descending by the chains from the parapet of the North Bridge,
Edinburgh, to the ground below: a height of 75 feet.]
[Footnote J: Mr. Braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this
principle with hand holes for a dozen men, in the ordinary service of
the London Fire Brigade.]
[Footnote K: Now Shand, Mason, and Co.]
[Footnote L: This description applies to the most recently constructed
fire-engines belonging to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.]
[Footnote M: "Stuffing," a technical term need by leather-dressers or
curriers.]
[Footnote N: The proportions are, 1 gallon neats-foot oil, 2 lbs.
tallow, 1/4 lb. bees-wax, melted together, and laid while warm on the
leather.]
[Footnote O: This description of the Edinburgh coupling-joints was
written in 1830, and is inserted here to show how the present form of
the well-known London Brigade hose-coupling was arrived at. The
internal diameter was originally 2-3/8 inches, but Mr. Braidwood, when
in London, found that he could increase it to 2-1/2 inches.]
[Footnote P: See engraving of portable cistern, page 156.]
FIRE ANNIHILATOR
With regard to the Fire Annihilator, I have seen several experiments
with this machine, and heard of more which were not successful; and if
an invention fails when experiments are tried, it is open to the
impression that it might fail when brought into active operation.
There have also been many cases where these machines have met with
accidents, one at Drury Lane Theatre amongst the number.
Water, properly applied, will do whatever the Annihilator can
accomplish, and also many things which the latter cannot do. As it is,
there are some forty or fifty different articles to carry with each
fire-engine, and to add to them such unwieldy things as Fire
Annihilators, would be to encumber the men more than they are at
present, with a very doubtful prospect of advantage.
WATER SUPPLY.
The supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions towards
extinguishing fire. Where the pressure is sufficient, and the mains
large enough, by far the most efficient and economical mode of using
the water is to attach the hose directly to the mains.
In London, however, this can rarely be done, for several reasons. The
greatest number of plugs are on the service pipes, that is, the pipes
for supplying water for domestic and other purposes, which are only
open a short time every day. If the cisterns are nearly empty, the
pressure cannot be obtained till they are filled. Then, again, the
plugs being some distance apart, it is difficult to obtain a
sufficient number of jets. But when the plugs are full open 1-3/4
diameter, a sufficient quantity of water is obtained from each to
supply three engines, each of which will give a jet equal to the plug
if confined to one jet. The pressure also in the mains in London
seldom exceeds 120 feet at the utmost. For these reasons the pressure
from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked, when the ruins
are cooled by the "dummies," as the jets from the mains are named by
the firemen.
If water can be obtained at an elevation, pipes with plugs or
firecocks on them, are preferable to any other mode at present in use
for the supply of fire-engines. The size of the pipes will depend on
the distance and elevation of the head, and also on the size of the
buildings to be protected. It may be assumed as a general rule, that
the intensity of a fire depends, in a great measure, on the cubic
content of the building; distinction being made as to the nature and
contents of such building. If no natural elevation of water can be
made available, and the premises are of much value, it may be found
advisable to erect elevated tanks; where this is done, the quantity of
water to be kept ready, and the rate at which it is delivered, must
depend on the means possessed of making use of the water.
The average size of fire-engines may be taken at two cylinders of 7
inches diameter, with a length of stroke of 8 inches, making forty
strokes each per minute. This sized engine will throw 141 tons of
water in six hours, and allowing one-fourth for waste, 176 tons would
be a fair provision in the tanks for six hours' work; this quantity
multiplied by the number of engines within reach, will give an idea of
what is likely to be required at a large fire. If, however, there are
steam-engines to keep up the supply through the mains, the quantity of
water kept in readiness may be reduced to two hours' consumption, as
it is likely that the steam-engines would be at work before that
quantity was exhausted. This is what may be supposed to be required,
in cases of serious fires in dockyards, in large stacks of warehouses,
or in large manufactories.
[Illustration: FIG 6. Opening for Suction-pipe.]
Where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises, such as
from rivers, canals, &c., if it is not thought prudent to erect
elevated tanks, the water may be conducted under the surface by large
cast-iron pipes, with openings at such distances as may seem advisable
for introducing the suction-pipes (Fig. 6). This plan should not be
adopted where the level of the water is more than 12 feet below the
surface of the ground, as although a fire-engine will, if perfectly
tight, draw from a much greater depth than 14 feet (2 feet being
allowed for the height of the engine), still a very trifling leakage
will render it useless for the time, at such a depth.
The worst mode of supplying engines with water is by covered sunk
tanks; they are generally too small, and unless very numerous, confine
the engines to one or two particular spots, obliging the firemen to
increase the length of the hose which materially diminishes the effect
of the fire-engine. If the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir,
it would be much better to save the expense of the tank, and to place
plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe. Another evil in sunk tanks is,
that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity of water they may
depend upon, and they may thus be induced to attempt to stop a fire,
at a point they would not have thought of if they had known correctly
the quantity of water in store.
Where sunk tanks are already constructed, they may be rendered more
available by a partial use of the method shown in Fig. 6.
_Memoranda of Experiments tried on the mains and service pipes of the
Southwark Water Company, between 4 and 9_ A.M. _of the 31st January,
1844. The wind blowing fresh from N.N.W._
The pressure at the water-works at Battersea was kept at 120 feet
during the experiments, and every service pipe or other outlet was
kept shut.
_1st Experiment._--Six standcocks, with one length of 2-1/2 inches
riveted leather hose 40 feet long, and one copper branch 4 feet to 5
feet long, with a jet 7/8 inch in diameter on each, were placed in six
plugs on a main 7 inches diameter, in Union-street, between
High-Street, Borough, and Gravel-lane, Southwark, at distances of
about 120 yards apart. The water was brought from the head at
Battersea, by 4250 yards of iron pipes 20 inches diameter, 550 yards
of 15 inches diameter, and 500 yards of 9 inches diameter.
1st. One standcock was opened, which gave a jet of 50 feet in height,
and delivered 100 gallons per minute.
With four lengths of hose the jet was 40 feet high, and the delivery
92 gallons per minute. When the branch and jet were taken off with one
length of hose the delivery was 260 gallons per minute.
2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the jet from the first
was 45 feet high.
3rd. The third standcock was opened, and the jet from the first 40
feet high.
4th. The fourth standcock being opened, the first gave a jet of 35
feet high.
5th. The fifth being opened, the first gave a jet of 30 feet high.
6th. All the six being opened, the first gave a jet of 27 feet in
height.
_2nd Experiment._--Six standcocks were then put into plugs, on a main
9 inches diameter in Tooley-Street, the extreme distance being 450
yards, with hose and jets as in the first experiment. The water was
brought from the head at Battersea by 4250 yards of iron pipes of 20
inches diameter, 1000 yards of 15 inches diameter, 1400 yards of 9
inches diameter. The weather was nearly the same, but the place of
experiment was more protected from the wind than in Union-street.
1st. With one standcock open, a jet 60 feet in height was produced,
and 107 gallons per minute were delivered.
2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the difference in the
first jet was barely perceptible.
3rd. Other two standcocks being opened, the first jet was reduced to
45 feet in height, and the delivery to 92 gallons per minute.
4th. All the six standcocks being opened, the first jet was further
reduced to 40 feet high, and the delivery to 76 gallons per minute.
_3rd Experiment._--Two standcocks, with hose, &c., as in the first
experiment, were then put into a service-pipe, 4 inches diameter and
200 yards long, in Tooley-street, the service-pipe was connected with
200 yards of main 5 inches diameter, branching from the main of 9
inches diameter. The weather was still the same as at first, but the
wind did not appear to affect the jets, owing to the buildings all
round being so much higher than the jet.
1st. The standcock nearest the larger main was opened, and a jet of 40
feet high was produced, delivering 82 gallons per minute.
2nd. Both standcocks being opened, the first gave a jet of 31 feet,
and delivered 68 gallons per minute.
3rd. The standcock farthest from the large main only being opened,
gave a jet of 34 feet, and delivered 74 gallons per minute.
4th. Both standcocks being opened, the farthest one gave a jet of 23
feet, and delivered 58 gallons per minute.
When both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without hose, the
water from that nearest the large main, rose about 18 inches, and the
farther one about 1 inch above the plug-box.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. Common Fire-plug.]
These and other experiments prove the necessity of placing the plugs
on the mains, and not on the service pipes, where there are mains in
the street.
The different modes of obtaining water from the mains or pipes are
shown in the accompanying drawings.
(Fig. 7) is a section of a common plug when not in use.
[Illustration: FIG. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern.]
(Fig. 8) is a section of the common plug, with a canvas dam or cistern
over it, as used in London. The cistern is made of No. 1 canvas, 15
inches deep, extended at top and bottom by 5/8-inch round iron frames,
a double stay is hinged on the top frame at each end. When the cistern
is used the top frame is lifted up, and the stays put into the
notches, in two pieces of hoop iron, fixed to the bottom frame. There
is a circular opening 9 inches diameter in the canvas bottom, two
circular rings of wash-leather, about 2 inches broad, are attached to
the edges of the opening in the canvas, so as to contract it to 4
inches or 5 inches diameter; the plug being opened, the cistern is
placed over it; the wash-leather is pressed down to the surface of the
road by the water, and a tolerably water-tight cistern, with about 12
inches or 14 inches of water in it, is immediately obtained.
[Illustration: FIG. 9. Plug, with Standcock.]
(Fig. 9) is a plug with a standcock in it, to which hose may be
attached.
(Fig. 10) is a common single firecock with a round water-way 2-1/2
inches diameter.
[Illustration: FIG. 10. Single Firecock.]
(Fig. 11) is a double firecock, as laid down in Her Majesty's
Dockyards.
[Illustration: FIG. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards.]
It will be observed, that the short piece of pipe between the main and
this firecock is not curved to the current of the water, but merely
opened a little; this is done with a view of increasing the supply by
steam power, and as the steam engines are, in most cases, situated in
a different direction from the tanks or reservoirs, therefore the
curve that would have assisted the current in one direction would have
retarded it in the other. It has been objected to these firecocks,
that the opening does not run through the centre of the key, therefore
only one side of the key covers the opening in the barrel, while in
the common firecock both sides are covered.
[Illustration: FIG. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum.]
(Fig. 12) is a double firecock, as laid down at the British Museum.
This has a very good delivery, and is certain to be always tight, if
well made, as the pressure of the water forces the key into the
barrel; this also renders the cock somewhat difficult to be opened and
shut, if the pressure be great; but as a lever of any length may be
used, and the key, from its perpendicular position, may be loosened by
a blow, this objection is in a great measure obviated.
In Figs. 10 and 11 the openings in the street are large enough to
admit of the levers for opening the cock to be fixed, that no mistake
may occur from the lever being mislaid; but with those at the British
Museum, it was not thought necessary to have fixed levers, as a
crow-bar, or anything that could be introduced into the eye of the
spanner, would open them.
The plug and firecock have both certain advantages and disadvantages,
which are now described.
The plug, with a canvas cistern, is the easiest mode of obtaining
water; the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone, is no
annoyance in the street, and the water has only one angle to turn
before it is delivered.
On the other hand, where the supply of water is limited, the plugs
give but little command of it; there is, however, comparatively very
small loss at a large fire in London from this cause, as it is very
seldom that all the fire-engines can be supplied direct from the
plugs, and those that arrive late must pick up the waste water as they
best can, by using another description of canvas dam, or opening the
street; but in enclosed premises, especially where the water is kept
for the purpose of extinguishing fires, firecocks are much to be
preferred. It is very difficult to insert the standcock into a plug if
there is a considerable force of water, and if the paving has moved,
it cannot be done without raising the plug-box; but this is, however,
the easiest mode of using firecocks, and where there is a considerable
pressure of water, if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a
hose-reel and branch-pipe, they can, in enclosed premises, direct a
jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared, and if they
cannot reach the fire, they will have water ready for the engine when
it arrives.
Inclosed premises are particularly mentioned, because the principal
duty of the watchmen, in these cases, is to guard against fire, and
their other duties being comparatively few, the men are not often
changed, and they can be instructed thoroughly in the matter. With the
general police of the metropolis it is quite different, their duties
are so numerous and varied, that to add that of firemen to them would
only be to confuse them.
Firecocks, if kept at 9 inches to 12 inches below the surface, are
easily protected from frost, by stuffing the opening with straw.
The advantage which the double firecocks have over the single ones, is
merely the increased water-way, as a firecock 3-1/2 inches diameter
could not be so easily opened or shut, as two cocks of 2-1/2 inches
diameter.
One of the greatest objections to firecocks, is the very large
openings required in the streets, the first cost and the repair of
which are both considerable, besides their liability to accident. To
take them to the footpath, increases the expenses and diminishes the
supply of water, as it is generally done with a small pipe, and the
number of angles is increased. In some instances, where firecocks have
been put down on one side of the street, no less than four right
angles have been made in the course of the water; and if the fire
happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the firecock,
the thoroughfare must be stopped. The expense also is no slight
consideration, for if laid along with the water-pipes, each firecock,
if properly laid, and the pit built round with cement, will cost eight
or ten times as much as a plug.
London is, upon the whole (except in the warehouse districts), fairly
supplied with water for the average description of fires, that is,
where not more than five or six engines are required. When, however,
it is necessary to work ten or twelve engines, there is very often a
deficiency. In many of the warehouse districts the supply is very
limited indeed, although it is there that the largest fires take
place.
The water companies are generally willing to give any quantity of
water, but they object to lay down large mains without any prospect of
remuneration. The warehouse keepers decline to be at the expense of
laying the pipes, and there the matter seems to rest. In most other
places of importance, the water is under the management of the civic
authorities, and they, of course, endeavour to obtain a good supply of
water at fires in warehouse as well as in other districts.
In supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks, one or more
lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock; the extreme end being put
into the engine, the firecock is then opened and the water rushes in.
When the water-pipes are large and the pressure considerable, two or
even three engines may be supplied from the same firecock.
If the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the place on
fire, to be reached by the supply of hose brought with the engine, the
next resource is, to open the nearest firecock above the level of the
place where the water is required. By covering the eyes of drains, and
stopping up any cross-water channels, the water may in this manner be
conveyed along the street, from a very considerable distance. From the
nature of the ground it does not always happen that the water will run
directly from the nearest firecock, to the spot where it is required;
acclivities, buildings, and many other causes, may prevent this; but
in some of these cases a few lengths of the hose, attached to the
firecock, may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to
the required point. Upon the arrival of the water, it ought to be
dammed up, and the engine will lift it by suction out of the pool so
formed.
If, however, from the nature of the ground, from the want of hose, or
from other causes, it is found impracticable to convey the water by
either of the above methods, the next best is, to conduct the water in
hose as far as can be accomplished, and carry it the remainder of the
distance in carts, buckets, or whatever else may be most convenient.
When carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line of men from
the water to the engine, each man covering five or six feet of ground.
The buckets are then handed from one man to another, till they reach
the two or three men who are stationed round the suction-tub or
fire-engine to receive them. The buckets when emptied are returned by
a different line of men (women or boys) stationed in the same manner
as the former. If a sufficient number of hands cannot be had to return
the buckets in this manner, any convenient number may be employed to
carry them to the firecock, that they may be again filled. When a fire
occurs where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or plugs,
the ground should be immediately opened, and the water-pipe cut. If it
be of cast-iron, a large hammer may effect the purpose: on the
water-pipe being broken, the suction-pipe of the engine is placed in
the opening so made. If the pipe be of lead, the opening in the street
should be made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it, when
cut, being turned into the engine. If the supply of water by this
means be so great as to occasion waste, it may be regulated by the
nearest stopcock on the water-pipe, by driving a wooden plug into the
end of a cast-iron pipe, or compressing the end of a leaden one.
The next plan I shall notice of supplying fire-engines is from drains,
gutters, &c. In particular situations and wet weather considerable
supplies of water from these and similar sources may be obtained. In
the gutters all that is required is to dam them up; and, if there be
no materials at hand for this purpose, the causeway must be dug up,
till there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of the
engine.
When the water is to be drawn from drains or common sewers, great care
should be taken not to damage them farther than is absolutely
necessary.
If enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to enter easily, it
will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes. When the man
inside the drain or common sewer has collected a proper supply of
water by damming up the channel, the suction-pipe should be handed
down to him, and the engine set to work.
Although it be true that foul water quenches fire, I will here
observe, that the water from a common sewer should never be used,
except when it is impossible to procure it from a purer source. For
the purpose of procuring water to extinguish a fire, I had at one time
occasion to open a common sewer, in which, with the usual impurities,
the waste from a gas manufactory was intermixed, and the stench in the
premises where the fire had been extinguished by this water, was for
some time after very disagreeable.
If the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little distance,
one engine may be stationed close to it, and that engine made to pump
the water into another at work. If the water be conveyed in carts, an
engine may be kept at the pond or river for the purpose of filling
them. Of course this can only be done where there is a proper supply
of engines.
In working from an open water, such as a gutter, drain, river, or
pond, it is proper, in order to prevent sand or gravel being drawn
into the engine, to sink an iron or wooden bucket, into which the
suction-pipe of the engine should be placed. If nothing better can be
had, a good wicker basket will be found useful.
It is of great advantage to have a number of carts, with butts upon
them full of water, as it ensures a small supply to the engines the
moment they arrive at the fire. This plan, however, entails a very
considerable expense, as carters must be paid for taking them out on
every alarm, besides giving prizes to the owners of the first and
second horses, to ensure their coming in time.
APPENDIX.
The following, on Steam Fire-engines and the Metropolitan Fire
Brigade, is added as a supplement to Mr. Braidwood's account of the
London Fire Brigade, and brings the information upon these subjects up
to the present date (May, 1866):--
The steam fire-engine was first constructed in London, in 1830, before
the formation of the London Fire Brigade, by Braithwaite, who made
several engines, and exhibited them at various public trials, also at
several fires, but without being able to bring them into general use.
The matter remained in abeyance till 1852, when the London Fire
Brigade caused their large hand-worked floating fire-engine to be
altered so as to be worked by steam. This engine having been
originally made by Tilley, of London, the alterations were entrusted
to Shand and Mason, his successors. In the same year the first
American steam fire-engine was constructed in New York.
In 1855 the London Fire Brigade, stimulated by their first experiment,
caused an entirely new self-propelling, floating steam fire-engine to
be constructed. The experience gained by their first attempt at steam
fire-engine making, enabled Shand and Mason to compete successfully in
this matter, as their design was adopted after receiving the approval
of the late Mr. Walker, Engineer, of Great George Street, London.
The re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into London was
accomplished by Shand and Mason, who, in 1858, constructed their
first; this engine, after several public trials, was in the same year
sent to St. Petersburgh.
In 1859 the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines, which
they offered to the London Fire Brigade for hire or purchase, and in
the following year (1860) the Fire Brigade took one on hire for one
year. This experiment proved so successful, that in 1861 the committee
purchased, from Shand and Mason, the fourth steam engine of their
construction. This, with one of the two made in 1859, were the only
land steam engines that were at work at the Great Tooley Street Fire
of 1861.