Intosh’s (the magistrate of the district), and never more thoroughly

enjoyed a hearty welcome and a breakfast.

In the evening we visited the Rajah of Burdwan’s palace and

pleasure-grounds, where I had the first glimpse of oriental gardening:

the roads were generally raised, running through rice fields, now dry

and hard, and bordered with trees of Jack, Bamboo, _Melia, Casuarina,_

etc. Tanks were the prominent features: chains of them, full of Indian

water-lilies, being fringed with rows of the fan-palm, and occasionally

the Indian date. Close to the house was a rather good menagerie, where

I saw, amongst other animals, a pair of kangaroos in high health and

condition, the female with young in her pouch. Before dark I was again

in my palkee, and hurrying onwards. The night was cool and clear, very

different from the damp and foggy atmosphere I had left at Calcutta. On

the following morning I was travelling over a flat and apparently

rising country, along an excellent road, with groves of bamboos and

stunted trees on either hand, few villages or palms, a sterile soil,

with stunted grass and but little cultivation; altogether a country as

unlike what I had expected to find in India as well might be. All

around was a dead flat or table-land, out of which a few conical hills

rose in the west, about 1000 feet high, covered with a low forest of

dusky green or yellow, from the prevalence of bamboo. The lark was

singing merrily at sunrise, and the accessories of a fresh air and dewy

grass more reminded me of some moorland in the north of England than of

the torrid regions of the east.

At 10 p.m. I arrived at Mr. Williams’ camp, at Taldangah, a dawk

station near the western limit of the coal basin of the Damooda valley.

His operations being finished, he was prepared to start, having kindly

waited a couple of days for my arrival.

Early on the morning of the last day of January, a motley group of

natives were busy striking the tents, and loading the bullocks,

bullock-carts and elephants: these proceeded on the march, occupying in

straggling groups nearly three miles of road, whilst we remained to

breakfast with Mr. F. Watkins, Superintendent of the East India Coal

and Coke Company, who were working the seams.

The coal crops out at the surface; but the shafts worked are sunk

through thick beds of alluvium. The age of these coal-fields is quite

unknown, and I regret to say that my examination of their fossil plants

throws no material light on the subject. Upwards of thirty species of

fossil plants have been procured from them, and of these the majority

are referred by Dr. McLelland[9] to the inferior oolite epoch of

England, from the prevalence of species of _Zamia, Glossopteris,_ and

_Taeniopteris._ Some of these genera, together with _Vertebraria_ (a

very remarkable Indian fossil), are also recognised in the coal-fields

of Sind and of Australia. I cannot, however, think that botanical

evidence of such a nature is sufficient to warrant a satisfactory

reference of these Indian coal-fields to the same epoch as those of

England or of Australia; in the first place the outlines of the fronds

of ferns and their nervation are frail characters if employed alone for

the determination of existing genera, and much more so of fossil

fragments: in the second place recent ferns are so widely distributed,

that an inspection of the majority affords little clue to the region or

locality they come from: and in the third place, considering the wide

difference in latitude and longitude of Yorkshire, India, and

Australia, the natural conclusion is that they could not have supported

a similar vegetation at the same epoch. In fact, finding similar fossil

plants at places widely different in latitude, and hence in climate,

is, in the present state of our knowledge, rather an argument against

than for their having existed cotemporaneously. The _Cycadeæ,_

especially, whose fossil remains afford so much ground for geological

speculations, are far from yielding such precise data as is supposed.

Species of the order are found in Mexico, South Africa, Australia, and

India, some inhabiting the hottest and dampest, and others the driest

climates on the surface of the globe; and it appears to me rash to

argue much from the presence of the order in the coal of Yorkshire and

India, when we reflect that the geologist of some future epoch may find

as good reasons for referring the present Cape, Australian, or Mexican

Flora to the same period as that of the Lias and Oolites, when the

_Cycadeæ_ now living in the former countries shall be fossilised.

[9] Reports of the Geological Survey of India. Calcutta, 1850.

Specific identity of their contained fossils may be considered as fair

evidence of the cotemporaneous origin of beds, but amongst the many

collections of fossil plants that I have examined, there is hardly a

specimen, belonging to any epoch, sufficiently perfect to warrant the

assumption that the species to which it belonged can be again

recognised. The botanical evidences which geologists too often accept

as proofs of specific identity are such as no botanist would attach any

importance to in the investigation of existing plants. The faintest

traces assumed to be of vegetable origin are habitually made into

genera and species by naturalists ignorant of the structure, affinities

and distribution of living plants, and of such materials the bulk of

so-called systems of fossil plants is composed.

A number of women were here employed in making gunpowder, grinding the

usual materials on a stone, with the addition of water from the Hookah;

a custom for which they have an obstinate prejudice. The charcoal here

used is made from an _Acacia_: the Seiks, I believe, employ _Justicia

Adhatoda,_ which is also in use all over India: at Aden the Arabs

prefer the _Calotropis_, probably because it is most easily procured.

The grain of all these plants is open, whereas in England,

closer-grained and more woody trees, especially willows, are preferred.

The jungle I found to consist chiefly of thorny bushes, Jujube of two

species, an _Acacia_ and _Butea frondosa,_ the twigs of the latter

often covered with lurid red tears of Lac, which is here collected in

abundance. As it occurs on the plants and is collected by the natives

it is called Stick-lac, but after preparation Shell-lac. In Mirzapore,

a species of _Celtis_ yields it, and the Peepul very commonly in

various parts of India. The elaboration of this dye, whether by the

same species of insect, or by many from plants so widely different in

habit and characters, is a very curious fact; since none have red

juice, but some have milky and others limpid.

After breakfast, Mr. Williams and I started on an elephant, following

the camp to Gyra, twelve miles distant. The docility of these animals

is an old story, but it loses so much in the telling, that their

gentleness, obedience, and sagacity seemed as strange to me as if I had

never heard or read of these attributes. The swinging motion, under a

hot sun, is very oppressive, but compensated for by being so high above

the dust. The Mahout, or driver, guides by poking his great toes under

either ear, enforcing obedience with an iron goad, with which he

hammers the animal’s head with quite as much force as would break a

cocoa-nut, or drives it through his thick skin down to the quick. A

most disagreeable sight it is, to see the blood and yellow fat oozing

out in the broiling sun from these great punctures! Our elephant was an

excellent one, when he did not take obstinate fits, and so docile as to

pick up pieces of stone when desired, and with a jerk of the trunk

throw them over his head for the rider to catch, thus saving the

trouble of dismounting to geologise!

Of sights on the road, unfrequented though this noble line is, there

were plenty for a stranger; chiefly pilgrims to Juggernath, most on

foot, and a few in carts or pony gigs of rude construction. The

vehicles from the upper country are distinguished by a far superior

build, their horses are caparisoned with jingling bells, and the wheels

and other parts are bound with brass. The kindness of the people

towards animals, and in some cases towards their suffering relations,

is very remarkable, and may in part have given origin to the prevalent

idea that they are less cruel and stern than the majority of mankind;

but that the “mild” Hindoo, however gentle on occasion, is cruel and

vindictive to his brother man and to animals, when his indolent temper

is roused or his avarice stimulated, no one can doubt who reads the

accounts of Thuggee, Dacoitee, and poisoning, and witnesses the cruelty

with which beasts of burthen are treated. A child carrying a bird, kid,

or lamb, is not an uncommon sight, and a woman with a dog in her arms

is still more frequently seen. Occasionally too, a group will bear an

old man to see Juggernath before he dies, or a poor creature with

elephantiasis, who hopes to be allowed to hurry himself to his

paradise, in preference to lingering in helpless inactivity, and at

last crawling up to the second heaven only. The costumes are as various

as the religious castes, and the many countries to which the travellers

belong. Next in wealth to the merchants, the most thriving-looking

wanderer is the bearer of Ganges’ holy water, who drives a profitable

trade, his gains increasing as his load lightens, for the further he

wanders from the sacred stream, the more he gets for the contents of

his jar.

Of merchandise we passed very little, the Ganges being still the high

road between north-west India and Bengal. Occasionally a string of

camels was seen, but, owing to the damp climate, these are rare, and

unknown east of the meridian of Calcutta. A little cotton, clumsily

packed in ragged bags, dirty, and deteriorating every day, even at this

dry season, proves in how bad a state it must arrive at the market

during the rains, when the low wagons are dragged through the streams.

The roads here are all mended with a curious stone, called Kunker,

which is a nodular concretionary deposit of limestone, abundantly

imbedded in the alluvial soil of a great part of India.[10] It

resembles a coarse gravel, each pebble being often as large as a

walnut, and tuberculated on the surface: it binds admirably, and forms

excellent roads, but pulverises into a most disagreeable impalpable

dust.

[10] Often occurring in strata, like flints.

A few miles beyond Taldangah we passed from the sandstone, in which the

coal lies, to a very barren country of gneiss and granite rocks, upon

which the former rests; the country still rising, more hills appear,

and towering far above all is Paras-nath, the culminant point, and a

mountain whose botany I was most anxious to explore.

The vegetation of this part of the country is very poor, no good-sized

trees are to be seen, all is a low stunted jungle. The grasses were

few, and dried up, except in the beds of the rivulets. On the low

jungly hills the same plants appear, with a few figs, bamboo in great

abundance, several handsome _Acanthaceæ_; a few _Asclepiadeæ_ climbing

up the bushes; and the Cowage plant, now with over-ripe pods, by

shaking which, in passing, there often falls such a shower of its

irritating microscopic hairs, as to make the skin tingle for an hour.

On the 1st of February, we moved on to Gyra, another insignificant

village. The air was cool, and the atmosphere clear. The temperature,

at three in the morning, was 65°, with no dew, the grass only 61°. As

the sun rose, Parasnath appeared against the clear grey sky, in the

form of a beautiful broad cone, with a rugged peak, of a deeper grey

than the sky. It is a remarkably handsome mountain, sufficiently lofty

to be imposing, rising out of an elevated country, the slope of which,

upward to the base of the mountain, though imperceptible, is really

considerable; and it is surrounded by lesser hills of just sufficient

elevation to set it off. The atmosphere, too, of these regions is

peculiarly favourable for views: it is very dry at this season; but

still the hills are clearly defined, without the harsh outlines so

characteristic of a moist air. The skies are bright, the sun powerful;

and there is an almost imperceptible haze that seems to soften the

landscape, and keep every object in true perspective.

Our route led towards the picturesque hills and valleys in front. The

rocks were all hornblende and micaceous schist, cut through by

trap-dykes, while great crumbling masses (or bosses) of quartz

protruded through the soil. The stratified rocks were often exposed,

pitched up at various inclinations: they were frequently white with

effloresced salts, which entering largely into the composition tended

to hasten their decomposition, and being obnoxious to vegetation,

rendered the sterile soil more hungry still. There was little

cultivation, and that little of the most wretched kind; even

rice-fields were few and scattered; there was no corn, or gram (_Ervum

Lens_), no Castor-oil, no Poppy, Cotton, Safflower, or other crops of

the richer soils that flank the Ganges and Hoogly; a very little

Sugar-cane, Dhal (_Cajana_), Mustard, Linseed, and Rape, the latter

three cultivated for their oil. Hardly a Palm was to be seen; and it

was seldom that the cottages could boast of a Banana, Tamarind, Orange,

Cocoa-nut or Date. The Mahowa (_Bassia latifolia_) and Mango were the

commonest trees. There being no Kunker in the soil here, the roads were

mended with angular quartz, much to the elephants’ annoyance.

We dismounted where some very micaceous stratified rock cropped out,

powdered with a saline efflorescence.[11] Jujubes (_Zizyphus_)

prevailed, with the _Carissa carandas_ (in fruit), a shrub belonging to

the usually poisonous family of Dog-banes (_Apocyneæ_); its berries

make good tarts, and the plant itself forms tolerable hedges.

[11] An impure carbonate of soda. This earth is thrown into clay

vessels with water, which after dissolving the soda, is allowed to

evaporate, when the remainder is collected, and found to contain so

much silica, as to be capable of being fused into glass. Dr. Boyle

mentions this curious fact (Essay on the Arts and Manufactures of

India, read before the Society of Arts, February 18, 1852), in

illustration of the probably early epoch at which the natives of

British India were acquainted with the art of making glass. More

complicated processes are employed, and have been from a very early

period, in other parts of the continent.

The country around Fitcoree is rather pretty, the hills covered with

bamboo and brushwood, and as usual, rising rather suddenly from the

elevated plains. The jungle affords shelter to a few bears and tigers,

jackals in abundance, and occasionally foxes; the birds seen are

chiefly pigeons. Insects are very scarce; those of the locust tribe

being most prevalent, indicative of a dry climate.

The temperature at 3 a.m. was 65°; at 3 p.m. 82° and at 10 p.m., 68°,

from which there was no great variation during the whole time we spent

at these elevations. The clouds were rare, and always light and high,

except a little fleecy spot of vapour condensed close to the summit of

Paras-nath. Though the nights were clear and starlight, no dew was

deposited, owing to the great dryness of the air. On one occasion, this

drought was so great during the passage of a hot wind, that at night I

observed the wet-bulb thermometer to stand 20·5 degrees below the

temperature of the air, which was 66° this indicated a dew-point of

11·5°, or 54·5° below the air, and a saturation-point of 0·146; there

being only 0·102 grains of vapour per cubic foot of air, which latter

was loaded with dust. The little moisture suspended in the atmosphere

is often seen to be condensed in a thin belt of vapour, at a

considerable distance above the dry surface of the earth, thus

intercepting the radiation of heat from the latter to the clear sky

above. Such strata may be observed, crossing the hills in ribbonlike

masses, though not so clearly on this elevated region as on the plains

bounding the lower course of the Soane, where the vapour is more dense,

the hills more scattered, and the whole atmosphere more humid. During

the ten days I spent amongst the hills I saw but one cloudy sunrise,

whereas below, whether at Calcutta, or on the banks of the Soane, the

sun always rose behind a dense fog-bank.

At 9.30 a.m. the black-bulb thermometer rose in the sun to 130°. The

morning observation before 10 or 11 a.m. always gives a higher result

than at noon, though the sun’s declination is so considerably less, and

in the hottest part of the day it is lower still (3.30 p.m. 109°), an

effect no doubt due to the vapours raised by the sun, and which equally

interfere with the photometer observations. The N.W. winds invariably

rise at about 9 a.m. and blow with increasing strength till sunset;

they are due to the rarefaction of the air over the heated ground, and

being loaded with dust, the temperature of the atmosphere is hence

raised by the heated particles. The increased temperature of the

afternoon is therefore not so much due to the accumulation of caloric

from the sun’s rays, as to the passage of a heated current of air

derived from the much hotter regions to the westward. It would be

interesting to know how far this N.W. diurnal tide extends; also the

rate at which it gathers moisture in its progress over the damp regions

of the Sunderbunds. Its excessive dryness in N.W. India approaches that

of the African and Australian deserts; and I shall give an abstract of

my own observations, both in the valleys of the Soane and Ganges, and

on the elevated plateaus of Behar and of Mirzapore.[12]

[12] See Appendix A.

On the 2nd of February we proceeded to Tofe-Choney, the hills

increasing in height to nearly 1000 feet, and the country becoming more

picturesque. We passed some tanks covered with _Villarsia_, and

frequented by flocks of white egrets. The existence of artificial tanks

so near a lofty mountain, from whose sides innumerable water-courses

descend, indicates the great natural dryness of the country during one

season of the year. The hills and valleys were richer than I expected,

though far from luxuriant. A fine _Nauclea_ is a common shady tree, and

_Bignonia indica_, now leafless, but with immense pods hanging from the

branches. _Acanthaceæ_ is the prevalent natural order, consisting of

gay-flowered _Eranthemums, Ruellias, Barlerias,_ and such hothouse

favourites.[13]

[13] Other plants gathered here, and very typical of the Flora of this

dry region, were _Linum trigynum, Feronia elephantum, Ægle marmelos,

Helicteres Asoca, Abrus precatorius, Flemingia_; various _Desmodia,

Rhynchosiæ, Glycine,_ and _Grislea tomentosa_ very abundant,

_Conocarpus latifoliusa, Loranthus longiflorus,_ and another species;

_Phyllanthus Emblica,_ various _Convolvuli, Cuscuta,_ and several

herbaceous _Compositæ._

This being the most convenient station whence to ascend Paras-nath, we

started at 6 a.m. for the village of Maddaobund, at the north base of

the mountain, or opposite side from that on which the grand trunk-road

runs. After following the latter for a few miles to the west, we took a

path through beautifully wooded plains, with scattered trees of the

Mahowa (_Bassia latifolia_), resembling good oaks: the natives distil a

kind of arrack from its fleshy flowers, which are also eaten raw. The

seeds, too, yield a concrete oil, by expression, which is used for

lamps and occasionally for frying.

Some villages at the west base of the mountain occupy a better soil,

and are surrounded with richer cultivation; palms, mangos, and the

tamarind, the first and last rare features in this part of Bengal,

appeared to be common, with fields of rice and broad acres of flax and

rape, through the latter of which the blue _Orobanche indica_ swarmed.

The short route to Maddaobund, through narrow rocky valleys, was

impracticable for the elephants, and we had to make a very considerable

detour, only reaching that village at 2 p.m. All the hill people we

observed were a fine-looking athletic race; they disclaimed the tiger

being a neighbour, which every palkee-bearer along the road declares to

carry off the torch-bearers, torch and all. Bears they said were

scarce, and all other wild animals, but a natural jealousy of Europeans

often leads the natives to deny the existence of what they know to be

an attraction to the proverbially sporting Englishman.

[Illustration: Old tamarind trees]

The site of Maddaobund, elevated 1,230 feet, in a clearance of the

forest, and the appearance of the snow-white domes and bannerets of its

temples through the fine trees by which it is surrounded, are very

beautiful. Though several hundred feet above any point we had hitherto

reached, the situation is so sheltered that the tamarind, peepul, and

banyan trees are superb. A fine specimen of the latter stands at the

entrance to the village, not a broadheaded tree, as is usual in the

prime of its existence, but a mass of trunks irregularly throwing out

immense branches in a most picturesque manner; the original trunk is

apparently gone, and the principal mass of root stems is fenced in.

This, with two magnificent tamarinds, forms a grand clump. The ascent

of the mountain is immediately from the village up a pathway worn by

the feet of many a pilgrim from the most remote parts of India.

Paras-nath is a mountain of peculiar sanctity, to which circumstance is

to be attributed the flourishing state of Maddaobund. The name is that

of the twenty-third incarnation of Jinna (Sanscrit “Conqueror”), who

was born at Benares, lived one hundred years, and was buried on this

mountain, which is the eastern metropolis of Jain worship, as Mount

Aboo is the western (where are their libraries and most splendid

temples). The origin of the Jain sect is obscure, though its rise

appears to correspond with the wreck of Boodhism throughout India in

the eleventh century. The Jains form in some sort a transition-sect

between Boodhists and Hindoos, differing from the former in

acknowledging castes, and from both in their worship of Paras-nath’s

foot, instead of that of Munja-gosha of the Boodhs, or Vishnoo’s of the

Hindoos. As a sect of Boodhists their religion is considered pure, and

free from the obscenities so conspicuous in Hindoo worship; whilst, in

fact, perhaps the reverse is the case; but the symbols are fewer, and

indeed almost confined to the feet of Paras-nath, and the priests

jealously conceal their esoteric doctrines.

The temples, though small, are well built, and carefully kept. No

persuasion could induce the Brahmins to allow us to proceed beyond the

vestibule without taking off our shoes, to which we were not inclined

to consent. The bazaar was for so small a village large, and crowded to

excess with natives of all castes, colours, and provinces of India,

very many from the extreme W. and N.W., Rajpootana, the Madras

Presidency, and Central India. Numbers had come in good cars, well

attended, and appeared men of wealth and consequence; while the

quantities of conveyances of all sorts standing about, rather reminded

me of an election, than of anything I had seen in India.

The natives of the place were a more Negro-looking race than the

Bengalees to whom I had previously been accustomed; and the curiosity

and astonishment they displayed at seeing (probably many of them for

the first time) a party of Englishmen, were sufficiently amusing. Our

coolies with provisions not having come up, and it being two o’clock in

the afternoon, I having had no breakfast, and being ignorant of the

exclusively Jain population of the village, sent my servant to the

bazaar, for some fowls and eggs; but he was mobbed for asking for these

articles, and parched rice, beaten flat, with some coarse sugar, was

all I could obtain; together with sweetmeats so odiously flavoured with

various herbs, and sullied with such impurities, that we quickly made

them over to the elephants.

Not being able to ascend the mountain and return in one day, Mr.

Williams and his party went back to the road, leaving Mr. Haddon and

myself, who took up our quarters under a tamarind-tree.

In the evening a very gaudy poojah was performed. The car, filled with

idols, was covered with gilding and silk, and drawn by noble bulls,

festooned and garlanded. A procession was formed in front; and it

opened into an avenue, up and down which gaily dressed dancing-boys

paced or danced, shaking castanets, the attendant worshippers singing

in discordant voices, beating tom-toms, cymbals, etc. Images (of Boodh

apparently) abounded on the car, in front of which a child was placed.

The throng of natives was very great and perfectly orderly, indeed,

sufficiently apathetic: they were remarkably civil in explaining what

they understood of their own worship. At 2 p.m., the thermometer was

only 65°, though the day was fine, a strong haze obstructing the sun’s

rays; at 6 p.m., 58°; at 9 p.m., 56°, and the grass cooled to 49°.

Still there was no dew, though the night was starlight.

Having provided doolies, or little bamboo chairs slung on four men’s

shoulders, in which I put my papers and boxes, we next morning

commenced the ascent; at first through woods of the common trees, with

large clumps of bamboo, over slaty rocks of gneiss, much inclined and

sloping away from the mountain. The view from a ridge 500 feet high was

superb, of the village, and its white domes half buried in the forest

below, the latter of which continued in sight for many miles to the

northward. Descending to a valley some ferns were met with, and a more

luxuriant vegetation, especially of _Urticeæ._ Wild bananas formed a

beautiful, and to me novel feature in the woods.

The conical hills of the white ants were very abundant. The structure

appears to me not an independent one, but the debris of clumps of

bamboos, or of the trunks of large trees, which these insects have

destroyed. As they work up a tree from the ground, they coat the bark

with particles of sand glued together, carrying up this artificial

sheath or covered way as they ascend. A clump of bamboos is thus

speedily killed; when the dead stems fall away, leaving the mass of

stumps coated with sand, which the action of the weather soon fashions

into a cone of earthy matter.

Ascending again, the path strikes up the hill, through a thick forest

of Sal (_Vateria robusta_) and other trees, spanned with cables of

scandent _Bauhinia_ stems. At about 3000 feet above the sea, the

vegetation becomes more luxuriant, and by a little stream I collected

five species of ferns and some mosses,—all in a dry state, however.

Still higher, _Clematis, Thalictrum,_ and an increased number of

grasses are seen; with bushes of _Verbenaceæ_ and _Compositæ._ The

white ant apparently does not enter this cooler region. At 3,500 feet

the vegetation again changes, the trees all become gnarled and

scattered; and as the dampness also increases, more mosses and ferns

appear. We emerged from the forest at the foot of the great ridge of

rocky peaks, stretching E. and W. three or four miles. Abundance of a

species of berberry and an _Osbeckia_ marked the change in the

vegetation most decidedly, and were frequent over the whole summit,

with coarse grasses, and various bushes.

At noon we reached the saddle of the crest (alt. 4,230 feet), where was

a small temple, one of five or six which occupy various prominences of

the ridge. The wind, N.W., was cold, the temp. 56°. The view was

beautiful, but the atmosphere too hazy: to the north were ranges of low

wooded hills, and the course of the Barakah and Adji rivers; to the

south lay a flatter country, with lower ranges, and the Damooda river,

its all but waterless bed snowy-white from the exposed granite blocks

with which its course is strewn. East and west the several sharp ridges

of the mountain itself are seen; the western considerably the highest.

Immediately below, the mountain flanks appear clothed with impenetrable

forest, here and there interrupted by rocky eminences; while to the

north the grand trunk road shoots across the plains, like a white

thread, as straight as an arrow, spanning here and there the beds of

the mountain torrents.

On the south side the vegetation was more luxuriant than on the north,

though, from the heat of the sun, the reverse might have been expected.

This is owing partly to the curve taken by the ridge being open to the

south, and partly to the winds from that quarter being the moist ones.

Accordingly, trees which I had left 3000 feet below in the north

ascent, here ascended to near the summit, such as figs and bananas. A

short-stemmed palm (_Phœnix_) was tolerably abundant, and a small tree

(_Pterospermum_) on which a species of grass grew epiphytically;

forming a curious feature in the landscape.

The situation of the principal temple is very fine, below the saddle in

a hollow facing the south, surrounded by jungles of plantain and

banyan. It is small, and contains little worthy of notice but the

sculptured feet of Paras-nath, and some marble Boodh idols;

cross-legged figures with crisp hair and the Brahminical cord. These, a

leper covered with ashes in the vestibule, and an officiating priest,

were all we saw. Pilgrims were seen on various parts of the mountain in

very considerable numbers, passing from one temple to another, and

generally leaving a few grains of dry rice at each; the rich and lame

were carried in chairs, the poorer walked.

The culminant rocks are very dry, but in the rains may possess many

curious plants; a fine _Kalanchoe_ was common, with the berberry, a

beautiful _Indigofera,_ and various other shrubs; a _Bolbophyllum_ grew

on the rocks, with a small _Begonia,_ and some ferns. There were no

birds, and very few insects, a beautiful small _Pontia_ being the only

butterfly. The striped squirrel was very busy amongst the rocks; and I

saw a few mice, and the traces of bears.

At 3 p.m., the temperature was 54°, and the air deliciously cool and

pleasant. I tried to reach the western peak (perhaps 300 feet above the

saddle), by keeping along the ridge, but was cut off by precipices, and

ere I could retrace my steps it was time to descend. This I was glad to

do in a doolie, and I was carried to the bottom, with only one short

rest, in an hour and three quarters. The descent was very steep the

whole way, partly down steps of sharp rock, where one of the men cut

his foot severely. The pathway at the bottom was lined for nearly a

quarter of a mile with sick, halt, maimed, lame, and blind beggars,

awaiting our descent. It was truly a fearful sight, especially the

lepers, and numerous unhappy victims to elephantiasis.

Though the botany of Paras-nath proved interesting, its elevation was

not accompanied by such a change from the flora of its base as I had

expected. This is no doubt due to its dry climate and sterile soil;

characters which it shares with the extensive elevated area of which it

forms a part, and upon which I could not detect above 300 species of

plants during my journey. Yet, that the atmosphere at the summit is

more damp as well as cooler than at the base, is proved as well by the

observations as by the vegetation;[14] and in some respects, as the

increased proportion of ferns, additional epiphytal orchideous plants,

_Begonias,_ and other species showed, its top supported a more tropical

flora than its base.

[14] Of plants eminently typical of a moister atmosphere, I may

mention the genera _Bolbophyllum, Begonia, Æginetia, Disporum,

Roxburghia, Panax, Eugenia, Myrsine, Shorea, Millettia,_ ferns,

mosses, and foliaceous lichens; which appeared in strange association

with such dry-climate genera as _Kalanchoe, Pterospermum,_ and the

dwarf-palm, _Phœnix._ Add to this list the _Berberis asiatica,

Clematis nutans, Thalictrum glyphocarpum,_ 27 grasses, _Cardamine,_

etc., and the mountain top presents a mixture of the plants of a damp

hot, a dry hot, and of a temperate climate, in fairly balanced

proportions. The prime elements of a tropical flora were however

wholly wanting on Paras-nath, where are neither Peppers, _Pothos,

Arum,_ tall or climbing palms, tree-ferns, _Guttiferæ,_ vines, or

laurels.