No sooner had the formation of railways commenced for carrying
passengers in long trains of carriages drawn by heavy locomotive
engines, than the want was experienced of some different kind of bridge
from any then existing for crossing rivers, roads, and valleys. The
train could not be turned sharply round a curve to cross a road at
right angles; and to make the requisite bend to enable it to do so
would have taken the railway considerably out of its direct course. To
overcome this difficulty "skew bridges" were designed, that crossed
roads and canals in slanting directions. Iron girder bridges were also
constructed, and thus the railway trains were carried across roads and
narrow rivers at any required inclination, supported on flat beams of
iron. Suspension bridges were found to be unfitted, on account of their
oscillation, for the passage of locomotive engines; therefore, when
it became necessary to carry railways across arms of the sea, or wide
navigable rivers, at heights sufficient to allow the largest ships to
pass underneath, neither girder bridges nor suspension bridges were
suited for the purpose. Then arose the necessity of contriving some
form of bridge of extensive span that would be sufficiently strong and
rigid for railway trains to pass over them in safety.
The Britannia Bridge, across the Menai Straits, was a triumphant
response to the call for a new kind of suspended roadway adapted to
the requirements of railways. The tubular principle of construction,
designed by Mr. Robert Stephenson, was practically tested by Mr.
Fairbairn; and the result of numerous experiments on the strength of
iron, in different forms and combinations, established the soundness
of that principle. The rigidity and strength of the Britannia Bridge
depend on cellular cavities at the top and bottom, which, acting as so
many tubes, give stability to the riveted plates of iron, and enable
the bridge to bear the immense pressure and vibration of a heavy
railway train without deflecting more than half an inch.
It was Mr. Stephenson's original intention to make a circular or oval
tube, suspended by chains, for the trains to run through; but Mr.
Fairbairn's experiments proved that a rectangular shape is stronger,
provided the top and bottom, which bear the greatest part of the
strain, are made rigid, either by additional plates of iron, or by
tubes. The notion of a circular tube was, therefore, abandoned, and the
rectangular form, with cells at the top and bottom, was adopted; first
for the railway bridge at Conway, and afterwards for the much greater
work across the Menai Straits.
It has been stated by Mr. Stephenson, that the idea of forming a
tubular bridge was suggested by experience gained in constructing the
railway bridge at Ware, which consisted of a wrought-iron cellular
platform; but a more exact representation of the principle on which
the Britannia Bridge is constructed had been long previously seen
across the Rhine, at Schauffhausen, where a rectangular tube, or
hollow girder, made of wood, was erected in 1757. That bridge, though
of different material, was in its principle of construction similar
to the iron tubular bridges at Conway and at the Menai Straits.
Another similar bridge, carried over the river Limmat, at Wettingen,
constructed in 1778, had a span of 390 feet; and that, as well as the
former, was raised to its position in one piece, by means of powerful
screw-jaws. These curious and interesting structures, which may be
considered the forerunners of the gigantic iron Tubular Bridges of the
present day, were burnt by the French in 1799.
In constructing the Britannia Bridge, Mr. Stephenson took advantage
of a rock midway from shore to shore, whereon to erect the central
pier. Two other piers, at a distance, on each side, of 460 feet, were
built without much difficulty in shallower water, and between these
and the masonry on each side was a distance of 230 feet. There are
eight rectangular tubes resting on those piers, to form two lines of
railway, each tube being 28 feet high and 14 feet wide, exclusive
of the cellular cavities at the top and bottom. These cavities are
rectangular, and extend from one end of the bridge to the other, and
may be regarded as long tubes. There are eight of them at the top, each
1 foot 9 inches square, and there are six at the bottom, the latter
being 2 feet 4 inches wide, and the same depth as those at the top.
Sound is conveyed through these cavities as readily as through speaking
tubes, and conversation can be thus easily carried on across the
Straits.
The height of the central pier of the Britannia Bridge, from the
foundation to the top, is 230 feet; and the height of the roadway above
high water mark is 104 feet. The length of the large tubes, through
which the railway carriages pass, on each side of the central pier, is
460 feet: and the total length from shore to shore, 1,531 feet. The
tubes are connected together at the piers to give the bridge additional
strength, and they are composed altogether of 186,000 separate pieces
of iron, which were pierced with seven millions of holes, and united
together by upwards of two millions of rivets. The whole mass of iron
employed weighed 10,540 tons.
The Britannia Bridge was commenced in May, 1846, and the first of the
main tubes was completed in June, 1849. The work was carried on close
to the bridge, on the Anglesea shore; and when the tube was ready to
be transported to its place on the piers, which had been prepared to
receive it, eight flat-bottomed pontoons were provided to carry it,
which, being brought underneath, floated the ponderous mass on the
water as they rose with the tide.
The floating and fixing in its place of the tube took place on the
27th of the same month, in view of an immense concourse of spectators.
After the preliminary arrangements for letting go had been completed,
Mr. Stephenson, and other engineers, got on the tube, with Captain
Claxton, R. N., to whom the management of the floating was entrusted.
A correspondent of the _Illustrated London News_ thus describes the
proceeding, and its successful result:--"Captain Claxton was easily
distinguished by his speaking trumpet, and there were also men to hold
the letters which indicated the different capstans, so that no mistake
could occur as to which capstan should be worked; and flags, red,
blue, and white, signified what particular movement should be made.
About 7.30 p.m. the first perceptible motion, which indicated that
the tide was lifting the mass, was observed, and at Mr. Stephenson's
desire, the depth of water was ascertained, and the exact time noted.
In a few minutes the motion was plainly visible, the tube being fairly
moved forward some inches. This moment was one of intense interest,
the huge bulk gliding as gently and easily forward as if she had been
but a small boat. The spectators seemed spellbound, for no shouts or
exclamations were heard, as all watched anxiously the silent course of
the heavily freighted pontoons. The only sounds heard were the shouts
of Captain Claxton, as he gave directions to 'let go ropes,' to 'haul
in faster,' &c.; and 'broadside on,' the tube floated majestically
in the centre of the stream. I then left my station, and ran to the
entrance of the works, where I got into a boat, and bade the men pull
out as far as they could into the middle of the Straits. This was
no easy task, the tide running strong; but it afforded me several
splendid views of the floating mass, and one was especially fine; the
tube coming direct on through the stream--the distant hills covered
with trees, two or three small vessels and a steamer, its smoke
blending well with the scene, forming a capital background; whilst on
one side, in long stretching perspective, stood the three unfinished
tubes, destined ere long to form, with the one then speeding on its
journey, one grand and unique roadway. It was impossible to see this
grand and imposing sight, and not to feel its singleness, if we may so
speak. Anything so mighty of its kind had never been before: again it
would assuredly be; but it was like the first voyage made by the first
steam-vessel--something until then unique. At 8.35 the tube was nearing
the Anglesea pier, and at this moment the expectation of the spectators
was greatly increased, as the tube was so near its destination: and
soon all fears were dispelled, as the Anglesea end of the tube passed
beyond the pier, and then the Britannia pier end neared its appointed
spot, and it was instantly drawn back close to the recess, so as to
rest on the bearing intended for it. There was then a pause for a few
minutes, while waiting for the tide to turn: and when that took place,
the huge bulk floated gently into its place on the Anglesea pier,
rested on the bearing there, and was instantly made fast, so that it
could not move again. The cheering, till now subdued, was loud and
hearty, and some pieces of cannon on the shore gave token, by their
loud booming, that the great task of the day was done."
The tube, when in position, was lowered down upon its bearings on the
pier by opening valves in the pontoons, which thus sunk sufficiently to
ease them of their load.
The work of raising the tube to its position, 100 feet above high
water mark, was a much slower operation, and was attended with serious
difficulties. Hydraulic presses were used for the purpose, placed at
the top of the piers; two smaller ones, which had served to raise the
Conway Bridge, being at one end, and a much larger press, made for
the occasion, being fixed at the other. The immense tube was lifted
by chains fixed to the heads of the presses, and two steam engines,
of 40-horse power each, were employed to force the water into the
cylinders. The diameter of the ram of the largest hydraulic press
was 20 inches, and the pressure upon it was equal to 2¼ tons on each
circular inch. The tube was raised by successive lifts of 6 feet each,
and, as it was lifted, the space was built in with masonry for its
ultimate bearing. During the operation of lifting, the bottom of the
cylinder of the large hydraulic press burst out, and fell on the top of
the tube, in which it made a considerable indentation. Mr. Stephenson
had provided against the possibility of such accident, by having blocks
of wood, an inch thick, introduced under the tube as it was elevated,
and these blocks arrested its fall, or it would otherwise have been
dashed to pieces. Even the small fall of an inch did considerable
injury. This accident caused some delay, but the other tubes were in
the meantime progressing, and the completed bridge was opened for
public traffic on the 21st of October, 1850.
The strength of the bridge was tested before passenger trains were
allowed to pass through it, by placing in the centre of the longest
tubes twenty-eight waggons, loaded with 280 tons of coal, and two
locomotives, and by afterwards sending those heavy trains through
the bridge at full speed. The deflection of the tubes in the centre
amounted to only three-quarters of an inch in each cell; it being
rather less when the trains were at full speed than when stationary.
The strongest gusts of wind to which the bridge has been exposed
have not caused a vibration of more than one inch. The total cost of
construction was £601,865; of which sum £3,986 was for experiments, and
£158,704 for masonry.
Another Tubular Bridge of rival magnitude to the one across the Menai
Straits is now in the course of construction by Mr. Brunel across the
Tamar, at Saltash, for the South Devon and Cornwall Railway. As no
rock presented itself conveniently halfway across whereon to erect
the central pier, Mr. Brunel was obliged to work at a great depth
below the surface of the water in making the foundation of the Royal
Albert Bridge. In the plan of making the foundation, as well as in the
structure of the bridge itself, Mr. Brunel adopted a course altogether
original. Instead of attempting to construct a coffer-dam by piles,
which would have been almost impracticable at such a depth, and very
costly, he caused a large iron tube to be put together, thirty-six feet
in diameter, and ninety-six feet long, to reach to the bed of the
river. This monster tube was lowered perpendicularly in the middle of
the river, and the water being pumped out of it, the men could work at
the bottom in safety. In this manner, after much labour, the rock was
prepared to receive the blocks of granite, which were laid one on the
other, till they rose above the surface of the water. On that granite
pedestal a cast-iron pier was raised to a height of 100 feet, the level
of the roadway of the rails.
The cast-iron pier consists of four octagon columns, 10 feet in
diameter. They stand about 10 feet apart, forming a square, and they
are bound together by massive lattice-work of wrought iron, to prevent
any lateral movement. Each of these columns weighs 150 tons; and when
the full weight of the bridge rests on the foundation of the central
pier, the pressure will be equal to 8 tons on the square foot, or
double the pressure of the Victoria Tower on its base.
In the structure of the bridge, Mr. Brunel availed himself of the
results of the experiments made by Mr. Fairbairn on the strength of
iron tubes, but he adopted a very different plan from that of Mr.
Stephenson. Instead of constructing a large tube for the trains to pass
through, Mr. Brunel made tubular arches, consisting of iron plates
curved and riveted together, to serve as rigid supports, from which the
roadway is suspended by chains and by connecting iron bars.
The placing of the first of the tubular arches in position between the
pier near the shore at Saltash and the central pier, which took place
on the 1st of September, 1857, excited great interest, and at least
50,000 persons were assembled from places far and near to witness
the operation. The tube, with the roadway and suspension chains, was
floated from the yard where it was put together on four pontoons; and
it was thus conveyed, and safely deposited on the piers at a height of
30 feet above high water mark. It was afterwards gradually raised by
hydraulic presses to the top, a height of 100 feet. The work of raising
it commenced on the 25th of November, and was completed on the 19th of
May last.
The following lively description of the Royal Albert Bridge, and
its surrounding scenery, extracted from a recent article in the
_Times_, gives a very good idea of the magnitude of the structure, by
comparison with well-known objects:--"Though, probably, our readers
may care little and have heard less about Saltash proper, it is
likely henceforth to receive a fair share of general attention, and
we can safely say, to those who will journey down to see the bridge,
that the viaduct requires indeed to be a fine one to attract their
attention from the lovely scenery of the valley of the Tamar, which
it crosses. The banks of this noble river narrow in considerably as
the stream reaches Saltash, and, hemmed in there to half a mile or so,
suddenly widens out into as fine a sheet of water as any of its kind
in the kingdom, its distant banks covered with cottages, and fringed
with undulating woodlands down to the very edge. Across this narrow
part of the channel, where Saltash, in picturesque dirt and disarray,
straggles up the banks on one side, and a steep hill, covered with
rock and rock-grown underwood, forms the other, the viaduct stretches
high in air. The briefest general way of describing it is to say that
it consists of nineteen spans or arches, seventeen of which are wider
than the widest arches of Westminster Bridge; and two, resting on a
single cast-iron pier of four columns in the centre of the river, span
the whole stream at one gigantic leap of 910 feet, or a longer distance
than the breadth of the Thames at Westminster. The total length of the
structure from end to end is 2,240 feet,--very nearly half a mile, and
300 feet longer than the entire stretch of the Britannia Bridge. The
greatest width is only 30 feet at basement; its greatest height from
foundation to summit no less than 260 feet, or 50 feet higher than the
summit of the Monument. The Britannia Bridge, both in size, purpose,
and engineering importance, seems to offer the best comparison with
that of Saltash, but the similarity between the structures is far from
being as great as might be at first supposed. The Britannia tube is
smaller, and cost nearly four times the price of the Saltash Viaduct,
though the engineers had natural facilities which Mr. Brunel, for his
Cornish bridge, certainly had not."
The form of the tubes is an oval, 17 feet in its longest diameter,
and 12 feet in its shortest. They are bent into an elliptical curve,
with a rise in the middle of twenty-eight feet. With the roadway and
suspension chains attached, each tube weighs 1,100 tons. The total
weight of wrought iron in the bridge, when completed, will be 2,650
tons; of cast iron, 1,200; of masonry and brickwork there will be
about 17,000 cubic yards; and of timber, about 14,000 cubic feet.
The second tube, which is in every respect like the first, was
completed on the 30th of June last, and on the 10th of July was
successfully placed in position between the central pier and the
Devonshire side of the river. The operation of elevating it began on
the 9th of August, and it has now reached nearly the level of the first
one, the tube being raised six feet in a week.
The engraving on the other side is a view of this wonderful structure
in its completed form. Its appearance is far more light and elegant
than that of the Britannia Bridge, but it remains to be seen whether it
will be equally steady under a gale of wind, and whether any vibration
of the suspended roadway will interfere with the rapid motion of the
trains. As the South Devon Railway has only one line of rails for the
greater portion of its length, but a single roadway is provided on the
Royal Albert Bridge.
The progress of railway locomotion has not only given rise to the
construction of new kinds of bridges, but it has directed mechanical
science to devise better means of applying the strength of materials.
On the South Devon and Cornwall Railways are to be seen wooden
viaducts, carrying the line over valleys at great heights, constructed
with such slender timbers, that, to an inexperienced eye, they seem
frightfully frail for the support of heavy railway trains.
[Illustration: ROYAL ALBERT BRIDGE, OVER THE TAMAR, AT SALTASH.]
We must not omit to notice, among the remarkable bridge erections
connected with railways, the viaduct across the valley of the Boyne,
which passes over the river close to the town of Drogheda, at a height
of 95 feet. The central portion of the viaduct is supported on four
piers, 90 feet above high water mark, with a span in the centre of
250 feet, and on each side of 125 feet. This elevated portion of the
work is approached on the southern side by twelve arches, of 60 feet
span each, and on the north by three similar arches. The viaduct is
constructed of limestone and iron lattice-work, and is calculated to
bear 7,200 tons.
During the erection of this viaduct the railway trains were carried
over the valley on a wooden platform, without side railings, supported
by scaffold-poles; and the crackling of the timbers, as the carriages
passed over it, and the dizzy height at which they were carried through
the air, produced a sensation of terror in nervous passengers, that was
fully justified by the apparent danger.