partly to reduce the cost of production, and partly to place copies of
the books he printed within the reach of poor scholars, Aldus employed
the artist Giovanni de Bologna to design for him a new and compressed
type which would enable him to print nearly two pages in the same space
as one. From the country of its birth this letter has ever since been
known as _Italic_. Its elegant shape has been much, perhaps too much,
admired. The appearance is somewhat marred by the invariable use of
Roman capitals, which, throughout a page of Italic, is certainly not
agreeable to the eye.
[Illustration: THE MEDAL OF ALDUS.]
The fame of Aldus’s printing-office soon spread throughout Europe,
and his little pocket editions of the Greek and Latin classics were
esteemed as much for the beauty of their dress as for the accuracy
of their text. The visits of the curious, as well as of the learned,
became at last so troublesome that Aldus placed the following notice
over the chief entrance: “Whoever you are that wish to see Aldus, be
brief; and when business is finished go away; unless indeed you are
able and willing to assist him as Hercules did Atlas in his need: and
even then remember that whoever gains here a footing must work hard and
with perseverance.”
Aldus himself took no relaxation; scarcely would he afford himself any
sleep until fatigue compelled him to rest. He died in 1515, the King of
Printers, with an immortal halo surrounding him.
Aldus adopted for his device an anchor, with a dolphin twisted round
it. This emblem is justly celebrated in the annals of typography under
the name of the Aldine anchor, and is very appropriate to the work of
a Printer. The dolphin is the emblem of swiftness, on account of the
rapidity with which it cleaves the waves. The anchor is the emblem of
stability and reliance. So the printer should be speedy at his work,
but consider his plans carefully and soberly. This was admirably
summarised in the motto adopted by Aldus--“Festina lente” (Hasten
slowly). On a rare contemporary medal the motto appears in Greek,
“ΣΠΕΥΔΕ ΒΡΑΔΕΩΣ.”
Another great Italian Printer was GIAMBATTISTA BODONI, whose name
certainly stands next to that of Aldus. He was the son of a Piedmontese
printer, and was born in 1740, the year when all Europe celebrated
the Jubilee of Printing. At the age of eighteen he was working as a
compositor at the Propaganda Printing-office, Rome, where he did good
service by studying hard to learn the Oriental languages, and then
restoring to a proper condition for use the fine collection of Oriental
types in that office, which had long been in a state of confusion.
It was about this time that he turned his attention to the art of
engraving new types, in which he soon showed great talent. In 1768 he
was placed by the Duke of Parma at the head of his new printing-office,
which he soon rendered the most famous in Europe. He devoted great
attention to the shape of his Greek types, for which he took as a model
the most beautiful manuscripts obtainable. His “Homer” is perhaps
the work which gained him more renown among scholars than any other.
In his “Manuale Tipografico,” which is a specimen book of all his
types, some copies of which were printed on pure vellum, the lover
of typographical excellence as presented by elegantly-shaped letters,
glossy ink, and faultless press-work, may revel to his heart’s content.
Bodoni died in 1813.
As a curious freak of fickle fashion, we must notice the recent fate
of a most interesting collection of books, all from the press of
Bodoni, collected during many years by the Marquis Saporiti della
Sforzesca. These were sent to London and sold publicly in December,
1886. The number of separate works was over 500, including, with hardly
an exception, specimens of the whole produce of the Parmese Press.
No such a collection has ever before been brought to the hammer, and
had it been sold in Dr. Dibdin’s time, when Bodoni’s fame was at its
height, there can be little doubt that £2,000 at least would have been
realised. Today, when “black-letter” governs the market, and sentiment
rules over taste, Bodoni’s master-pieces of typography are of less
money-value than a Seven Dials ballad. The whole of the Marquis’s
collection realised in the gross but £50 7_s._, a sum far below the
prime cost of two or three volumes, and hardly enough to pay for
printing the sale catalogue.
Italy may well be proud of still another typographical son. G.
VIESSIEUX, of Milan, who lived 1779 to 1863, if not remarkable for
excellence of workmanship, was successful, notwithstanding great
opposition from the ruling classes, in obtaining for his native country
that inestimable boon--freedom of the press.
FRANCE.
We have already noticed the introduction of the art to Paris, where
it spread with rapidity even in the lifetime of Ulric Gering. ANTOINE
VERARD is celebrated for beautiful editions, many of them with splendid
illuminations; but space would fail to speak of SIMON VOSTRE, of
PIGOUCHET, of DUPRÉ, of the artistic and learned GEOFFREY TORY, of the
martyred DOLET, MOEL, and many other worthy printers.
But of all the great printers that France has produced, there are none
of whom their countrymen may feel more proud than the family of the
ESTIENNES, who flourished from 1502-1664. The two most celebrated were
Robert I and Henri I, father and son. They both printed, not for lucre,
but from real love of their work and classic literature. So intimately
indeed is the biography of these two great men associated with the
mental growth of the nation that, as Feugère says, “it rises to the
dignity of history.”
HENRI I was the founder of the family. He printed and published at
Paris for twenty years, and laid the foundation of the family fame
during the period 1502-1522.
ROBERT I, his eldest son, succeeded in 1526 to his father’s
printing-office, placing over his door a printer’s mark, afterwards
of world-wide fame. It was an olive-tree, with the motto “_Noli altum
sapere sed time_” (“Be not high-minded, but fear”). He married a
daughter of another famous Parisian printer, BADIUS ASCENSIUS, he
whose printer’s mark--a printing-press, two pressmen, and a woman
composing types--is well known to all lovers of old books. (_See_ p.
54.) It is curious to note that all three of the daughters of Badius
married printers. For thirty-three years Robert Estienne worked hard as
author, collator, corrector, printer, and publisher, producing volumes
which for beauty of workmanship and accuracy of text may vie with the
productions of any other press. So important were the Greek authors
which he for the first time collated and printed, that the publication
of those classics may be almost said to have begun with him. It was to
some extent the same with Latin authors. Thus with Greek, with Latin,
with Bibles, with dictionaries and grammars, Robert Estienne was the
father of such a series of works as have never been equalled before or
since. Patronised and favoured by Francis I, it was the high opinion
of his capabilities, added to the desire to outshine the efforts of
other countries, which induced the King to defray out of the public
purse the expenses of a new series of specially cast Greek types. With
this view Angelo Vergecio, the most artistic penman of his time, was
engaged to design the models for the letters; and the cutting of the
punches was entrusted to Garamond, one of the most skilful engravers of
his day, who himself was a good scholar, and had taught Greek to Henri
Estienne when a boy.
The production of beautiful and correct editions of the Bible formed a
special feature of the labours of Robert Estienne; and this, thanks to
the hatred of the priests, whose stronghold was in Sorbonne, brought
upon him the bitterest persecution. To print the Latin Vulgate for
every one to read was bad enough, but when Robert Estienne published
his three-column Polyglot, with Hebrew on one side and Greek on the
other--Christ between two thieves, as they called it--their rage
knew no bounds. So fierce was the persecution that had our printer
stayed in Paris, he would probably have been, like Dolet, burnt
alive. So in 1551, having under various pretences sent away his
family, he despatched his types also, and quietly followed to Geneva,
where, although subjected to many annoyances, chiefly due to his own
ill-considered opposition to the civil government, he was allowed to
print without hindrance. Here he embraced the Protestant faith; and
in 1559, after a life of manly and unselfish labour, embittered by
the persecution of those who ought to have been his best friends, but
sweetened by the knowledge that his toils and sufferings were for the
benefit of mankind, he died.
HENRI II succeeded his father at an early age, and followed in his
footsteps. He travelled extensively in all the chief countries of
Europe, returning laden with new MSS. and new ideas, which were soon
apparent in his books. At one time he worked for about a year in the
printing-office of Paulus Manutius, after which he returned to Geneva,
devoting himself with fresh energy to his work. His father left him
the Genevan printing-office on condition of his carrying it on in
that city. This restriction was very irksome to him, and what with
quarrelling with the authorities and constant journeyings, his business
greatly declined, and in 1570 he was insolvent, dying some years later.
The work he got through in his prime was immense, and often prolonged
for so many hours at a time as seriously to injure both mind and body.
His mental attainments and general knowledge were very great, but
employed fitfully.
The old typographical fame of France has been well maintained in
more modern times by the Didot family, whose history from 1713 to
the present time is the history of French printing for that period.
PIERRE DIDOT (1761-1853) not only emulated Bodoni in the beauty
of his workmanship, but took extreme care--more, indeed, than the
great Italian Printer--to have accuracy of text. He was an excellent
classical scholar, and himself read for press the works of which he was
most proud.
Nor must we omit to mention his nephew, AMBROSE FIRMIN DIDOT, who, in
addition to his intimate knowledge of classic literature, was a good
antiquarian, learned in bibliography, a first-rate connoisseur of old
engravings, and a weighty writer upon all subjects connected with his
own art.
France indeed may well be proud of her position in typographical
history. Other cities may boast of individual celebrities, an Aldus,
or the Elseviers, a Plantin, a Bodoni, or a Baskerville. But at Paris,
from Gering, through Verard, Badius, Ascensius, Kerver, the Estiennes,
Dolet, the great Didot family, and numerous others, there has been such
an unbroken succession of great and famous printers as must always
command the wonder and admiration of posterity.
It should be added that several French printers, in modern times, have
laboured for the mental improvement of the men and boys employed by
them, and with considerable success. The efforts of M. A. CHAIX, of
Paris, in this direction have received emphatic acknowledgment from the
State and all philanthropists.
SEBASTIAN CRAMOISY, who by the order of Louis XIII founded the Royal
Printing-office, must not be overlooked; nor must ANTOINE VITRÉ, who
combined excellence of typefounding with excellence of printing. He was
the first in all France to print with Syriac types. His famous Polyglot
Bible of 1645 keeps his memory green among bibliophiles.
SWITZERLAND
May justly pride herself on being the mother of Parisian, and therefore
of French, typography. To one of her sons, ULRIC GERING, who, with two
companions left Basle, and began printing at the Sorbonne, France owes
her first press. At Basle, too, JEAN AMERBACH gained great reputation
in the beginning of the sixteenth century, as also did OPERINUS. But
the most famous printer was JOHN FROBEN, of Basle, who was justly
proud of his accuracy. Competition, and consequent reduction in price,
were evils strongly felt and resented by Froben. In his Preface to the
Concordance of 1525 appears the following dialogue, which is somewhat
curtailed from the original:--
“CUSTOMER.--Well, Froben, what book have you there?
FROBEN.--One which is equally your interest to buy as mine to
sell.
CUSTOMER.--Something quite new, then?
FROBEN.--Neither new nor old, for it is both.
CUSTOMER.--You talk in riddles.
FROBEN.--It is a book called ‘The Concordance to the Sacred
Scriptures.’
CUSTOMER.--Why, that has been printed ever so many times.
FROBEN.--True! but if I have reprinted it, it is for the good
of all. The sun itself does not appear every day, when it
does shine it is just the same sun, while my book here is a
decided improvement on the usual text.
CUSTOMER.--You can assure me of its correctness.
FROBEN.--You know that it is almost an impossibility to ensure
positive freedom from error, but if the care I have
bestowed upon it has not been thrown away you will find it
very correct. Moreover, there is more in it than in the
previous edition.
CUSTOMER.--I congratulate you, but I fear you will get but
little credit for all your labour; besides, do you not find
so much toil hastens old age?
FROBEN.--What matters it? ’Tis my destiny. And if she does
bring me old age and its troubles, you have the power to
ease them.
CUSTOMER.--Indeed, how?
FROBEN.--By purchasing this volume at once, and thanking me for
offering it to you.
CUSTOMER.--But have you no compunction in thus selling your own
child?
FROBEN.--Not the least. It was for you and not myself that I
begot it.
CUSTOMER.--What is its price?
FROBEN.--Stoop, and I will whisper it in your ear.
CUSTOMER.--Oh! goodness; much too dear.
FROBEN.--There! take it home and look at it. If you then repent
your bargain I will return your money.
CUSTOMER.--You could not say fairer.
FROBEN.--Everyone can be prodigal of words, but Froben holds to
what he promises.
CUSTOMER.--Here, then, is the purchase-money in full tale.
FROBEN.--And here is the book in good condition, and I hope we
shall both be pleased.”
THE NETHERLANDS.
J. BELLAERT, of Haarlem, 1483, is the first printer whose name we find
in Dutch typographical annals; and of the numerous other names in the
fifteenth and sixteenth century, but few call for special notice.
Perhaps the most celebrated printer who flourished in Holland was
ABRAHAM ELSEVIER, who was born at Leyden in 1592. Baillet calls him
“the Prince of Printers, not only in Holland, but throughout all
Europe,” and no doubt for many years that character was true. The
family flourished for more than one hundred and thirty years as
printers, and to this day some of the books which issued from their
presses are among the chief treasures of the bibliophile.
W. J. BLAEU, in the early part of the seventeenth century, was not
only remarkable for the excellence and diminutive size of the books he
issued, but deserves honourable mention for greatly improving the old
wooden presses used in his day.
The “Pensioners” of Holland and the “Doges” of Venice were important
persons in their day; that day has passed, and now who thinks much
about them? But our Elseviers and Aldines live still, not in name only,
but as vital realities; and their books continue to be prized not only
for their beauty and rarity, but for the standard accuracy of the text.
BELGIUM.
After the printers who first brought the art to Belgium we meet with no
one of special note until the time of CHRISTOPHER PLANTIN, (_Portrait
on_ p. 76.) who founded a family of printers of world-wide fame. His
great Polyglot Bible of eight folio volumes, published in 1569-72, is
a wonder of erudition and good workmanship. The last descendant of the
family, ED. MORETUS, has lately disposed of the old house and all its
contents to the town of Antwerp, who have opened it to the public as
a museum, where may be seen five portraits of the family painted by
Rubens, and many other noteworthy objects of art and typography. No one
should visit Antwerp without paying a visit to this most interesting
museum.
[Illustration: THE PLANTIN MUSEUM, AT ANTWERP.]
[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER PLANTIN.]
SPAIN.
The only name of great repute in this country is that of IBARRA, who
printed some excellent books at Madrid in the Bodoni style. He died in
1785.
ENGLAND.
After the death of Caxton, in 1491, his workmen set up for themselves.
WYNKEN DE WORDE, who succeeded his master, was the most celebrated,
and issued many hundreds of books. Dibdin, some seventy years ago,
quoted over 400, and there are probably now more than 600 known to
bibliographers, the whole sadly in want of an enthusiast who would
devote a few years to their study. PYNSON and WOLFFE were prolific
typographers, and JOHN DAY, the printer of the Reformation, gave
to the world over 350 books. In the 16th century, however, the
Government interfered and placed the Press under severe restrictions,
upon pretence of stopping treasonable and heretical publications. A
series of barbarous enactments soon reduced printing to a dangerous
and unremunerative employment. The effects were seen at once by the
degraded condition to which both master printers and their workmen were
reduced; ignorance and incapacity being the leading characteristics of
the craft, instead of learning and intelligence. Thus, while in France
and Germany the printer held an honourable position, above that of
the trader, in England he was a mere slave to the Stationers, to whom
Government deputed tyrannical powers of oppression and suppression.
[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF JOHN DAY. 1562.]
[Illustration: JOHN DAY’S TRADE MARK.]
With the restoration of freedom a great improvement took place; and
the names of JOHN CAVE, who originated the _Gentleman’s Magazine_, the
WOODFALLS, JOHN NICHOLS, BENSLEY, BASKERVILLE, and others, raised the
fame of English printers to a great height. The SPOTTISWOODE family are
also celebrated in our typographical annals, and none more so than
the philosopher, the antiquarian, the great man of science, the hard
working printer, and the warm friend, WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, F.S.A.,
F.R.S., who died in 1881.
[Illustration: WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE.]
AMERICA.
In the New World, the most famous name in the annals of printing is
that of BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, who, as a lad, learned his trade in the
printing-office of Samuel Palmer, in London, in 1724. On his return
to his native country two years later, he entered into business as
a printer in Philadelphia. His literary and scientific tastes soon
made him a man of mark, and America to this day claims few more
distinguished sons than the philosopher and statesman, one of whose
chief boasts it was that he had served his time at the press. The
actual press at which he worked in London is still in existence, and is
preserved by his countrymen, as a precious relic, in the Smithsonian
Institute, at Washington. (_See a cut of this press on_ p. 56.)
In our own days, America has, in the person of THEO. L. DE VINNE, of
New York, a worthy type of the enlightened and artistic printer.
[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN.]
[Illustration: Fac-simile Letter of Benjamin Franklin.]
[Illustration: STATIONERS’ HALL.]
[Illustration]
DEUTERONOMY.
“_They have sought out many inventions._”--
ECCLES.
[Illustration]
DEUTERONOMY.
In Leviticus we traced the laws which governed the earliest stage
of the printing-press. In Deuteronomy--which is the repetition and
development of the law--we see an expansion and a second birth of the
press, almost equal in importance to the first--viz., the invention
of the Steam Printing Machine. The advance then made towards rapid
and cheap printing has had almost as revolutionary an effect on the
education and opinions of the nineteenth century masses as had the
original invention of printing upon the sixteenth century middle-class.
And as at first the art of printing was developed and improved both in
excellence and speed for many a year after Gutenberg, so the modern
machine, which started in 1814, is still developing its wonderful
capacity for improvement and speed until the mind wonders if any limit
can be assigned to its powers.
In 1790 all printing was effected by hand-labour. The types were
hand-cast--the compositors’ hands were employed in arranging them--the
paper was hand-made--the pressman’s muscles were called into play to
handle the bar. Sheet by sheet he took up the paper and placed it
in position upon the tympan, brought down the frisket to keep it in
place, turned it over upon the ready-inked type, ran the whole by means
of a winch under the press, pulled the bar or lever which gave the
impression, turned the winch again, raised the tympan and frisket, and
released the now-printed sheet. This series of movements, all requisite
to print one side only, took really a shorter time in action than is
here taken in the description; but the strongest workman, with muscles
indurated by years of labour, could, with the help of a “fly-boy” to
take off the sheets, and a “partner” to beat the form, scarcely exceed
250 pulls per hour, and that only on one side of a sheet--a snail-pace
at which all _cheap_ printing was impossible.
In this same year, 1790, the shadow of a great change soon to be
effected in printing was thrown upon the scene. John Nicholson, a
clever mechanician, took out a patent for printing by machinery, in
which he specified those very principles of action which have been
the basis of every successful printing machine since made. Nicholson,
although clever in many ways, had none of the qualities which
ensure success in life. Improvident, without tenacity of purpose or
perseverance, his brains benefited others but not himself, and he died
in 1815 without seeing the success of any of his numerous inventions.
Until the year 1811, when Kœnig succeeded in the attempt, the
possibility of a machine being invented which could successfully
perform all the varied operations just described was considered by
all master printers as a scheme fit only for Utopia. Thus it happened
that Nicholson, bankrupt and disheartened by misfortune, let his plans
slumber in the Patent Office neglected and unnoticed, simply because no
one had sufficient faith in him to advance capital for the purposes of
experiment.
[Illustration: CENTENARY MEDAL OF THE WALTERS, OF “THE TIMES.” 1885.]