JUDGMENT
We have seen that in the several mental processes which are grouped
together under the general head of Understanding, the stage or step of
Abstraction is first; following which is the second step or phase,
called Generalization or Conception. The third step or phase is that
which is called Judgment. In the exercise of the faculty of Judgment, we
determine the agreement or disagreement between two concepts, ideas, or
objects of thought, by comparing them one with another. From this
process of comparison arises the Judgment, which is expressed in the
shape of a logical Proposition. A certain form of Judgment must be used,
however, in the actual formation of a Concept, for we must first compare
qualities, and make a judgment thereon, in order to form a general idea.
In this place, however, we shall confine ourselves to the consideration
of the faculty of Judgment in the strictly logical usage of the term,
as previously stated.
We have seen that the expression of a concept is called a Term, which is
the _name_ of the concept. In the same way when we compare two terms
(expressions of concepts) and pass Judgment thereon, the expression of
that Judgment is called a Proposition. In every Judgment and Proposition
there must be two Terms or Concepts, connected by a little word "is" or
"are," or some form of the verb "to be," in the present tense
indicative. This connecting word is called the Copula. For instance, we
may compare the two terms _horse_ and _animal_, as follows: "A horse is
an animal," the word _is_ being the Copula or symbol of the
_affirmative_ Judgment, which connects the two terms. In the same way we
may form a _negative_ Judgment as follows: "A horse is not a cow." In a
Proposition, _the term of which something is affirmed_ is called the
Subject; and _the term expressing that which is affirmed of the subject_
is called the Predicate.
Besides the distinction between affirmative Judgments, or Propositions,
there is a distinction arising from _quantity_, which separates them
into the respective classes of _particular_ and _universal_. Thus,
"_all_ horses are animals," is a _universal_ Judgment; while "_some_
horses are black" is a particular Judgment. Thus all Judgments must be
either _affirmative_ or _negative_; and also either _particular_ or
_universal_. This gives us four possible classes of Judgments, as
follows, and illustrated symbolically:
1. Universal Affirmative, as "All A is B."
2. Universal Negative, as "No A is B."
3. Particular Affirmative, as "Some A is B."
4. Particular Negative, as "Some A is not B."
The Term or Judgment is said to be "_distributed_" (that is, extended
universally) when it is used in its fullest sense, in which it is used
in the sense of "each and every" of its kind or class. Thus in the
proposition "Horses are animals" the meaning is that "_each and every_"
horse is an animal--in this case the _subject_ is "distributed" or made
universal. But the _predicate_ is _not_ "distributed" or made universal,
but remains particular or restricted and implies merely "some." For the
proposition does not mean that the class "_horses_" includes _all_
animals. For we may say that: "_Some_ animals are _not_ horses." So you
see we have several instances in which the "distribution" varies, both
as regards the subject and also the predicate. The rule of logic
applying in this case is as follows:
1. In _universal_ propositions, the _subject_ is distributed.
2. In _particular_ propositions, the _subject_ is _not_ distributed.
3. In _negative_ propositions, the _predicate_ is distributed.
4. In _affirmative_ propositions, the _predicate_ is _not_ distributed.
A little time devoted to the analysis and understanding of the above
rules will repay the student for his trouble, inasmuch as it will train
his mind in the direction of logical distinction and judgment. The
importance of these rules will appear later.
Halleck says: "Judgment is the power revolutionizing the world. The
revolution is slow because nature's forces are so complex, so hard to be
reduced to their simplest forms, and so disguised and neutralized by
the presence of other forces. The progress of the next hundred years
will join many concepts, which now seem to have no common qualities. If
the vast amount of energy latent in the sunbeams, in the rays of the
stars, in the winds, in the rising and falling of the tides, is
treasured up and applied to human purposes, it will be a fresh triumph
for judgment. This world is rolling around in a universe of energy, of
which judgment has as yet harnessed only the smallest appreciable
fraction. Fortunately, judgment is ever working and silently comparing
things that, to past ages, have seemed dissimilar; and it is constantly
abstracting and leaving out of the field of view those qualities which
have simply served to obscure the point at issue." Brooks says: "The
power of judgment is of great value to its products. It is involved in
or accompanies every act of the intellect, and thus lies at the
foundation of all intellectual activity. It operates directly in every
act of the understanding; and even aids the other faculties of the mind
in completing their activities and products."
The best method of cultivating the power of Judgment is the exercise of
the faculty in the direction of making comparisons, of weighing
differences and resemblances, and in generally training the mind along
the lines of Logical Thinking. Another volume of this series is devoted
to the latter subject, and should aid the student who wishes to
cultivate the habit of logical and scientific thought. The study of
mathematics is calculated to develop the faculty of Judgment, because it
necessitates the use of the powers of comparison and decision. Mental
arithmetic, especially, will tend to strengthen, and exercise this
faculty of the mind.
Geometry and Logic will give the very best exercise along these lines to
those who care to devote the time, attention and work to the task.
Games, such as chess, and checkers or draughts, tend to develop the
powers of Judgment. The study of the definitions of words in a good
dictionary will also tend to give excellent exercise along the same
lines. The exercises given in this book for the cultivation and
development of the several faculties, will tend to develop this
particular faculty in a general way, for the exercise of Judgment is
required at each step of the way, and in each exercise.
Brooks says: "It should be one of the leading objects of the culture of
young people to lead them to acquire the habit of forming judgments.
They should not only be led to see things, but to have opinions about
things. They should be trained to see things in their relations, and to
put these relations into definite propositions. Their ideas of objects
should be worked up into thoughts concerning the objects. Those methods
of teaching are best which tend to excite a thoughtful habit of mind
that notices the similitudes and diversities of objects, and endeavors
to read the thoughts which they embody and of which they are the
symbols."
The exercises given at the close of the next chapter, entitled "Derived
Judgments," will give to the mind a decided trend in the direction of
logical judgment. We heartily recommend them to the student.
The student will find that he will tend to acquire the habit of clear
logical comparison and judgment, if he will memorize and apply in his
thinking the following excellent _Primary Rules of Thought_, stated by
Jevons:
"I. _Law of Identity_: The same quality or thing is _always_ the same
quality or thing, no matter how different the conditions in which it
occurs.
"II. _Law of Contradiction_: Nothing can at the same time and place
_both_ be and not be.
"III. _Law of Excluded Middle_: Everything must _either_ be, or not be;
there is no other alternative or middle course."
Jevons says of these laws: "Students are seldom able to see at first
their full meaning and importance. All arguments may be explained when
these self-evident laws are granted; and it is not too much to say that
_the whole of logic will be plain to those who will constantly use these
laws as their key_."