ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS
The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather
than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be
applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and
of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the
purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the
main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of
history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is
very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere
memorizing of events and dates.
FORMS I AND II
TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"
The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the
Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.
As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or
make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the
Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to
do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the
verbal story.
A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be
answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes,
his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the
Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.
The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of
Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his
home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God,
his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's
will.
In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to
ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of
each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention
and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction
should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.
In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board.
These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written
reproduction that follows.
If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library,
pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.
When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of
lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story
prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.
FORMS I AND II
THE FIRST THANKSGIVING
Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth
Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church";
"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)
A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America
drawn on the black-board.
Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--the
returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general
good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom
originate?
Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the
Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different
parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the
landing-place in America marked.
This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _The
Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The First
Thanksgiving_. (See Appendix.)
A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I,
accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring,
and in modelling, as they can do.
FORM II
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in
the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible
hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the
hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people
in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything
the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the
letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, how
great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at
this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many
thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and
thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected
soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well
cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died
if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.
Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of
all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood
she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble.
The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When
quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's
estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they
would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals
around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt
them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up
the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot
up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into
her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for
it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the
owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it.
But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with
Florence's nursing.
When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the
sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in
sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the
hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one
of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the
best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve
the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health
began to fail.
It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go
to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers.
When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick
and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very
little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the
patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked
food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when
they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at
home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and
carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all
right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about,
speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much
the poor soldiers thought of her.
When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her
that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but
she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for
their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she
thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.
She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people
who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air,
pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the
good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be
remembered.
METHOD
It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as
it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to
pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the
story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is
told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows
in the usual way.
FORM II
THE POSTMASTER
AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS
This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make
the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and
importance of the postmaster.
The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office
and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and
the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the
letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating
these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3)
Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on
the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on
which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope
should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions
stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a
consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may
be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and
prompt person.
The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before
post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing
his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him
in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.
A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of
salary may follow.
In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--the
registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes,
the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the
making of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed.
In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher
should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank,
a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in
the proper method of filling out these forms.
FORM III
THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC
The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the
matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British
and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by
sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it
with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to
be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the
matter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages
83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec,
mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the
difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.
When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a
description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an
enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this.
(See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be
emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the
disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may
be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How
would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his
soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the
Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the
probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to
the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The
teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.
This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem
questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at
Montmorenci.
This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the
teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the
illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in
attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces
were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.
This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally
before the class is dismissed.
As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are
directed to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or in
the History Reader, pp. 284-292.
NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships,
bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic
explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and
the whole story would require several lesson spaces.
References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and
Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
FORM III
THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS
1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why
they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by
the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven
from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal
to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty
in face of all their troubles.
2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the
British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before
them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the
probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived
in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see
from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes
they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to
be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston
to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and
Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc.,
to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170.)
3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account
of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information.
It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the
story to one of the children.
4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political
ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in
affairs in Upper Canada.
FORM III
THE FLAG
In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful
aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the
emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have
a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be
taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our
forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the
significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice;
and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.
The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be preceded
by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should
explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of
St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint
of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the
reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several
countries. (See Appendix.)
These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St.
George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the
lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson
on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.
The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the
flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the
children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks
may be given afterwards in the history lessons.
As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the
flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in
the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:
For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in.
For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in.
For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in.
When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the
reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt
the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the
flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that
of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the
white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow
border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground
colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the
red cross.
The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should
be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the
teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring
also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the
Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are
not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher
to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead
them to observe:
1. that it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also
be square);
2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St.
Patrick's;
3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the
width of the jack;
4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of
white;
5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal
the broad white of the St. Andrew's;
6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross
and partly white ground;
7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the
parts near the staff.
When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags
which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all
of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross,
retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's
Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground
of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and
paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made
jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.
Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the
following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper
and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the
jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:
First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches
wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the
cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the
measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border
one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing
lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the
saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St.
Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St.
Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St.
Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is
placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and
above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised
in making the drawing of the Union Jack.
The following are the official regulations for the proportions of
the Union Jack:
1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.
2. The proportions are:
Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag.
White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George.
Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George.
White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George.
Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.
3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next
the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other
quarters.
Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the
political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St.
Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and
to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick,
a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack
are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity;
and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly
without disgracing our flag.
On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have
helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to
the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire
rests.
For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:
FLAG DAYS
Opening and closing of each term
Jan. 1.--Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be
celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)
Feb. 10.--Union of the Canadas, 1841.
March 11.--First Responsible Ministry, 1848.
March 14.--Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791.
March 24.--Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).
Empire Day.--The school day immediately preceding May 24.
May 24.--Victoria Day.
June 3.--The King's Birthday, 1865.
July 1.--Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.
July 17.--First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.
September 13.--Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.
October 13.--Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock,
1812.
October 21.--Trafalgar Day, 1805.
December 24.--Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of
Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)
Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may
also be chosen.
For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to
Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition),
to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of
Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints
of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.
THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG
What is the blue on our flag, boys?
The waves of the boundless sea,
Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride,
And the feet of the winds are free;
From the sun and smiles of the coral isles
To the ice of the South and North,
With dauntless tread through tempests dread
The guardian ships go forth.
What is the white on our flag, boys?
The honour of our land,
Which burns in our sight like a beacon light
And stands while the hills shall stand;
Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name,
And we fight, wherever we be,
For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives
Of the brave hearts over the sea.
What is the red on our flag, boys?
The blood of our heroes slain,
On the burning sands in the wild waste lands
And the froth of the purple main;
And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod
And the crest of the waves outrolled,
That He send us men to fight again
As our fathers fought of old.
We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys,
Whatever be said or done,
Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast,
And the foe be ten to one--
Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword
And a bullet in heart or brain.
What matters one gone, if the flag float on
And Britain be Lord of the main!
--Frederick George Scott
THE UNION JACK
It's only a small piece of bunting,
It's only an old coloured rag;
Yet thousands have died for its honour,
And shed their best blood for the flag.
It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew,
Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led;
It carries the cross of St. Patrick,
For which Ireland's bravest have bled.
Joined with these is our old English ensign,
St. George's red cross on white field;
Round which, from Richard to Roberts,
Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.
It flutters triumphant o'er ocean,
As free as the wind and the waves;
And bondsmen from shackles unloosened,
'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.
It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand,
O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong;
And Britons, where'er their flag's flying,
Claim the rights which to Britons belong.
We hoist it to show our devotion
To our King, our country, and laws;
It's the outward and visible emblem,
Of progress and liberty's cause.
You may say it's an old bit of bunting,
You may call it an old coloured rag;
But freedom has made it majestic,
And time has ennobled our flag.
FORMS III AND IV
SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY
The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the
subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these
subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention
focused on the purpose of the day.
The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the
pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in
them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of
responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and
in the future.
EXERCISES SUGGESTED
1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public
School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1,
49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp.
55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two
might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given
(pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing
suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of
Education on several occasions.
2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire;
for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the size
of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the
Persian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercial
and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of
losing it, etc.; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the
Canadian ensign.
3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red"
cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_)
"The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having
pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British
territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships,
too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population and
area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany,
France, etc.
4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to
the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the
population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as
England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the
population of the United States increase in the first century after the
Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it
increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last
fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up
to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position
and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the
sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the
pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations
as they can find in their text-books.)
5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written
composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises
mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.
6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.
TYPE LESSONS
FORM IV
INTRODUCTORY
As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal
method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only
the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of
problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may
help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be
like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the
majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The
value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points
that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it
assists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to see
more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will
also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better
evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the
ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should
then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the
use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more
expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the
class.
EGERTON RYERSON
One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils
ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life.
The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some
useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the
bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils
should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts
should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by
appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following
sketch may serve as an example:
Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:
I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville,
near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the
County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British
army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the
Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a
native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote
ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American
revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to
New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was
Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan
settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his
family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some
2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the
army, besides his pension.
Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very
religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton
learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how
she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though
thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly
grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."
The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it.
Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of
ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and
mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and
then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave
him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His
years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them
that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place
of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction
from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to
Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here
he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain
fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was
despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing
restored him to health.
Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When
twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the
Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better
ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between
daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession
and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and
plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I
called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the
brushwood in and around the village."
In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ of
the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in
1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.
In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for
Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a
proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the
qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools
and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be
engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods
that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A
Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books
were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all
schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable
in a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build
schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of
many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had
also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing
patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted
his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a
public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure
foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the
just pride of our Province and his own best monument.
In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was
succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise
he made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country a
system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not
second to those in any country in the world."
He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his
life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his
funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities,
ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had
founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never
failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian
who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.
NOTE.--If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim
Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add
interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction
to them.
For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:
With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the
history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was
worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new
interest in its political life was awakened, new movements
inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with
responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal
rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third,
educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without
distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is
known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for
equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the
Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third
as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational
control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson
played a very prominent part and, because these affected the
politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.
NOTE.--For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My
Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J.G.
Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS
OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J.H. Putnam.
THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY
The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the
British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class
knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day,
and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the
Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for
reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian
Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with
Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."
_Teacher._--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected
by the road?
_Pupil._--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.
_T._--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?
_P._--Because it is near the sea.
_T._--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.
_P._--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.
_T._--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?
_P._--It freezes up.
_T._--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter,
and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was
chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on
the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?
_P._--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.
_T._--We can tell better a little later which one was actually
chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should
they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many
people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?
_P._--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.
_T._--Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How
would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we
send our goods to Europe now in winter?
(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could
ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)
_T._--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence
before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?
_P._--By using the canals.
_T._--How can we ship by rail?
_P._--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.
_T._--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and
the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals
already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and
others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before
Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to
Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have
a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may
see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can
you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as
the western terminus of the new railway?
_P._--Yes, Quebec would be the one.
_T._--Why?
_P._--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for
sending their goods as far as Quebec city.
_T._--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been
shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?
(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything
till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections
were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible.
Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through
the United States.)
_T._--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of
wanting to build a railway of their own?
_P._--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.
_T._--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made
between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity
Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely.
This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to
depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of
trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the
Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils
are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the
Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that
there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that
would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway
was needed from Quebec to Halifax?
_P._--Because there was danger of war, and because the United
States might interfere with Canadian trade.
_T._--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have
found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why
it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out
is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and
had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it
done, what route would you be likely to follow?
_P._--I think I should take the shortest way.
_T._--Where would the road go then?
(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)
Tell where it would run.
_P._--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick,
and Nova Scotia.
_T._--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the
reasons for building it at all.
_P._--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is
in the United States.
_T._--What is the next way they might think of?
_P._--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.
_T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)
_P._--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine,
into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
_T._--Would they take that way?
_P._--No, because it is too near the border of the United States.
_T._--Why do you say "too near"?
_P._--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come
over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear
up the rails.
_T._--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route
could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?
_P._--They would stay as far from the border as possible.
_T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)
_P._--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.
_T._--How far?
_P._--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to
Halifax.
_T._--Would that be the cheapest line to build?
_P._--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.
_T._--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which
of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as
far from the border as they could?
_P._--The military reason.
_T._--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most
interested in the military considerations?
_P._--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.
_T._--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where
would the money come from?
_P._--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.
_T._--Why?
_P._--Because there were not very many people here then.
_T._--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes
even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the
railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was
to be built.
The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places
on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher
would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles),
and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that
the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized,
that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer
together, and that other railways have since been built on the two
rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand
Trunk Pacific.
The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the
black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.
BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE
1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of
the road
2. Reasons for building the road
(_a_) Military
(_b_) Commercial
3. Selection of the route
(_a_) Routes that were possible
(_b_) Reasons for the final choice
4. Facts about the road
(_a_) Principal places on the road
(_b_) Branches of the road
(_c_) Length and cost
5. Value of the road to the new Dominion
The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and
the chief commercial centres served by the railway.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.
NOTE.--This lesson should be preceded by an information
lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where
the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference
between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.
The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions
changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the
greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of
wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon.
The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in
English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation,
in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible
to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without
understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at
such length.
This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The
dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are
introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize
further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention
would be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, and
development--is supposed to be used.
1. _Domestic System of Manufacture._--Before 1760 the manufacture of
cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would
procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where,
with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and
return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power
on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only
one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the
use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn
was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use
the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some
way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.
2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny._--The first important invention of the
period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an
ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was
returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home
before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to
rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in
motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle,
usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave
him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with
which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight).
From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used
to-day.
3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame._ Sir Richard Arkwright
invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of
spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the
thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with
hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.
4. _The Mule._ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a
finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to
weave any grade of cloth.
5. _The Power-loom._ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the
weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled
the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners
could make.
6. _The Steam-engine._ These machines were run by hand or water-power.
In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was
used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to
use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of
water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was
plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.
7. _The Cotton-gin._ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it
could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly
hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came
from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could
be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the
cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very
quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of
cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an
hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover
how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton
was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England
was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be
added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for
its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin
was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern
States that led to the Civil War.
8. _Coal-mining and Smelting._ These machines were made of iron, and
coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was
plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam
pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this
was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater
amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in
England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which
is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until
Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a
plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.
9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of
the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the
miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives
thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in
1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these
explosions.
10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried
on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to
where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many
parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as
the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to
form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in
road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)
Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in
rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in
1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800
many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.
11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was
increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it
necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;
better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making
it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater
quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the
exhaustion of the soil.
12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of
classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great
problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.
We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from
an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and
became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money
to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it
was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."
NOTE.--The teacher may refer to some of the modern social
problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the
country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and
suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance,
decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A
History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
Edinburgh.)
THE ROAD TO CATHAY
The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European
nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the
East--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to the
discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a
review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil
practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show
the development of history along a certain line.
The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher
thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are
not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical
sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to
memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used
frequently.
THE LESSON
One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations
the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice
became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.
In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay
after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in
silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the
desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up,
carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence,
Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean,
the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern
trade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal,
France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the
hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not
long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the
introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer
guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the
use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediæval
castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the
invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of
knowledge.
The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.
Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.
Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to
solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by
Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still
earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more
complete solution.
Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of
geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and
not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by
sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a
route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the
Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying
it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not
want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal.
The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of
Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;
but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made
his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave
ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile
he was enabled to put his dream to the test.
A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his
efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's
Poem, "Columbus," _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145.
When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought
he had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India;
and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several
generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When
Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again
to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely
as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their
chief ambition.
In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out
to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his
son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South
Carolina, with the same object.
In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspé
and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the
gateway to the East.
With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu
River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to
the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a
large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.
Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the
continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a
North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he
sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked.
A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been
only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring
Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth
voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and
he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the
West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the
ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son,
and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of
again. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235.)
The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific
Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and
Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of
Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on
Montreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), in
allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.
Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of
what is now Canada. Vérendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by
way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the
junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands;
also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored
the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.
Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West
Company--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid great
hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of
exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.
It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the
Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and
steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to
Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it
has been our lot to accomplish.
Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up
afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect
on trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the
opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the
reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.
TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA
The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline
of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will
use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the
Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the
lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat
different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should
show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print
indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils
after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are
suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the
black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either
teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and
development methods.
For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _A
History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
Edinburgh.
I. CAUSES
1. _Political._--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief
obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.
(The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the
marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had
refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full
revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and
the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant
power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)
(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off
negotiations of marriage with Philip.
(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to
the English throne.
2. _Commercial_.--Interference of the English in the New World, to which
Spain claimed sole right.
(This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of
Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)
3. _Religious._--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in
Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.
(This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)
II. EVENTS
1. Preparations in Spain and England.
(Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well
as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His
death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible
for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the
Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet
was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it
actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were
very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the
eve of battle should be made.)
2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.
(The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were
ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were
defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political
differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless,
and most skilful in handling their ships.)
3. The affair at Cadiz.
(Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for
preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)
4. The battle in the Channel.
(Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588;
fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance
for a vivid description by the teacher.)
5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.
(Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories
of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and
recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward
Ho!_)
III. RESULTS
1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)]
2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.
3. Greater religious tolerance in England.
4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.
5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule
the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals
of political, social, and religious liberty.
(See _P.S. History of England_, secs. 135-142.)
LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)
_Aim._ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was
held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in
England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the
Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.
STEP I
1. _Introduction._ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil
that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm;
from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be
derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as
applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel
may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on
shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a
florist's business, a rink, etc.
2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the
_Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw
a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.
STEP II
(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)
1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of the
Saxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33.) The
following extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ may
be of assistance:
The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred)
consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow
strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the
almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into
appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter,
and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole
community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture
its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some
seasons.
The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with
a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year,
fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of
its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the
cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when
they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had
been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional
cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently
allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or
otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an
abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in
each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the
fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its
various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.
Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P.S. Hist. of
Eng._, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, p.
37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of
necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the
freeman.
2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certain
reasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers;
the people looked to these courts for justice.
3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders sought
protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small
landowners to "eorls."
STEP III
_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_.) Barons
too powerful for the king for various reasons:
1. Their property was large and compact.
2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.
3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.
By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would
probably do to strengthen his own position.
STEP IV
_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William.)
1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a
tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.
2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or
because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was
conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)
3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.
4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which
were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.
5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the
military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.
6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in
later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.
7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.
The important points of each step should be written on the black-board
as they are described or developed.
(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another
lesson.)
SEIGNIORIAL TENURE
The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of
land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to
trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the
development of the country; and to increase their interest in the
present system of tenure.
METHOD
In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System
would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him
by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by
the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it.
Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this
description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher
supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the
pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for
his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in
Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as
another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be
discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In
connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding
land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and
can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then
ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what
cost.
The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development,
or problem, methods.
THE LESSON
1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in
Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading
principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this
method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system
of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See
_Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High School
History of Canada_, Chap. VIII.)
2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure,
which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was
paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service.
Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles.
An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors
annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These
_seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains.
This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in
France, called the Feudal System.
At this point the teacher might give a short description of the
Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its
surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in
comparison with the lords.
3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year
1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadian
aristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land among
settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial
Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became
his vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who held
their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured
_habitants_ to cultivate the soil.
4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a
certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to
two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire
sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth
of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the
King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very
attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in
this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted
patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from
cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their
attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and
the most gallant defenders of New France.