about 1804, began to work out his ideas for improving the mechanism
of the old wooden press. Endowed with mechanical genius, great
perseverance, and, above all, a firm belief in himself, he worked
unceasingly to accomplish his aim, and to him, without doubt, must
be awarded the honour of making the first workable printing machine.
His early attempts were quite unsuccessful. Neglected in his native
land, and befooled in Russia, he at last came to London, where,
after a period of want and disappointment, his evident cleverness
and perseverance interested the well-known printer, J. Bensley, in
his designs. Although in after years bitter feelings existed, and
still more bitter words passed between these two, it should never be
forgotten that Bensley was Kœnig’s earliest and best friend in London.
He was the first to recognise his powers, and without his assistance,
Kœnig would, in all probability, have gone to his grave--as many other
inventors quite as clever have done--his genius unrecognised, and his
whole life embittered by disappointment. Mr. Walter, of _The Times_,
although more interested than any one in the improvement of the press,
did not see enough in Kœnig’s first machines to induce him to assist,
until success had made assistance safe; but Bensley year after year
supported him, and found funds for costly experiments, which, although
displaying great cleverness and ingenuity, led to no successful
result. From 1806, when he came to London, to 1811, Kœnig made two
complete machines (not including his first wooden trial), but both were
unsuccessful, because they were founded on the false principle of the
old hand-presses, viz., impressions from a flat surface or platen.
Disheartened by failure, and, as he himself confessed, at his wits’ end
what to do next, an accidental occurrence put him on the right road.
Bensley, his partner, by chance visited Nicholson, to obtain from him
some information concerning those patent laws with which a long and
sad experience had rendered him familiar. He found him in the debtors’
gaol, and then he heard for the first time of Nicholson’s patents.
Fluttered and anxious, Bensley took Kœnig straight off to read the
particulars. Kœnig did read them, and read them carefully, but with
great contempt for their crudeness, and immediately forgot all he had
read! (at least he declared so fifteen years later). However this may
have been, he at once set about constructing a new machine, in which
all his previous plans of impression were thrown aside, and (wonderful
coincidence!) Nicholson’s method of pressure, by means of a cylinder,
beneath which the type ran, was adopted. This was the turn in the tide
which led on to fortune, at least the magic word “success” crowned
Kœnig’s toil.
[Illustration: FLAT IMPRESSION.
_(a) Type. (b) Platen._]
John Walter, of “The Times,” now approved and adopted the new machine;
and from that time to the present improvements have been made by a
succession of clever mechanicians, until the printing machine of today
is a surprising piece of human ingenuity, which by its simplicity
excites the wonder, and by its cleverness the admiration, of every
beholder.
[Illustration: SINGLE CYLINDRICAL IMPRESSION--TYPE OR PLATES ON THE
FLAT.
_(a) Type or Plates. (b) Cylinder. (c, d) Direction of Cylinder._]
It is here only fair to state that Herr Goebel, the German biographer
of Kœnig, and all who sympathise with him, are very indignant at this
version of the story. They utterly deny that Kœnig owed _anything_ to
Nicholson, and have heaped scorn on the heads of unbelievers in their
hero. But the plain sequence of facts is against them. First, we have
Kœnig unsuccessful in his trials with a platen machine; secondly, we
find him reading Nicholson’s plans for a cylinder machine; thirdly, we
see Kœnig rejecting at once his first ideas, and successfully adopting
those of Nicholson. I adhere to my opinion that, while admitting the
great mechanical genius of Kœnig, as shown throughout his career, he
nevertheless at this critical point owed his success to the undeveloped
plans of William Nicholson.
[Illustration: DOUBLE CYLINDRICAL IMPRESSION OF A PERFECTING
MACHINE--TYPE OR PLATES ON THE FLAT.
_(a) Type or Plates. (b1, b2) Cylinders. (c, d) Direction of Cylinders.
(e) Ink Rollers._]
To consider this as derogatory to the genius of Kœnig is to take
a false view of things. No one doubts Handel’s genius because he
built some of his melodies upon the themes of previous musicians, or
thinks the worse of Shakespeare for adopting the old story of “Romeo
and Juliet,” and weaving therewith his immortal tragedy. Why, then,
should Germans resent the statement (which is simply historical) that
Nicholson supplied Kœnig with an idea which his mechanical genius at
once made his own, and successfully developed?
Kœnig’s first success was a machine which printed one side of the paper
only. He next constructed one which, by duplicating the parts, printed
both sides of the sheet. Donkin and Bacon made the great advance
of using a composition of glue and treacle for rollers, instead of
leather, which had never been satisfactory. In 1815 Cowper took out
a patent for placing curved stereotype plates round a cylinder, the
principle of which had already engaged the attention of Nicholson.
Cowper carried this plan to a great pitch of perfection in the machines
made for _The Times_, and from that time to the present every year
shows new improvements and higher efficiency. The varieties in modern
printing machines are innumerable, and their management requires great
intelligence on the part of the “minder,” who, if he understands his
duty, deserves and can command high wages.
[Illustration: CYLINDRICAL IMPRESSION FROM CURVED STEREOTYPE.
_(b) Cylinder. (c, d) Direction Of Cylinder. (c) Ink Rollers. (f)
Cylinder on which are mounted Curved Stereotypes._]
Few sights are more impressive than the machine-room of one of our
daily papers in the small hours of the morning. Suppose you have
obtained an order to see the paper put to press, the best way is to
engage rooms for the night at a neighbouring hotel. If the stage has
attractions for you, there will be plenty of time for a leisurely
supper after the play is over, and then, about two o’clock, to sally
into Fleet Street, which, even at this hour, is anything but a
neglected thoroughfare. Entering the printing-office, we visit the
foundry-room first, where the foreman explains the use of various tools
and arrangements, and has scarcely finished when the first page of the
paper comes down from the composing-room. There is no dawdling now.
The page of type is quickly placed beneath the platen of a press, and
a thick sheet of a soft material--a mixture of _papier-maché_ and
plaster of Paris, called the flong--is placed upon the face of the
type. The platen descends, and by pressure forces the type into the
soft flong, and makes a complete mould. The flong is then dried rapidly
while still adhering to the type. When taken off, it is placed in a
beautifully made steel mould. This mould is curved to a quarter-circle,
and when the flong is placed inside it, and the liquid metal poured
in, the result is a curved plate, with a cast from the type on its
outer surface. This plate is placed upon a saddle, and all excrescences
rapidly removed with great skill from the edges and various spaces;
it is ready then for the machine-room. So soon as eight pages are
fastened on the cylinder of the first machine the printing begins. At
one end of the machine is a heavy reel of paper, sufficient to make
about 6,000 complete papers. It is wound round a core like that used
for a garden-hose, and forms a solid mass, which unwinds rapidly when
the machine grips it. A knife with unerring precision cuts off each
paper as soon as printed, and delivers it onto a collecting board.
Soon after No. 1 machine gets to work, No. 2 is supplied with plates
and started; so with the other machines, until eight or nine are all
printing at once, each delivering about 12,000 complete copies an hour,
so that with eight machines the delivery would be 96,000 per hour. The
din is something awful, and entirely prevents the asking of questions.
Relays of men are always hurrying away from each machine loaded with
printed papers. These are counted into quires in the warehouse,
and at once delivered to the newsagents. A curious and interesting
circumstance attending such speedy printing is the large amount of
electricity excited by the friction of the paper in its passage, and
the storing of this electricity in the printed heaps. I have seen quite
a long spark dart out of a heap into a man’s knee; and occasionally
much inconvenience arises from electrical repulsion and attraction,
interfering with the passage of the sheets.
[Illustration: THE “HOE” NEWSPAPER PRINTING MACHINE.]
The laws of printing machinery are not the only phase of the Art in
which the original invention has been supplemented by a second.
The compositor’s work is so specially intelligent that it was thought
no machinery could ever be brought to supersede it. Early in the
present century, however, an attempt was made to economize labour by
cementing into one piece common words, or combinations of letters
of frequent recurrence. These “logotypes,” as they were styled,
were introduced by Mr. John Walter, of _The Times_, and used in the
composition of that paper, as well as in general bookwork, for some
years. But the difficulty of adapting the “case” for these numerous
additional “sorts” proved a bar to their general adoption, and in a
short time the compositor reverted to the single letters.
[Illustration: EARLY LOGOTYPES.]
Of late years the composing machine, formerly but a plaything, has made
great strides towards perfection. The help of electricity has here also
been called in, and as fast as the hand can move, the separate types
make a continuous and rapid flow into perfect lines. More wonderful
still, a distributing machine has been made, which takes the pages of
types after they have fulfilled their duty, and without the aid of
hands sends each letter down a separate channel to its own particular
destination, and that at a speed with which a compositor could never
compete.
One more marvel: Before me is a book which to the eye appears printed
as other books with types, and yet not a type has been used. It is
truly an anomaly, typography without types. The machine is worked by
means of keys something like a piano. Behind is a block of teak wood,
properly placed in its position. This block shifts and adapts itself
automatically to the various positions requisite for it to occupy.
Suppose the first word of your copy is “Print,” you touch the right
key and out darts a steel punch, on the end of which is a “P.” This
punch is driven into the wood an exact distance, and in the exact
position proper for the first word of a sentence. The blow given, the
punch retires, and leaves a beautifully clear matrix in the wood. The
punch “r” follows in the same way; the “r” key is pressed, and the
punch is driven in just by the side of the former. The other three
letters follow in due course, and so on with word after word, until a
whole line is complete, when the block automatically shifts itself,
and a fresh line just beneath the other is commenced. By a clever
arrangement, the lines are all made of one even length, and when a page
is thus completely punched, the block of wood is used as a mould from
which stereotype plates are taken, which print evenly and beautifully.
The speed and accuracy of this wonderful machine is truly astonishing,
but there are too many drawbacks to the method to commend it for
most practical purposes. Correction, for instance, entails entire
recomposition; while as regards the appearance of the matter in print,
it must be admitted that, excellent as the result is, considering the
method and material in which it is produced, it cannot for a moment
compare for delicacy and regularity with the result to be obtained
by the old-fashioned use of types, set by the compositor’s hand. The
great merit claimed for these machines and others of a similar kind
(amongst which the “Linotype” may be mentioned as mechanically the most
ingenious), is speed and cheapness,--qualities which do not always
assort with fine work, or even easy legibility.
The last invention I will mention is the method of producing printing
surfaces by photo-typography--a plan which to a great extent supersedes
stereotype plates, especially where any change of size is desirable.
A zinc plate is prepared photographically, and the drawing or page of
a book to be used is focused with a camera to the size ordered. An
image is thus taken on the metal plate, which is chemically rendered
insoluble by acids in the parts where the image has impinged. The plate
is then treated to an acid bath, when all the parts where the image is
not are eaten away, and in half an hour to an hour a raised surface,
sufficiently high to print from, is left. For work without very fine
lines this process is extremely useful.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
A CHAPTER ON JUDGES.
“_’Tis with our judgments as with our watches; none_
_Go just alike, yet each believes his own._”--
[Illustration]
A CHAPTER ON JUDGES.
This work is intended to be a popular outline only of an extensive
subject; but, in order to assist any reader who wishes to study the
question more deeply, a list of authors, who by their works are
entitled to be called Judges, is here given. Several works well known
to bibliographers, such as those of Dr. Dibdin, have been purposely
omitted, because, however pleasant to read, they carry no weight
historically or bibliographically. The titles of English works have
been preferred when the author has written with care and knowledge; but
as the subject in its entirety cannot be mastered without consulting
also the writings of French and German Judges, such of their works as
supply new facts or arguments unnoticed in English bibliography are
also admitted on the list. Full titles are not necessary and occupy
much room; and as all the works quoted ought to be in every good public
library, short titles have been considered sufficient, the name under
which they should be sought in the catalogue being printed in italics.
The bibliography of the GENESIS of Printing may be divided into two
classes--external and internal. The external, or historical, aspect has
been of late subjected to a searching scrutiny never contemplated a
generation ago. The result has been to nullify the testimony of many
witnesses whose evidence was considered unimpeachable by former judges.
One good result has been effected: the innumerable writers who have
founded their theories and arguments upon what now are acknowledged to
be spurious documents may be swept out of our path. The real judges are
now few.
1. “The Haarlem Legend,” by _Dr. Van der Linde_, was
originally published in Dutch, in 1870. Translated and
printed in English, in 1871. This work sweeps away all the
so-called historical evidence upon which the claims of
Coster to be the Inventor of Printing were founded.
2. “Gutenberg.” By _Dr. Van der Linde_. 1880. Here, in
addition to demolishing the Coster-myth, the author
narrates the invention of Printing by Gutenberg, with full
historical references.
3. “Gutenberg: Was he the Inventor of Printing?” By _Dr.
Hessels_. 1882. All the original documents concerning
Gutenberg, as quoted by Van der Linde, are here examined
critically; many are shown to be false, and the residue not
decisive as to Gutenberg’s claims to the invention.
4. “Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruck-kunst.” By _Dr. Van
der Linde_. 1886. The subject is treated in three immense
folio volumes, padded and watered to an unlimited extent,
no attempt being made to uphold the genuine character of
the documents disallowed by Dr. Hessels. This work is not
likely to be translated on account of its swollen bulk and
uncritical character.
The internal evidences deduced from the character of the types, the
evidence of individual workmanship often apparent, and what may
be called the “habits” of the early printers, are of the greatest
importance. They are, to some extent, noticed in works 1, 2, 3, and 4,
but may be specially noted under the names of:--
5. _Fournier, Henri_; “Traité de la Typographie.”
6. _Didot, Amb. Firmin_; “Essai sur la Typographie.”
7. _Bernard, Aug._; “De l’Origine et des Débuts de
l’Imprimerie en Europe.”
8. _Dupont, Paul_; “Histoire de l’Imprimerie.”
9. _Faulman, Karl_; “Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst.”
10. _Ottley, W. T._; “Inquiry concerning the Invention of
Printing.”
11. _De Vinne, Theo_; “The Invention of Printing.”
12. _Skeen, W._; “Early Typography.”
Excellent fac-simile plates will be found in
13. _Sotheby, S. L._; “Principia Typographica.”
14. _Berjeau, J. Ph._; facsimiles of the “Biblia Pauperum,”
“Speculum,” and several other block-books, not so good.
15. _Holtrop, J. W._; “Monuments Typographiques des Pays Bas.”
16. _Weigel & Zestermann_; “Collectio Weigeliana,”--best of all.
This list by no means exhausts the books to be consulted under this
head, but will furnish the student with an ample basis for further
research.
* * * * *
The EXODUS, or spread, of Printing is treated generally in the works 1
to 9. To these must be added the following useful books:--
17. _Cotton, Rev. H._; “Typographical Gazetteer,” series 1 and
2.
18. _Panzer, G. W._; “Annales Typographici.”
19. _Hain, L._; “Repertorium Bibliographicum.”
The special works on the first Presses of the various countries are so
numerous that only a few can be noted:--
For England:
20. _Herbert’s_ Edition of Ames’ “Typographical Antiquities.”
This edition is preferable to Dibdin’s.
For Caxton and Westminster:
21. _Blades, Wm._; “Biography and Typography of William Caxton.”
For Cambridge:
22. _Bradshaw, Henry_; Introduction to reprint of “Bullocks’
Oratio.”
For St. Albans:
23. _Blades, Wm._; Introduction to reprint of the “Boke of St.
Albans.”
For York:
24. _Davis, Rob._; “Memoir of the York Press.”
For Oxford:
25. _Latham, H._; “Oxford Bibles and Printing in Oxford.”
26. _Reed, Talbot B._; “Old English Letter Foundries,” Chapter
6.
For Scotland:
27. _Watson, Jas._; “History of the Art of Printing.”
28. _Dickson, Robert_; “Introduction of the Art of Printing
into Scotland.” *
* Since the death of the Author, _Messrs. Dickson & Edmund’s_
“Annals of Scottish Printing” has appeared.
For Aberdeen:
29. _Edmund, J. P._; “The Aberdeen Printers.”
For America:
30. _Thomas, Isaiah_; “History of Printing in America.” (_See_
p. 113.) The reprint of this work, in its omissions and
careless inaccurate extracts, is a disgrace to the Society
which issued it.
Numerous monographs exist, describing the first Presses in most of the
large Cities of Europe; but our space prohibits their enumeration here.
The LEVITICUS is treated of in a large number of books on the Mechanics
and Practice of Printing; amongst others--
31. _Smith John_; “The Printers’ Grammar” is the oldest
instructor.
32. _Moxon, Jos._; “Mechanick Exercises” is the oldest
mechanical handbook. (_See_ p. 108.)
33. _Johnson, J._; “Typographia.”
34. _Hansard, T. C._; “Typographia.”
35. _Luckombe, P._; “History and Art of Printing.”
36. _Savage, W._; “Dictionary of the Art of Printing.”
For Typefounding:
37. _Mores, E. Rowe_; “Dissertation upon English Typographical
Founders and Foundries.” (_See_ p. 112.)
38. _Reed, Talbot B._; “History of the Old English Letter
Foundries.”
39. _Hansard, T. C._; “Treatises on Printing and Typefounding.”
For an account of the early mechanics of Typefounding, see _Moxon_,
(No. 32 _ante_).
The NUMBERS of Printers whose biographies exist have not been very
numerous. The best known are:--
For the first German Printers:
40. _Gessner, C. F._; “Die so nöthig ... Buchdruckerkunst.”
For the early Printers generally:
41. _Madden, J. P. A._; “Lettres d’un Bibliographe.”
For the Aldine family:
42. _Renouard, A. A._; “Annales de l’Imprimerie des Alde.”
43. _Didot, A. F._; “Alde Manuce et l’Hellénisme à Venice.”
For Jenson:
44. _Sardini, G._; “Storia Critica de Nic. Jenson.”
For the Junta:
45. _Bandini, A. M._; “De Florentina Juntarum Typographiâ.”
For Bodoni:
46. _Bernardi, Jac._; “Vita di Giambattista Bodoni.”
For the first Parisian Printers:
47. _Philippe, J._; “Origine de l’Imprimerie à Paris.”
For Geofroy Tory:
48. _Bernard, Aug._; “Geofroy Tory, Peintre et Graveur.”
For the Stephens:
49. _Bernard, A. J._; “Les Estienne.”
For the Dutch Printers:
50. _Ledeboer, A. M._; “Alfabetische Lijst der Boekdrukkers ...
in Noord-Nederland.”
For Colard Mansion:
51. _Van Praet, J. B. B._; “Notice sur Colard Mansion.”
52. _Carton, C._; “Colard Mansion.”
For Martens of Alost:
53. _Gand, M. J._; “Recherches Historiques sur ... Thierry
Martens.”
For Plantin:
54. _Rooses, Max_; “Christophe Plantin, Imprimeur Anversois.”
For the Elzevirs:
55. _Pieters, Ch._; “Annales de l’Imprimerie Elsevirienne.”
56. _Willems, A._; “Les Elzevier.”
For English Printers before 1600, consult _Herbert_ (No. 20, _ante_).
For English Printers generally:
57. _Timperley, Chas. H._; “Encyclopædia of Literary and
Typographical Anecdotes.”
For Day:
58. _Strype, J._; “Life of Parker.”
For Bowyer:
59. _Nichols, J._; “Life of William Bowyer.”
For English Printers in the 18th century:
60. _Nichols, J._; “Literary Anecdotes.”
For Baskerville, consult _Reed_ (No. 38 _ante_, Chapter 13).
For Scotch Printers:
61. _Dickson & Edmund_; “Annals of Scottish Printing.”
* * * * *
The DEUTERONOMY, and modern developments of Printing, are dealt with in
numerous current hand-books, of which the following may be named:--
62. _Wilson, F. J. F._; “Stereotyping and Electrotyping”; also
“Printing Machines and Machine Printing.”
63. _Southward, John_; “Practical Printing.”
* * * * *
Fac-simile Title-pages of a few curious works, not included in the
above list, but worthy to rank among the JUDGES, are appended.
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of the _Star Chamber Decree_,
1637.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of Atkyn’s _Original and Growth of
Printing_, 1664.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page from Wolffger’s _Format Buchlein_,
1620.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Illustration from Wolffger’s _Format
Buchlein_, 1620.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of Moxon’s _Mechanick Exercises_,
1683.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of the Elzevir Specimen Book,
1713.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of Watson’s _History of Printing_,
1713.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of Lewis’ _Life of Caxton_, 1737.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of Mores’ _Dissertation on
Founders_, 1778.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Title-page of I. Thomas’ _History of Printing
in America_, 1810.]
INDEX.
Accursius, M., 14
Aldine Anchor, 68
Aldus, 64-68, 102
Amerbach, 73
America, Printing in, 40, 79, 100, 113
Bacon’s Rollers, 90
Badius Ascensius, 54, 70
Baskerville, J., 77, 103
Bellaert, J., 74
Belgium, Printing in, 75
Bensley, J., 77, 87, 88
_Biblia Pauperum_, 7
Blaeu, W. J., 75
Block-Books, 7, 12, 13, 99
Block Printing, 6, 9
Bodoni, G., 68, 102
Bologna, G. da, 67
Book-making, Early, 10
Bowyer, Wm., 103
Breitkopf, 64
Brockhaus, 64
Brothers of Common Life, 31
Cardboard, 6
Case for Type, 52
Catchwords, 57
Cave, John, 77
Caxton, Wm., 31, 32-40, 100
Chaix, A., 73
Chinese Printing, 6
_Cologne Chronicle_, 14, 15
Colophons, 45
Composing Machines, 92
Composing Sticks, 53
Compositors, 51
Correction, 54, 93
Coster, L. J., 16, 18, 19, 61, 98
_Costeriana_, 15, 61
Cowper’s Machine, 90
Cramoisy, 73
Cranz, M., 28
Creussner, 26
Cromberger, 40
Cylindrical Impression, 88
Day, John, 77, 103
Daye, Stephen, 40
Dibdin, T. F., 98
_Dictes and Sayinges_, 38
Didot Family, 72
Distributing Machines, 92
Dolet, E., 69
_Donatus_, 12
Donkin’s Rollers, 90
Dupré, 69
Dürer, Alb., 64
Eggestein, 25, 63
Elzevirs, Family of, 74, 102
England, Printing in, 32, 76, 100, 102
Engraving, 6, 12
Estiennes, Family of, 71, 102
Europe in the 15th century, 10
“Feet” of Type, 49
Feyerabend, 63
Fichet, G., 28, 29
“Forms” of Type, 56
France, Printing in, 28, 69, 102
Franklin, Benj., 79
Friburger, M., 28
Froben, John, 73
Fust, John, 20, 21, 25
Garamond, Cl., 71
Gering, U., 28, 30, 73
Germany, Printing in, 25, 32, 63, 101
Goebel, Th., 89
_Golden Legend_, 38
Gothic Type, 30
Greek Types, 71
Guilds, Trade, 10
Gutenberg, John, 15, 20, 21, 98
Haarlem, 13, 20, 63, 98
Hahn, Ulric, 64
Hamborch, Conrad, 48
Hero-worship, Perils of, 16
Hessels, J. H., 98
Heynlin, J., 21, 28
Holland, Claims of, 13, 20, 63
Ibarra, 75
Impression, Modes of, 5, 88
_Indulgences_, 13
Ink, 7, 54
Inking Balls, 55
Invention Controversy, 22, 98
Ireland, Printing in, 40
Italic Type, 67
Italy, Printing in, 27, 64
Jenson, Nic., 102
Junius, Had., 16, 18
Keffer, H., 26
Koburger, 26, 64
Koelhoff, 63
Kœnig, Fredk., 86-90
Lamps, Printing on, 5
Language, 5
Latin Names of Towns, 41
Leeu, Ger., 31
Lignamine, P. de, 64
Linde, Dr. Van der, 15, 98
Logotypes, 92
Machlinia, 40
Mansion, Colard, 30, 31, 37, 102
Martens, Thierry, 31, 102
Matrix, 51
Mayence, 20, 25
_Mayence Psalter_, 46
Maynyal, 31
Mentelin, 25, 63
Millar, And., 40
Moel, 69
Moretus, Ed., 75
Mould, 51
Moxon, Jos., 50, 101
Nature-printing, 5
Netherlands, Printing in, 31, 32, 74
Newspaper, Printing of a, 90
Nichols, John, 77
Nicholson, John, 86-89
Numbering of Pages, 57
Olpe, P. de, 63
Operinus, 73
Oxford, Printing at, 32, 100
Pannartz, A., 27, 64
Paper on Reels, 91
Petreius, 63
Pfister, 25, 63
Photo-typography, 93
Pigouchet, 69
Planck, 64
Plantin, Christopher, 75, 102
Playing Cards, 6
Powell, Humphrey, 40
Presses, Early, 54, 56, 81, 83
Printing, Definition of, 11
Printing by hand, 85
Printing, Laws affecting, 77
Printing, Spread of, 25, 99
Punch Cutting, 50
Pynson, 40, 76
_Recueil des Histoires de Troye_, 30
_Recuyell of the Histories of Troye_, 30, 35, 37
Reissinger, 64
Rood and Hunte, 40
Roman Type, 27
Rome, Printing at, 26
Rot, Bert., 27
St. Albans, Schoolmaster of, 40
Schœffer, P., 21, 25, 49, 63