OUTLINES
OF
MINERALOGY,
TRANSLATED
FROM THE ORIGINAL,
OF
SIR TORBERN BERGMAN,
KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF WASA,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, &C.
BY WILLIAM WITHERING, M. D.
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY
AT EDINBURGH.
Itum eſt in viſcera terræ;
Quaſque recondiderat ſtygiiſque admoverat umbris
Effodiunter opes, irritamenta malorum.
OVID.
BIRMINGHAM:
PRINTED BY PIERCY AND JONES,
FOR T. CADELL, AND G. ROBINSON, LONDON,
J. BALFOUR, AND C. ELLIOTT, EDINBURGH.
M,DCC,LXXXIII.
TRANSLATOR’s
PREFACE.
The pleaſure and inſtruction I received myſelf from this excellent
little work of Profeſſor Bergman, inſpired me with a wiſh to make it
more generally known to others. A ſyſtem like this, founded upon the
constituent principles of things, may be improved, but never can be
exploded. Engliſh names are given, but the Latin ones of the original
are ſtill retained, as an acquaintance with them will enable the reader
more readily to conſult other authors. Blank ſpaces are left after most
of the ſpecies, for the convenience of inſerting any new ones that may
occur. I have added a few new ſpecies, and ſome notes; the utility of
which will be ſufficiently obvious. The table of metals, at page 71, and
the index at the end, will alſo, I hope, be conſidered as uſeful
additions.
BIRMINGHAM,
_1ſt September, 1783_.
N. B. The centenary (_centenarius_) of PROFESSOR BERGMAN is equal to 60
Swediſh grains, or nearly 63 Engliſh grains.
THE
AUTHOR’s PREFACE.
In compliance with the requeſt of my learned and amiable friend, the
celebrated Mr. Ferber, I tranſmitted to him a ſlight ſketch of
mineralogy, in which the ſubjects were arranged according to their
conſtituent or component parts. After peruſing it, he requeſted my
permiſſion to publiſh it. At firſt I thought it better to ſuppreſs a
work that was ſo imperfect, eſpecially when I conſidered the number of
analyſes that yet remained to be made. He replied, that a perfect method
was not yet to be expected in a ſubject ſo extenſive, but that having
once laid a good foundation, I might occaſionally make ſuch additions
and corrections, in new editions of the work, as future experiments
might render neceſſary. Indeed, I was fully aware, that the ſyſtem would
ſooner be rendered perfect, if ſubmitted to the inſpection of other more
diſcerning chemiſts, than if the completion of it reſted upon myſelf
only. The different remarks of others, will correct errors, which, by a
further attention, I might have amended; but if the intereſt of ſcience
be promoted, no matter by whom.
This little work contains GENERA and SPECIES, except in the appendixes,
which, as not properly belonging to my deſign, contain Genera only.
The GENERA are founded upon the prevalent component parts; the SPECIES
upon the diverſity of the composition. _Varieties_ depend upon external
appearances, and therefore are at preſent omitted.
After this manuſcript was ſent away, I diſcovered two species of
_ſtannum ſulphuratum_ (tin combined with ſulphur), one of which contains
about forty per cent. of ſulphur, the other only twenty. The firſt has
the appearance of aurum muſivum; the latter partly reſembles _antimonium
ſulphuratum_ (crude antimony), but does not contain antimony. Both are
contaminated by a ſmall quantity of copper. I got them from Nerchinſkoi
in Siberia[1].
As to the TERRA PONDEROSA (heavy earth), I have long been aware of its
great reſemblance to calx of lead, and have even lately found a method
of precipitating it by the phlogiſticated alkaly[2]; ſo that I verily
believe it to be of a metallic nature, although it has never yet been
made into a regulus, and, therefore, I ſtill place it with the earths,
until its ſituation be better aſcertained.
If providence allots me life and health, I hope, a few years hence, to
republiſh this imperfect ſketch, corrected and enlarged.
OF A
NATURAL SYSTEM
OF
MINERALOGY.
§ 1.
The MINERAL KINGDOM conſiſts of the foſſil ſubſtances found in the
earth. Theſe are either entirely deſtitute of organic structure, or,
having once poſſeſſed it, poſſeſs it no longer: ſuch are the
petrefactions.
§ 2.
It is requiſite, for the proper diſcrimination of foſſils, to eſtabliſh
certain characters, whereby they may, at all times, and in all places,
be diſtinguiſhed from one another. The ſcience that teaches theſe is
called MINERALOGY.
§ 3.
As in the vegetable kingdom different methods have been formed upon the
roots, the leaves, the flowers, the fruit, &c. ſo alſo in Mineralogy
many methods may be deviſed, and there is no doubt of the utility of
contemplating inorganic bodies in every point of view; for the more
compariſons are multiplied, the more evidently do reſemblances or
differences appear.
§ 4.
But as the chief object of the ſcience is to render foſſils ſubſervient
to the uſes of man, it is evident that that method muſt be the beſt
which diſplays their component parts: for theſe being well underſtood,
we know what to expect from them; we accommodate our deſigns to their
nature, and ſpend not our labour and money in vain attempts inconſiſtent
with their inherent qualities.
§ 5.
There is a power implanted by the creator in organized bodies, which,
upon the acquiſition of proper nutriment, unfolds and evolves the
ſtructure which before lay concealed in the fecundated egg or ſeed.
Similar veſſels, in each ſpecies, abſorb, convey, and aſſimilate the
nouriſhment in the ſame manner; ſo that the appearance and ſtructure
remain the ſame, unleſs peculiar cauſes prevent the accuſtomed courſe of
things, and produce monſters: but this very rarely happens. Hence it is
that the leading features or the external parts agree with the internal
properties, and when judiciouſly choſen, form ſufficient characteriſtic
diſtinctions.
§ 6.
But the formation of foſſils is totally different. Here no ſyſtem of
veſſels collects, diſtributes, ſecretes or changes the concurrent
particles, but they run together by chance, and are ſolely connected by
the power of attraction; they are generally, too, of different kinds,
rare and denſe, figured and ſhapeleſs, admitting of every poſſible
variety. This general view of the ſubject ſhews us how little external
characters can be depended on; but we ſhall more particularly conſider
the principal of theſe.
§ 7.
Colour varies exceedingly, as does alſo the ſize of bodies. We cannot
ſufficiently wonder at the violence done to nature by the ſtudied
ſeparation of earths from ſtones. The conſequence is, that a ſtone of a
certain ſize muſt conſtitute one genus, whilſt the ſame thing, reduced
to powder, muſt be placed under another genus, which ſhall not be found
even in the ſame claſs.
§ 8.
Hardness not unfrequently varies even in the ſame ſpecimen. Soft clay
dries in the fire, and at length acquires the hardneſs of flint.
Steatites (_ſoap-rock_) which may be ſcraped with the nail, and many
other matters harden in the ſame manner, and that ſometimes without any
notable loſs of weight; ſo that bodies paſs through every different
degree of hardneſs, without any other change of their mixture.
§ 9.
TEXTURE, and external form of the particles, may ſeem at firſt ſight to
depend more upon the conſtituent parts; but a calcareous particle,
globular or ſhapeleſs, is found, upon the moſt ſcrupulous examination,
to poſſeſs the ſame properties as a piece of ſpar; and in another place
I have clearly ſhewn, that the ſchirl-like, garnet-like, hyacinthine,
twelve-ſided, and other figures, are not unfrequently formed by nature
out of the ſame materials[3]. And if we are liable to deception where ſo
great a difference in external forms exiſts, what can we expect from
leſs conſtant external qualities?
§ 10.
Superficial characters are therefore inſufficient. They cannot even
enable us to diſtinguiſh calcareous from other earths, for the
efferveſcence with acids is a chemical mark, and happens, too, in
matters of very different natures. To paſs over other inſtances, let him
who is able diſtinguiſh the plumbum aeratum and plumbum phoſphoratum (§
182. § 183.) by external appearances only!
§ 11.
But let us not altogether deſpiſe external characters: it is of moment
to know and mark them well[4]. They frequently enable the accuſtomed eye
without troubleſome trials to acquire a degree of certainty, which wants
only a few ſelect experiments to confirm it. Sometimes alſo the uſe
depends upon external properties, evident to our ſenſes, as the
hardneſs, the colour, the pellucidity, &c. Theſe therefore may with
propriety be joined to thoſe which point out the conſtituent principles.
§ 12.
Claſſes, Genera and Species are therefore to be formed upon the internal
nature and compoſition; the varieties upon the external appearances. In
ſuch a ſyſtem both methods conveniently agree.
§ 13.
CRONSTEDT firſt attempted this method, and with great ſucceſs; but
afterwards the _liquid analyſis_, in which the illuſtrious MARGRAAF took
the lead, better opened the internal ſecrets of nature; ſo that the
excellent work of Cronſtedt now appears to contain many errors; theſe
however are not to be attributed to any fault in the author, but to the
inſufficiency of his experiments. The attempts of Mr. Pott by fuſion
have long been known; but theſe however uſeful in other reſpects, rather
tend to confound than to lay open the component parts of bodies.
§ 14.
In methodizing foſſils, _compounds ſhould rank under the moſt abundant
ingredient_. Thus let _a_ and _b_ repreſent the component parts; if the
former be the heavier, the compound muſt be placed under the genus of
that: but this rule admits of ſeveral exceptions.
§ 15.
Thus, the _properties of all ingredients are not of the same intenſity_,
if I may be allowed the expreſſion; ſome are more powerful or
efficacious, ſo as to impreſs the maſs with their own genus and
character, though forming _leſs_ than half the weight. In ſuch a caſe
the qualities are rather to be conſidered than the quantity, eſpecially
if _b_ ſo far from preponderating hardly ever amounts to half the
weight.
§ 16.
Argillaceous earth (_earth of allum_) and magneſia are never found
ſeparate, but almoſt always mixed with other things ſo that their weight
conſtitutes the ſmaller part of the maſs: therefore if the above rule (§
14.) was rigourouſly adhered to, theſe primitive earths would not be
found amongſt the Genera, which would doubtleſs be an abſurdity.
§ 17.
The _value_ of a thing muſt likewiſe be conſidered. Minerals containing
gold or ſilver muſt be ranked with thoſe noble metals although they hold
three, four, or more times the quantity of heterogeneous matter. Not to
mention other examples, pyrites are placed under the genus copper
although they contain a much greater quantity of iron. This cuſtom,
eſtabliſhed with the univerſal conſent of mineralogiſts, wants indeed a
natural foundation, but it ſeems uſeful to miners to retain it; and the
more ſo as it is certain that otherwiſe many minerals would be to be
sought for under ſtrange and improper titles.
§ 18.
Laſtly, it muſt be remarked, that _the ſolid ingredient determines the
genus_ although the menſtruum be greater in quantity. Thus in magneſia
vitriolata (_Epſom ſalt_) the earth gives the Generic name, although the
vitriolic acid be the more ponderous. The same holds good in gypſum,
allum, &c.
CLASSES
OF
FOSSILS.
§ 19.
Fossils are of four kinds, viz. _ſaline_, _earthy_, _inflammable_, and
_metallic_; hence ariſe four claſſes.
§ 20.
Salts, or ſaline ſubſtances are more or leſs ſapid, and when finely
powdered diſſolve in at leaſt 1000 times their weight of boiling water.
They melt in the fire, which for the moſt part changes or deſtroys
them[5].
§ 21.
Earths are inſipid, not ſoluble in water in the degree mentioned above
(§ 20) though perhaps water in Papin’s digeſtor will diſſolve ſome if
not all of them, eſpecially if their ſurface be greatly increaſed by a
previous ſolution in and precipitation from ſome other menſtruum. In the
chain of nature they are by inſenſible gradation joined to the ſalts, ſo
as not to be diſtinguiſhed without artificial limits. Their form is not
changed by a moderate heat, nor are they diſſipated by a violent one.
Their ſpecific gravity is to water, leſs than 5 to 1.
§ 22.
Inflammable foſſils abound with phlogiſton, do not unite with water, but
when pure diſſolve in oils; expoſed to the fire, they ſmoke, generally
inflame, are for the moſt part conſumed, and ſometimes totally vaniſh.
§ 23.
Metals when perfect do not diſſolve at all in water; only a few of them
in oils, and then only when in part deprived of their phlogiſton. They
are the heavieſt of all known ſubſtances, the lighteſt of them weighing
more than ſix times its bulk of water.
They melt in the fire with a ſhining ſurface, and in clay veſſels the
ſurface is convex.
CLASS I.
SALTS.
§ 24.
We begin with the nature and properties of ſaline bodies, for
unacquainted with theſe our knowledge of other bodies muſt be
exceedingly imperfect. _Native ſalts_ are either _acid_, _alkaline_,
_neutral_, _earthy_ or _metallic_.
§ 25.
Acids may be diſtinguiſhed by their proper taſte; they efferveſce with
mild alkalies; and change the blue juices of vegetables and tincture of
heliotropium to a red colour[6].
We are acquainted with many ſpecies of acids, but they are hardly ever
found pure in the bowels of the earth, nor can we expect to find them ſo
when we conſider how ſoon ſuch powerful menſtrua muſt meet with
ſubſtances to ſaturate them. Their great abundance and their properties
ſhew their various and indiſpenſible uſes in the œconomy of nature.
§ 26.
As mineralogy treats of thoſe bodies which are found under the ſurface
of the earth, and as acids in an uncombined ſtate are not found there,
it would ſeem proper to exclude them; but the ſame reaſon would likewiſe
exclude the primitive earths, ſome of which have never yet been found
pure. Therefore in a ſyſtem formed upon the component parts of bodies, a
ſhort deſcription of the principal of theſe is not to be diſpenſed with,
although they hardly ever preſent themſelves in a ſeparate ſtate.
§ 27.
_Vitriolic_ ACID. When moſt concentrated by artificial means its
ſpecific gravity is 2, 125. When pure, has neither colour nor ſmell.
Cold ſometimes though very rarely concretes it into a ſolid form; it may
be coagulated by nitrous air. This as well as the other acids is beſt
known from the compounds it forms with other ſubſtances.
Mr. VANDELLI[7] ſays that it is ſometimes mixed with the ſtreams from
the hills in the neighbourhood of Sienna and Viterbo, raiſed no doubt by
ſubterranean fires; but in general it is united to alkalies (§§ 44, 47,
50,) to earths (§§ 58, 59, 63, 67,) to metals (§§ 69, 70, 72, 73,) or to
phlogiſton (§§ 134, 136.)
_Phlogiſticated vitriolic_ ACID (volatile vitriolic acid) is frequently
thrown out by the craters of volcanoes; its ſmell ſuffocating and
penetrating. The union to phlogiſton and the matter of heat gives it an
aerial form, but does not prevent its union with water.
§ 28.
_Nitrous_ ACID is by ſome excluded from the foſſil kingdom, becauſe they
ſuppoſe it to be produced from the putrefaction of organic bodies. But
theſe bodies when deprived of life are again received amongſt the
foſſils, from whence their more fixed parts were originally derived.
In the moſt concentrated ſtate that art can procure it, its ſpecific
gravity is 1, 580. Colourleſs when pure; but its ſtrong attraction to
phlogiſton renders particular management neceſſary to procure it ſo[8].
With different proportions of phlogiſton it forms phlogiſticated acid
and nitrous air.
It has never as far as I know been met with diſengaged, unleſs perhaps
in water precipitated out of the atmoſphere, but is found united to
alkalies (§§ 45, 47, 51 ) or to earths (§§ 60, 64.)
§ 29.
_Muriatic_ ACID (ſpirit of ſalt) is found in great quantity at and under
the ſurface of the earth. The ſtrongeſt prepared by art hardly attains a
ſpecific gravity of 1, 150. It has a very peculiar and volatile ſmell.
Deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form, for
phlogiſton ſeems to be one of its conſtituent parts[9].
It has never been found uncombined (unleſs perhaps like the nitrous acid
in water precipitated from the atmoſphere[10])[11] but united to
alkalies (§§ 46, 49, 52), to earths (§§ 61, 65), or to metals (§§ 74,
161, 175, 191).
§ 30.
_Fluor_ ACID, is obtained by art; its ſpecific gravity never exceeds
1,500, it is very volatile. Its vapours when hot, corrode glaſs; and
meeting with moiſture generate, or at leaſt depoſit ſiliceous earth.
When deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form[12]. It
has never been found diſengaged, but united to calcareous earth forming
ſparry fluor[13] (§ 96) and if I am not miſtaken it enters into the
compoſition of ſiliceous earths.
§ 31.
_Arſenical_ ACID, dry; prepared by art; ſpecific gravity 3,391; fuſible
and fixed in the fire, until it acquires from the matter of heat ſo much
phlogiſton as is neceſſary to convert it into white arſenic. In a moiſt
air it deliqueſces.
It is not found uncombined, but united to calx of cobalt (§ 228), and
alſo to phlogiſton, forming a brittle arſenical metal (§ 220), and its
calx (§ 222).
§ 32.
_Molybdæna_ ACID. This is very probably of metallic origin, though it
does not yet appear to which metal it belongs. Seeing that arſenic, a
brittle metal, by dephlogiſtication only is changed into an acid,
different from all other acids, it is not improbable that other metals
may have an acid baſis, although their phlogiſton adhering more ſtrongly
has not yet been completely ſeparated.
How this ſubſtance may be obtained by art does not belong to this place
to deſcribe[14]; but that the acid got from Molybdæna has a metallic
nature, and as yet has not been perfectly freed from phlogiſton, is
probable from the following conſiderations. 1, Its taſte is acid and at
the ſame time metallic. 2, Microcoſmic ſalt and borax are coloured by
it, and theſe ſalts are hardly coloured by any thing but metallic
calxes. 3, Its decompoſition by means of the phlogiſticated fixed
alkaly, which always indicates the preſence of a metal. 4, Its concrete
form, and not deliqueſcing, analogous to white arſenic. 5, Its ſpecific
gravity 3,460. And very lately M. HIELM by my perſuaſion attempted the
reduction and obtained a regulus, ſeemingly different from every other
metal, but not yet ſufficiently examined.
§ 33.
An acid conjoined to the calx ponderoſa (_ponderous calx or lime_) is
nearly allied to the preceding, but dropped into lime water produces a
different compound, though in a number of other circumſtances theſe two
acids agree. I apprehend that this is likewiſe of a metallic nature.
§ 34.
_Phoſphoric_ ACID, evidently exiſts in the animal kingdom,[15] much more
plentifully in the vegetable, but in the foſſil very rare. Mr. J. G.
GAHN firſt detected it united with lead;[16] but probably it may be
found in many other foſſils. It is fuſible in the fire. Its ſpecific
gravity when deprived of water 2,687.
§ 35.
_Boracic_ ACID, (_acid of borax, or ſedative ſalt_.) Many people ſtill
think this to be an artificial production, but not long ſince Mr.
HOEFER[17] found it in a lake near Sienna in the great dutchy of
Hetruria, and it has long been known to be united to the foſſil alkaly
in native borax. It acts like an acid, though very feebly. It melts in
the fire and volatilizes with water. Its ſpecific gravity is 1,480.
§ 36.
_Amber_ ACID, is a concrete ſalt obtained from amber; it acts like a
feeble acid. It is yet doubtful whether amber be of vegetable origin;
many reckon it foſſil.
§ 37.
_Aerial_ ACID (_fixed air_) is not only combined with water but with
many other foſſil ſubſtances, as alkalies (§§ 54, 56), earths (§§ 62,
66), and with ſome metals (§§ 71, 183, 192, 217, 234, 243). It floats
uncombined in the atmoſphere. Its ſpecific gravity 0,0018[18].
§ 38.
ALKALIES are known by their peculiar lixivial taſte, by their vehement
attraction to acids, and by their changing the blue colours of
vegetables to a green. In a pure ſtate, as was before obſerved of acids,
their attraction to other ſubſtances is ſo ſtrong that they cannot long
remain uncombined; and if other acids were wanting, the aerial acid,
every where preſent in the atmoſphere, would unite with them: therefore
they are always found in a ſtate of combination, unleſs prepared by art.
§ 39.
New acids are daily detected, but no additions have been made to the
three ſpecies of alkaly long ſince known.
§ 40.
_Vegetable fixed_ ALKALY, deprived of every acid is not found on the
face of the earth; but it is ſometimes met with in combination with the
vitriolic acid (§ 44) or the muriatic (§ 46), generally with the
nitrous, (§ 45) rarely with the aerial (§ 54).
§ 41.
_Foſſil fixed_ ALKALY is only found in combination with acids, rarely
with the vitriolic (§ 47) or nitrous (§ 48), principally with the
muriatic (§ 49) or aerial (§ 55).
§ 42.
_Volatile_ ALKALY is frequently found in clays, doubtleſs in a mild
ſtate, for the help of art is required to render it cauſtic. It is alſo
found united to the vitriolic (§ 50) and the muriatic acids (§ 52.)
§ 43.
ACIDS united to _alkalies_ form NEUTRAL SALTS. Theſe diſſolved in water
are no ways diſturbed by the addition of an alkaly, and generally by
evaporation concrete into cryſtals. If by proper teſts they ſhew neither
acid nor alkaline properties they are ſaid to be _perfect_ neutrals, but
_imperfect_ when from defect in quantity or ſtrength of one ingredient
the peculiar properties of the other more or leſs prevail.
We now proceed to conſider the native ſalts of both kinds.
NEUTRAL
SALTS.
§ 44.
Alkali _vegetabile vitriolatum_ (tartar of vitriol) ſeldom occurs
ſpontaneouſly, unleſs where tracts of wood have been burnt down.
§ 45.
Alkali _vegetabile nitratum_ (common nitre) forms upon the ſurface of
the earth where vegetables, eſpecially when mixed with animal
ſubſtances, putrify. The alkaline baſis previously exiſts in the
plants[19], but the origin of the acid is not ſo well underſtood:
whether it lies concealed in the vegetable acid, and by means of the
putrefactive proceſs ſufficiently dephlogiſticating it, is evolved; or
whether the purer part of the atmoſpheric air contains nitrous acid
_fully_ ſaturated with phlogiſton, which[20] upon the alkaly being
ſeparated by the putrefaction is attracted and extricated by it, and
upon loſing its inflammable principle aſſumes its accuſtomed form.
Nature perhaps operates in both ways; the latter however ſeems clearly
confirmed by a very remarkable experiment (§ 60.)
As nitre is annually produced in large quantities, it cannot but
ſometimes be found in ſprings or wells, as has been obſerved at
Berlin[21], London[22], and elſewhere[23]. Sometimes it abounds in ſuch
quantities that fleſh boiled in theſe waters turns red.
§ 46.
ALKALI _vegetabile ſalitum_ (digeſtive ſalt) is ſometimes though rarely
met with; generated perhaps by the deſtruction of animal and vegetable
ſubſtances.
§ 47.
ALKALI _minerale vitriolatum_ (Glauber’s ſalt) is ſometimes found in
waters. Some of the lakes in Siberia and Astracan contain it, and many
ſprings in other places.
§ 48.
ALKALI _minerale nitratum_ (cubic nitre) rarely occurs but where
maritime plants putrify.
§ 49.
ALKALI _minerale ſalitum_ (common ſalt) plentiful every where as well in
the earth, where it forms ſtrata more or leſs thick (ſal gem), as alſo
diſſolved in ſprings and lakes, and in the ſea. (ſea ſalt.)
§ 50.
ALKALI _volatile vitriolatum_ (vitriolic ammoniac) is ſcarcely found any
where but in places where the phlogiſticated fumes of vitriolic acid
ariſe from burning ſulphur, and in putrid places are abſorbed by the
volatile alkaly.[24] Thus at Fahlune the acid vapour from the roaſted
minerals produces this ſalt in the neceſſary houſes. It is ſometimes
alſo formed in the craters of volcanoes.
§ 51.
ALKALI _volatile nitratum_ (nitrous ammoniac) is generally found along
with common nitre.
§ 52.
ALKALI _volatile ſalitum_ (ſal ammoniac or common ammoniac.) I have
examined ſome from Veſuvius, and ſome from the Solfaterra near Naples.
The ſalts hitherto enumerated are perfect neutrals, thoſe which follow
are imperfect (§§ 53, 56.)
§ 53.
ALKALI FOSSIL, only in part ſaturated with a peculiar acid is called
tinkal; after depuration, borax. It is dug out of the earth in the
kingdom of Thibet[25]. Borax takes nearly an equal weight of acid before
the alkaline properties entirely diſappear[26].
I believe no one has yet found the acid of borax united either to the
vegetable or volatile alkalies.
§ 54.
ALKALI VEGETABILE _aeratum_ (mild vegetable alkaly) is hardly ever found
native, unleſs in the neighbourhood of woods deſtroyed by fire.
In the year 1774, at Douai in Flanders, a ſpring was diſcovered
ſurrounded by a wall, whoſe waters, beſides other impregnations,
contained 11 grains of vegetable alkaly in a pint[27].
§ 55.
ALKALI MINERALE _aeratum_ (mild foſſil alkaly, natron, the nitre of the
ancients) is found plentifully in many places, particularly in Africa
and Aſia, either concreted into chryſtallized ſtrata, or fallen to a
powder; or effloreſcing on old brick walls, or laſtly, diſſolved in
ſprings. It frequently originates from decompoſed common ſalt. I am not
ignorant that the acid of common ſalt adheres ſtrongly to its baſis ſo
as not to be expelled by fire; but perhaps the viciſſitudes of the
atmoſphere continually acting for ages, may be more powerful. In immenſe
plains covered over with this alkaly, ſcarcely any common ſalt is found
upon the ſurface, but the deeper you dig the more it is contaminated by
it, the common ſalt being yet undecompoſed for want of acceſs of air.
§ 56.
ALKALI VOLATILE _aeratum_ (mild volatile alkaly) has been found in pump
waters in London[28], in Lauchſtadt[29], at Frankfort on the Mayne[30],
and copper immerſed therein is ſaid to have been diſſolved into a blue
liquor.
The three alkalies mentioned above as ſaturated with aerial acid, differ
greatly from cauſtic alkalies, in the mildneſs of their taſte, in their
property of chryſtallizing, and in their efferveſcing with acids which
expel the aerial acid, but they ſtill change vegetable blues to greens,
though not ſo powerfully as the cauſtic alkalies do. Therefore, although
the ſubtil aerial acid in other reſpects gives them neutral properties,
yet in this it does it but imperfectly.
§ 57.
The compounds of earths and acids which poſſeſs ſolubility mentioned at
§ 20, are decompoſed and precipitated by mild, but not by phlogiſticated
alkalies.
§ 58.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_, (heavy ſpar, marmor metallicum, calk) is
placed with the earths (§ 89.) Terra ponderoſa _nitrata_ i. e. terra
ponderoſa united to the nitrous acid, perhaps exiſts ſomewhere, but has
never been met with; neither has the terra ponderoſa united to the
_aerial_ acid, yet been found[31]. Terra ponderoſa _ſalita_ i. e. terra
ponderoſa with the _muriatic acid_ Mr. HIELM ſays[32] is diſſolved in
the waters of the lake Vettern and its neighbourhood.
§ 59.
CALX _vitriolata_ (gypſum, ſelenite) is not only found diſſolved in
various waters, but alſo in many places forms immenſe ſtrata. It is
placed by all mineralogiſts amongſt the earths, but I think improperly.
When burnt it generates heat with water, but in a leſs degree than lime
does.
§ 60.
CALX _nitrata_ (nitre of lime; terrene nitre) is ſometimes found in
water, but very ſparingly. It is ſaid that the chalk hills in ſome parts
of France become ſpontaneouſly impregnated with nitrous acid, which may
be waſhed out, and after a certain time they will become impregnated
with it again.
§ 61.
CALX _Salita_ (fixed ammoniac) occurs very frequently in waters.
§ 62.
CALX _aerata_ (marble, limeſtone, chalk, ſpar) is very commonly found
diſſolved in waters in conſequence of an exceſs of the aerial acid. When
it greatly abounds, the water is ſaid to be hard (_cruda_). By boiling,
or by evaporation, it depoſits ſtreaks or cruſts of calcareous matter.
Calx aerata is not ſoluble in water without an exceſs of the ſubtil
acid, and therefore might properly be referred to the earths (§ 21).
§ 63.
MAGNESIA _vitriolata_ (Epſom ſalt) is not unfrequent in the waters of
England, Bohemia, and other countries. This ſalt is preſently decompoſed
by lime water, which circumſtance readily diſtinguiſhes it from the alk.
min. vitriol. or Glauber’s ſalt.
§ 64.
MAGNESIA _nitrata_ (magneſia and nitrous acid) is uſually found together
with nitre.
§ 65.
MAGNESIA _ſalita_ (magneſia and muriatic acid) is found diſſolved in
various waters, but plentifully in ſea water, to which it gives a
diſagreeable bitterneſs.
§ 66.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) with an exceſs of aerial acid it
becomes ſoluble in cold water, otherwiſe it is ſcarce ſoluble at all,
and therefore ſhould be claſſed with the earths. (§ 21.)
§ 67.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) is ſometimes ſpontaneouſly generated by the
decompoſition of pyrites lodged in clay, or in argillaceous ſchiſtus.
It is found in a ſpring at Steckenitz in Bohemia[33], in Eaſt Bothnia
and elſewhere. What is commonly called _plumoſe_ alum is not a ſaline
ſubſtance.
ARGILLA (clay) united to the _nitrous_, _muriatic_[34], or aerial acids
has not to my knowledge hitherto been found in any waters.
METALLIC
SALTS.
§ 68.
The native ſalts belonging to this diviſion, may be diſtinguiſhed by the
phlogiſticated alkaly which precipitates them all. The few which have
ſaline properties (§ 20.) we ſhall mention here, referring the reſt to
the mineralized metals.
§ 69.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper, blue vitriol) is found in the
mines of Herregrund, Fahlune, and others which contain copper pyrites.
§ 70.
FERRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of iron, green vitriol) is formed from the
decompoſition of the more common pyrites.
§ 71.
FERRUM _aeratum_ (iron with aerial acid) diſſolved by an exceſs of acid
in the lighter chalybeate waters.
FERRUM _nitratum_, and _ſalitum_ (iron with nitrous and muriatic acids)
have never yet been found native.
§ 72.
NICCOLUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of Nickel) ſometimes exiſts from the
decompoſition of ſulphureous ores of Nickel.
§ 73.
ZINCUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of zinc, white vitriol) is ſometimes,
though rarely, produced By the decompoſition of pſeudogalena, or black
Jack, becauſe this ſubſtance does not very readily decompoſe
ſpontaneouſly.
§ 74.
[35]MANGANESIUM _ſalitum_ (manganeſe united to muriatic acid) exiſts in
ſome waters Mr. HIELM ſays.
Whether manganeſe be ever united to waters like iron, by means of an
exceſs of aerial acid, we know not.
TRIPLE
SALTS.
§ 75.
The compound ſalts hitherto enumerated are ſuch as are compoſed of two
ingredients only; but ſometimes three or more are ſo united as not to be
ſeparated by chryſtallization. The vitriols that we are acquainted with
are hardly ever pure, and two or three of them ſometimes are joined
together.
Sometimes likewiſe it happens that neutral ſalts join earthy ſalts, and
earthy ſalts metallic ones. I generally diſtinguiſh compound ſalts
according to the number of their principles, whether the ſame acid be
joined to ſeveral baſes, or the ſame baſis to different acids; or
laſtly, whether ſeveral menſtrua and ſeveral baſes are joined together.
Hence ariſe ſalts triple, quadruple, &c. which the diligence of after
times muſt illuſtrate. I ſubjoin the moſt remarkable examples of triple
and quadruple native ſalts which have occurred to me.
§ 76.
ALKALI MINERALE SALITUM (common ſalt) contaminated by _magneſia ſalita_.
The common ſalt when pure does not deliqueſce, but this degree of purity
is ſeldom found, and in the native foſſil production (_ſal gem_) never.
§ 77.
MAGNESIA _vitriolata_ (Epſom ſalt) contaminated by _ferrum
vitriolatum_[36] (vitriol of iron.)
§ 78.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) _native_, contaminated by _vitriol of iron_.
In the aluminous ſchiſtus it ſometimes effloreſces in a feathery form.
Is this the plumoſe alum of the antients?
§ 78*.
ARGILLA _vitriolata_ (alum) native; contaminated by ſulphur and
vitriolic acid.
At the places about Wedneſbury and Bilſton, in Staffordſhire, where the
coal pits are on fire, this ſubſtance ſublimes to the ſurface, and may
be collected in conſiderable quantity during dry or froſty weather. I
cannot be certain that this is a true chemical union, but the eye cannot
diſtinguiſh the parts. Perhaps the ſulphur volatilizes the alum and ſo
becomes intimately mixed with it. The exceſs of vitriolic acid keeps it
in a deliqueſcent ſtate.
I believe a ſimilar compound ſubſtance ſublimes at the Solfaterra near
Naples. W.
§ 79.
ARGILLIA _vitriolata_ (alum) native, contaminated by _vitriol of
cobalt_. In the mines of Herregrund and Idra this may be ſeen, ſhooting
out into long ſlender filaments. Perhaps this is the _trichites_ of the
Greeks. Diſſolved in water it immediately betrays the preſence of
vitriolic acid, upon the addition of terra ponderoſa ſalita (muriatic
acid ſaturated with heavy earth.) By the addition of phlogiſticated
alkali a precipitate of cobalt is thrown down, which makes a blue glaſs
with borax or microcoſmic ſalt.
§ 80.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper) contaminated by _iron_.
§ 81.
FERRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of iron) contaminated by _nickel_.
§ 82.
CUPRUM _vitriolatum_ (vitriol of copper) and vitriol of iron
contaminated by _zinc_. Such is found at Fahlune.
CLASS II.
EARTHS.
§ 83.
Before we can underſtand the nature of earths, we muſt know their
component parts. Thoſe earths which cannot be further decompoſed we call
_primitive_, and thoſe which conſiſt of two or more of theſe intimately
united, _derivative_. By this union we do not mean a mere mechanical
diffuſion, at leaſt not ſuch as can be diſtinguiſhed by the eye, as is
the caſe in ſtones, (_ſaxa_.)
§ 84.
It is evident that the primitive earths will conſtitute ſo many natural
Genera, and different mixtures of theſe the Species.
They who would make ſeveral Genera out of one primitive earth, muſt
ſeparate the glaſſy, red, white, horny ſilver ores, and other different
compoſitions into as many Genera, or elſe act inconſiſtently with their
own principles.
§ 85.
At preſent we only know five primitive earths. They who reckon fewer,
reſt their opinions upon fanciful metamorphoſes unſupported by faithful
experiments[37]. As experiments teach us that there are five primitive
earths, it is evident that the Species ariſing from the mixture of theſe
cannot exceed twenty-four, viz. 10 double (conſiſting of two earths) 6
triple, 3 quadruple, and the 5 primitive.
Although theſe different mixtures are poſſible, and probably do exiſt,
they have not yet been all found. The natural compoſitions of acids with
the earths, forming ſubſtances not ſoluble in 1000 times their weight of
boiling water, and which may be called ſaline earths, muſt be added to
the ſpecies, as they are certainly chemical combinations.
§ 86.
The primitive earths hitherto detected are,
TERRA PONDEROSA, or heavy earth.
CALX, calcareous earth.
MAGNESIA, magneſia.
ARGILLA, argillaceous earth.
TERRA SILICEA, ſiliceous earth.
And we muſt believe theſe to be primitive, until it ſhall appear by
proper experiments that they may be ſeparated into others ſtill more
ſimple, or changed into one another by art.
Theſe are firſt to be conſidered in their greateſt ſimplicity and
purity, although nature never preſents us with ſuch, nor can they even
by art be rendered abſolutely free from all heterogeneous mixture. Water
and aerial acid readily unite with the four firſt, and when expelled by
fire, a little of the matter of heat is added, and remains until driven
out by a more powerful attraction. But in this ſtate they poſſeſs a
degree of purity not to be attained by any other known method. Therefore
it is neceſſary to examine them when ſufficiently burnt in order to
diſtinguiſh better what properties depend upon adhering heterogeneous
matters.
HEAVY EARTH,
OR
TERRA PONDEROSA.
§ 87.
To obtain this as pure as poſſible, the ſpathum ponderoſum § 89 (heavy
ſpar) muſt be reduced to a fine powder, and with equal parts of fixed
alkaly and charcoal duſt roaſted for an hour in a covered crucible.
Powder the maſs, and add nitrous or muriatic acid diluted until all
efferveſcence ceaſes, and the liquor be ſenſibly acid. To this liquor
add mild fixed alkaly, and the heavy earth will be precipitated in a
mild ſtate. If the acids or the alkaline ſalt contain any vitriolic
acid, the heavy ſpar will immediately be regenerated. What remains
undiſſolved by the acid is heavy ſpar, not decompoſed. The proceſs may
be repeated upon this, but the product will then contain ſome martial
earth and ſome clay from the crucible, therefore the firſt part will be
the moſt pure.
§ 88.
TERRA PONDEROSA _aerata_, (heavy earth) has a ſpecific gravity of 3,
773[38]. 100 parts of it contain about 28 of water, 7 of aerial acid,
and 65 of pure earth. It efferveſces with acids: with the vitriolic acid
forms heavy ſpar, not ſoluble in water; with the nitrous and muriatic
acids, it yields chryſtals, not very readily ſoluble; but with the
vegetable acid the chryſtals deliqueſce.
When free from all contamination of acid or alkaly it ſcarcely melts in
the fire, but loſes ³⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight. When united with the matter of
heat, (i. e. rendered cauſtic) it diſſolves in 900 times its weight of
water; and when this ſolution is expoſed to the atmoſphere, a cream or
cruſt ſeparates at the top, which efferveſces with acids. After burning,
it unites to acids without efferveſcence; but heat is produced, and the
union is more tardy than when it is in a mild ſtate[39].
When cauſtic, it expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac, and forms
a hepar with ſulphur, the watery ſolution of which is but imperfectly
decompoſed by the nitrous or muriatic acids, upon account of the
remarkable attraction betwixt this earth and the acid of the ſulphur,
which it even takes from the vegetable alkaly[40].
When we compare theſe properties with thoſe which belong to common
calcareous earth, mentioned at (§§ 92, 93), we ſhall readily ſee wherein
they agree, and wherein they differ.
§ 89.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_ (heavy ſpar) is full four times as heavy as
an equal bulk of water. It diſſolves entirely, though ſparingly, in
concentrated boiling vitriolic acid, but the addition of a ſingle drop
of water occaſions a precipitation. The ſame thing happens to gypſum;
but that requires much leſs acid to diſſolve it, and the precipitation
is made more ſlowly. If the heavy ſpar contained any ſulphur, it muſt
certainly have appeared when the whole was diſſolved, but I never could
find any thing like it.
CRONSTEDT, Min. § 18. 2.
_Marmor metallicum druſicu_ § 19 C. Ponderous Spar.
§ 90.
TERRA PONDEROSA _vitriolata_, impregnated with bitumen, and mixed with
gypſum, alum, and ſiliceous earth.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 24. _Lapis hepaticus._ Liver Stone.
A nucleus of this kind, taken out of a piece of alum ore from Andrarum
in the province of Skone, yielded, in 100 parts, by analyſis, 33 of
ſiliceous earth, 29 of cauſtic heavy earth, earth of alum about 5, and
quick-lime from 3 to 7, beſides the water and vitriolic acid. By
calculation it appears, that theſe baſes, together with vitriolic acid
enough to ſaturate them, ought to weigh 71, which, with the addition of
33, exceeds the amount of the original 100. This increaſe points out the
difference of a maſs newly chryſtallized, and of one carefully dried.
§ 91.
When we conſider that the terra ponderoſa was altogether unknown before
the year 1774, and that many mineralogiſts are even now unacquainted
with it, we cannot wonder that we know ſo few ſpecies of it. I have
ſcarce a doubt but the _terra ponderoſa aerata_ may be found mixed with
other earths in many ſpecimens, when they come to be examined by
chemical means more accurately than they could be heretofore. (See notes
to §§ 58 and 88.)
CALCAREOUS EARTH,
OR
CALX.
§ 92.
As calcareous earth united to the aerial acid is found native, it
requires but little trouble to have it pure. Let ſelected pieces of
chalk, reduced to fine powder, be repeatedly boiled in pure water: this
diſſolves any calx or magneſia ſalita which it may contain. This done,
it holds no heterogeneous matter but what mechanically adheres to it,
the quantity of which is generally extremely ſmall. If we deſire to be
free from this likewiſe, diſſolve the waſhed chalk in diſtilled vinegar,
precipitate with volatile alkaly, and after waſhing the precipitate
well, dry it.
§ 93.
The ſpecific gravity of calcareous earth thus purified, is 2,720. 100
parts of it contain about 34 of aerial acid, 11 of water, and 55 of pure
earth.
Acids unite with it efferveſcing, and a centenary (centenarius) excites
about 22 degrees of heat. The vitriolic acid forms gypſum, difficult to
diſſolve, (§ 59). The nitrous and muriatic acids form deliqueſcent ſalts
(§§ 60, 61), and the acetous acid permanent chryſtals.
Pure calcareous earth does not melt in the fire, but loſes ⁴⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its
weight. It diſſolves in 700 times its weight of water, generating
heat[41]. Acids diſſolve it, producing from a centenary 252 degrees of
heat, but without any efferveſcence. This laſt circumſtance may be beſt
obſerved by immerging the burnt earth in water, to diſſipate a part of
the heat, which would otherwiſe make the acid boil. The water likewiſe
expels the atmoſpheric air from the pores of the lime. In this
ſituation, if nitrous or muriatic acid be poured upon it, and if it was
previouſly well burnt, no efferveſcence will take place. The ſolution
proceeds ſlowly[42], but the ſaturation becomes as perfect as if the
calcareous earth had been in a mild ſtate. This burnt earth, or lime,
expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac in a cauſtic ſtate, and it
diſſolves ſulphur; but this compound is ſeparated upon the addition of
any acid, even the aerial.
§ 94.
Amongſt the native Species of this genus, we muſt firſt mention the CALX
_aerata_ (marble, limeſtone, chalk) which conſtitute immenſe ſtrata. Its
chief properties are enumerated above (§ 92). It is very rarely found
entirely free from iron, which exiſts even in the pureſt Icelandic ſpar,
and indeed in almoſt every foſſil production; upon which account only
the more remarkable impregnations with iron will be noticed in the
following pages.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 5–12.
§ 95.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), with more or leſs _petroleum_.
It efferveſces with acids, and diſſolves; with the vitriolic acid
frequently turning brown. Is fœtid when heated or rubbed. The oil is not
in ſufficient quantity to be collected, by diſtillation, in drops; it
only fouls the inſide of the veſſels, unleſs a very great quantity be
operated upon. In an open fire the colour preſently vaniſhes, from the
petroleum drying up. It generally contains a portion of martial clay.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 22, 23. _Lapis ſuillus._ Fœtid ſtone.
§ 96.
CALX _fluorata_ (calcareous earth and _fluor acid_), when pure, is
wholly ſoluble in nitrous and muriatic acids. Expoſed to heat, below
ignition, it emits a phosphoreſcent light. Fluor acid, dropped into lime
water, precipitates a powder which has all the properties of the calx
fluorata. It is ſometimes, but not always, contaminated by a ſmall
proportion of ſiliceous earth and muriatic acid.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 97–101. _Sparry fluor._ Blue John.
§ 97.
CALX (calcareous earth) ſaturated with a _peculiar acid_, perhaps of a
metallic nature (§ 33). In acids, particularly in the muriatic, it
aſſumes a remarkable yellow colour, but is not very ſoluble.
CRONSTEDT Min. § 210. Lapis ponderoſus. Tungſten.
§ 98.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by a ſmall
proportion of _magneſia ſalita_.
Magneſia.
§ 99.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_) contaminated by _clay_.
Argillaceous.
§ 100.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _ſiliceous
earth_.
Siliceous.
§ 101.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _clay_ and
_ſiliceous earth_. (See § 115.)
CRONSTEDT Min. §§ 25. 28. Calcareous Marle.
§ 102.
CALX _aerata_ (calcareous earth _mild_), contaminated by _iron_ and
_manganeſe_. Martial.
CRONSTEDT Min. §30. See alſo §203. _Hæmatites._
103.
There can be no doubt that the four firſt (§§ 94–97.), if not the laſt
(§ 102), are genuine and diſtinct ſpecies; there is ſome difficulty as
to the reſt, dependent, perhaps, only upon mechanical mixtures. If the
heterogeneous matters can be diſcerned by the eye, we cannot heſitate to
refer the ſubſtance to the ſaxa (ſtones); but in theſe the eye cannot
diſcern them. Moreover, we know that the earths have a mutual attraction
to each other, and form combinations more intimate than mechanical ones.
Earth of alum, precipitated by a cauſtic alkali, and thrown into lime
water, preſently loſes its pellucid and ſpongy texture, turns white, and
condenſes, abſorbing the lime from the water, and forming an union not
to be ſeparated but by chemical means.
From theſe conſiderations, I dare not venture to exclude doubtful
ſpecies.
We ſay a thing is _contaminated_ by another, when the mixture is of the
mechanical kind; but when things are joined by the ſtronger power of
attraction, we ſay they are _united_.
MAGNESIA.
§ 104.
Magnesia, called in the diſpenſatories, and by apothecaries _magneſia
alba_, is a precipitation from its union with vitriolic acid, called
Epſom ſalt. If this earthy precipitate be wanted in the greatest degree
of purity, the Epſom ſalt must be taken chryſtallized, and well
depurated, diſſolved in distilled water, and precipitated by volatile
alkaly. Let the liquor be boiled for a few minutes, in order that what
is kept in ſolution by the aerial acid may ſubside.
§ 105.
Magneſia, thus obtained, has a ſpecific gravity of 2,155. 100 parts of
it contain about 25 of aerial acid, 30 of water, and 45 of earth[43]. It
diſſolves in acids, with a violent efferveſcence, but without heat. It
again forms Epſom ſalt, with the vitriolic acid; with the nitrous acid
it chryſtallizes, but the chryſtals are deliqueſcent; with the muriatic
and vegetable acids it does not chryſtallize, and after drying, greedily
attracts moiſture from the atmoſphere.
It does not melt in a moderate heat, but loſes ⁵⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight, and
then has no attraction for water; diſſolves ſlowly, even in acids, and
that without efferveſcence, but with ſome degree of heat. After
calcination, it expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac, and unites
to ſulphur, though very feebly.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) is never found native and
unconnected, unleſs in waters, when it is diſſolved by an exceſs of
aerial acid. (§ 66.)
§ 106.
MAGNESIA _aerata_ (common magneſia) united with _ſiliceous_ matter. This
efferveſces with acids, and not unfrequently ſtrikes fire with ſteel.
§ 107.
MAGNESIA intimately united with _ſiliceous_ matter. The ſoluble part is
ſlowly taken up by acids, without efferveſcence.
CRONSTEDT Min. §§79–83. and perhaps § 102–105 alſo; but I have not yet
ſubmitted the aſbeſti to the liquid analyſis.
_Soaprock._ _Serpentine._
§ 108.
MAGNESIA united to _argillaceous_, _ſiliceous_, and _pyritical_ matters.
M. MONNET diſcovered this, and the next ſpecies.
§ 109.
MAGNESIA united to _argillaceous_, _ſiliceous_, and _pyritical_ matters,
and likewiſe contaminated by petroleum.
This ſpecies reſembles aluminous ſchiſtus, but upon examination is
found to contain more magneſia than clay.
§ 110.
All the ſpecies, except the firſt, are more or leſs contaminated by
iron, but they do not owe all their colour to this ſubſtance. The green
colours altogether vaniſh during ignition, and leave only a white opake
maſs.
ARGILLACEOUS EARTH,
OR
ARGILLA.
§ 111.
By earth of alum (argilla) I do not mean common clay, which is never
free from ſiliceous matter, but a pure clay, unmixed, at leaſt, with any
other earth. It may be readily obtained by diſſolving Roman or roach
alum in diſtilled water, filtering, and precipitating by mild volatile
alkaly.
§ 112.