Ships, propelled by some mysterious power against wind and against
tide, cutting their ways through the water without apparent impulse
and like things of life, were not unfrequently seen gliding along in
the regions of fancy, ages before the realization of such objects on
geographical seas and rivers was looked upon as in the slightest degree
possible. Even at the beginning of the present century, it seemed to
be more probable that man would be able to navigate the air at will,
than that he should be able, without wind or current, and in opposition
to both, to propel and steer large ships over the waves; yet, within
twenty years afterwards, Steam Navigation had ceased to be a wonder.
If we look back into the records of past ages, we find that inventive
genius was active in the earliest times, in endeavouring to find other
means of propelling boats than by manual labour and the uncertain wind,
some of which contrivances point to the method subsequently adopted by
the constructors of steam-vessels.
To enable us to appreciate properly the gradual advances that have
been made in perfecting any invention, it is necessary to consider its
distinguishing features, and the difficulties which inventors have had
successively to contend against. On taking this view of the progress
of Steam Navigation, it will be found that the amount of novelty to
which each inventor has a claim is very small, and that his principal
merit consists in the application of other inventions to accomplish
his special object. The same remark will indeed apply to most other
inventions; for the utmost that inventive genius can accomplish, is to
put together in new forms, and with different applications, preceding
contrivances and discoveries, which were also the results of antecedent
knowledge, labour, and skill.
When, for instance, we look upon an ordinary steam-boat, the most
remarkable and the most important feature is the paddle-wheel, by the
action of which against the water the boat is propelled. Yet that
method of propelling boats was practised by the Egyptians hundreds of
years before steam power was thought of; and the ancient Romans made
use of similar wheels, worked by hand, as substitutes for oars. It
would seem, therefore, to be only a small step in inventive progress,
after the discovery of the steam engine, to apply that motive power to
turn the paddle-wheels which had been previously used; and now that we
see the perfected invention, it may surprise those who are unacquainted
with the difficulties which attend any new appliance, that Steam
Navigation did not sooner become an accomplished fact.
In a book called "Inventions and Devices," by William Bourne, published
in 1578, it was proposed to make a boat go by paddle-wheels, "to be
turned by some provision." The Marquis of Worcester, in his "Century
of Inventions," also speaks vaguely of a mode of propelling ships. But
Capt. Savery, the inventor of the earliest working steam engine, was
the first to suggest the application of steam to navigation; and Dr.
Papin, who contended with Savery for priority of the invention, also
suggested about the same time the application of the elastic force of
steam to that purpose.
These crude notions, however, do not deserve to be considered as
inventions, though they probably assisted in suggesting the idea of
the plan proposed by Mr. Jonathan Hulls, who in 1736 took out a patent
for a steam-boat, and in the following year published a description of
his invention, illustrated by a drawing, entitled, "A description and
draught of a new-invented machine for carrying vessels or ships out
of or into any harbour, port, or river, against wind or tide, or in a
calm."
The greater part of this publication is occupied with answers to
objections that he supposed might be raised to the scheme, and in the
preface he makes the following observations on the treatment inventors
were exposed to in his day, which we fear will apply equally at the
present time. "There is," he says, "one great hardship lies too
commonly on those who purpose to advance some new though useful scheme
for the public benefit. The world abounding more in rash censure than
in candid and unprejudiced estimation of things, if a person does not
answer their expectations in every point, instead of friendly treatment
for his good intentions, he too often meets with ridicule and contempt."
[Illustration]
At the time of Mr. Hulls' invention, Watt had not made his improvements
in the steam engine, and the kind of engine Hulls employed was similar
to Newcomen's, in which the steam was condensed in the cylinder,
and the piston, after being forced down by the direct pressure of
the atmosphere, was drawn upwards again by a weight. The paddle, or
"vanes," as he called them, were placed at the stern, between two
wheels, which were turned by ropes passing over their peripheries.
The alternate motion of the piston was ingeniously converted into a
continuous rotary movement, by connection with other ropes attached to
the piston and to the weight, the backward movement being prevented by
a catch or click.
The woodcut which lays before you is a reduced copy of Hulls'
"draught" of his steam-boat, as given in his book, a copy of which is
preserved in the British Museum.
The utmost application of steam power to navigation contemplated by
Hulls was to tow large vessels into or out of harbour, in calm weather,
by means of a separate steam tug-boat, as he considered the cumbersome
mechanism would be found objectionable on board the ships to be thus
propelled. It does not appear that this plan was effectually tried,
nor was the arrangement of the mechanism, nor the imperfect condition
of the steam engine at that period, calculated to make the effort
successful.
For some years after Mr. Hulls' plan had been published, and had
proved abortive, no further attempt seems to have been made, until the
improvements in the steam engine, by Watt, rendered it more applicable
for the purpose of navigation. The French claim for the Marquis de
Jouffroy the honour of having been the first who successfully applied
steam power to propel boats, in 1782; though another French nobleman,
the Comte d'Auxiron, and M. Perier, had eight years previously made
some experiments with steam-boats on the Seine. The Marquis de
Jouffroy's steam-boat, which was 145 feet long, was tried on the Soane,
near Lyons, with good promise of success. The marquis was, however,
obliged to leave France by the fury of the Revolution, and when he
returned in 1796, he found that a patent had been granted to M. le
Blanc, for building steam-boats in France. He protested against the
monopoly, but the patent remained in force, and the plan received
no further development, either from the Marquis de Jouffroy, or the
patentee.
About five years later, Mr. Patrick Miller, of Dalswinton, in Scotland,
directed his attention to the propulsion of boats by mechanical means,
and contrived different kinds of paddles, and other propellers to be
worked by hand, which were tried on boats on Dalswinton Lake. The
great labour required to work these machines induced Mr. James Taylor,
a tutor in Mr. Miller's family, to suggest the use of steam power to
turn them, and he recommended Mr. Miller to obtain the assistance of
William Symington, an engineer, who was at that time endeavouring to
make a steam locomotive carriage. Among the first difficulties that
suggested themselves, was the danger of setting fire to the boat by
the engine furnace. This difficulty was overcome by Mr. Taylor, and
the arrangements were completed, and the experiment was tried in 1788.
The steam engine and mechanism were applied to a double pleasure-boat;
the engine being placed on one side, the boiler on the other, and the
paddle-wheel in the centre. The cylinders of the steam engine were only
four inches in diameter; but with this engine the boat was propelled
across Dalswinton Lake at a speed of five miles an hour.
The success of this experiment induced Mr. Miller to have a larger
boat built, expressly adapted for the introduction of a steam engine.
It was constructed under the superintendence of Symington, and was
tried successfully on the Forth and Clyde Canal in 1789, when it was
propelled at the rate of seven miles an hour.
In the arrangement of the mechanism of this boat, the cylinder was
placed horizontally, for the purpose of making connection between the
paddle-wheel and the piston, without the working beam. The piston was
supported in its position by friction wheels, and communicated motion
to the paddles by a crank. The paddles were placed in the middle of the
boat, near the stern; and there was a double rudder, connected together
by rods which were moved by a winch at the head of the vessel.
It is not very clear why Mr. Miller did not follow up this success.
Objection, indeed, was made by the proprietors of the canal on account
of the agitation of the water, which it was feared would injure
the banks. It would appear also that a misunderstanding took place
between Miller and Symington, which gave the former a distaste to the
undertaking; and having shown that such a plan was practicable, he left
others to carry it into practical effect.
Several methods of propelling boats, otherwise than by paddles, had
some years previously been suggested; among which were two that have
been again and again tried by succeeding inventors, down to the present
day.
One of these is an imitation of the duck's foot, which expands when it
strikes the water, and collapses when it is withdrawn. The other is
the ejection of a stream of water at the stern, or on both sides of
the boat, so as to produce a forward movement by reaction. Both these
plans of propulsion seem feasible in design; but they have hitherto
failed in practice. A pastor at Berne, named J. A. Genevois, has the
credit of having invented the duck-feet propeller in 1755; and in 1795,
six years after Mr. Miller's successful experiments, Earl Stanhope had
a steam-boat built on that principle. It was so far a failure, that it
was not propelled faster than three miles an hour. The other method of
propulsion, though of older date, was patented in 1800 by Mr. Linnaker,
who proposed to draw the water in at the head of the vessel, and eject
it at the stern, and thus to obtain a double action on the water for
propelling; but the plan was not found to answer.
In 1801, Lord Dundas revived Mr. Miller's project, and availed himself
of Mr. Symington's increased experience and the further improvements in
the steam engine, to construct a much more perfect steam-boat than any
that had been made. He spent £3,000 in the experiments, and in March,
1802, his vessel, called the "Charlotte Dundas," was tried on the same
scene of action, the Forth and Clyde Canal. This boat, according to
Symington's report, towed two vessels, each of seventy tons burthen, a
distance of nineteen miles and a half in six hours, against a strong
wind. The threatened injury to the banks of the canal by the great
agitation of the water prevented the use of this boat, which was
consequently laid aside; for the views of the inventors of steam-boats
in the first instance were limited to their employment to drag boats
along canals.
We now approach a period when more decided advances and more rapid
progress were made towards realizing steam navigation as a practical
fact. Mr. Fulton, an American, residing in France, after making a
number of experiments, under the sanction and with the assistance of
Mr. Livingstone, the American Ambassador, launched a small steam-boat
on the Seine in 1803, but the weight of the engine proved too great for
the strength of the boat, which broke in the middle, and immediately
went to the bottom.
Not disheartened by this failure he built another one, longer and
stronger, and this he succeeded in propelling by steam power, though
very slowly. It was, indeed, a much less successful effort than the
attempts of Mr. Miller and Lord Dundas. Having been threatened with
opposition by M. le Blanc, the patentee of steam-boats in France,
Fulton determined to return to his native country, where the large
navigable rivers and lakes offered ample scope for the development of
steam navigation. Having heard of the success of Symington's boats,
he visited Scotland for the purpose of profiting by his experience;
and he induced Symington, by promises of great advantages if the
invention succeeded in America, to show him the "Charlotte Dundas" at
work, and to enter into full explanations of every part. Thus primed
with the facts, and with the further suggestions of Symington, Fulton
repaired to New York. Mr. Livingstone, who had assisted Fulton in his
experiments, was himself an inventor of several plans of propelling
vessels by steam, and in 1798 he obtained a patent in the State of
New York, for twenty years, on condition that he should produce a
steam-boat by the 7th of March, 1799, that would go at the rate of
_four_ miles an hour. Having failed to fulfil that condition, the
patent privilege was left open, and was promised to the first inventor
who succeeded in propelling a boat by steam power at the proposed
speed of four miles an hour. Fulton, who had entered into partnership
with Mr. Livingstone, possessed advantages in the construction of the
vessel he built in America, far greater than any previous inventor. He
had not only gained knowledge by his former failures, but he was able
to profit by the experience of others, and he had secured a superior
steam engine, manufactured by Boulton and Watt, of twenty-horse power.
This was a much more powerful engine than any that had been used in
any former experiment; the one employed by Mr. Livingstone having had
only five-horse power. This steam-vessel was launched at New York in
1807, and was called the "Clermont," the name of Mr. Livingstone's
residence on the banks of the Hudson. Its length was 133 feet, depth 7
feet, and breadth 18 feet. The boiler was 20 feet long, 7 feet deep,
and 8 feet broad. There was only one steam cylinder, which was 2 feet
in diameter, with a length of stroke of 4 feet. The paddle-wheels were
15 feet in diameter, and 5 feet broad; and the burthen of the vessel
was 160 tons. Crowds of spectators assembled to see the boat start on
its first experimental voyage. The general impression, even of those
who were friendly to Fulton, was that it would fail, and an accident
which occurred when the vessel was under way confirmed this opinion.
The foreboders of evil exclaimed immediately that they had "foreseen
something of the kind;" and observed "it was a pity so much expense
had been incurred for nothing!" The required repairs were, however,
soon made. The vessel when again tried cut her way bravely through
the water, to the astonishment of all, and the doubts, and fears, and
lamentations were quickly changed into congratulations.
As the "Clermont" urged its way up the Hudson, its chimney emitting
innumerable sparks from the dried pine wood used as fuel, it excited
great alarm among those who were not prepared for such an apparition.
An American paper of that day thus described the effect produced on
the crews of other ships in the river:--"Notwithstanding the wind and
tide were adverse to its approach, they saw with astonishment that
it was rapidly coming towards them; and when it came so near that
the noise of the machinery and paddles was heard, the crews, in some
instances, shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight, or left
their vessels to go on shore; whilst others prostrated themselves and
besought Providence to protect them from the approach of the horrible
monster which was marching on the waves, and lighting its path by the
fires which it vomited."
During the time that Fulton was building his steam-boat Mr. R. L.
Stevens, of Hoboken, in the State of New Jersey, was also engaged in a
similar undertaking. Though his name is comparatively little heard of
in the history of Steam Navigation, his efforts were more successful
than any that had been made previously, and but for the fortunate
chance to Fulton that he was able to launch and put his boat in action
a few days before Stevens had completed his, all, and more than all,
the merit that is now ascribed to the former would have been attributed
to Stevens. The previous successful experiment of Fulton having
fulfilled the conditions imposed by the State of New York, he obtained
the exclusive right of steam navigation on the rivers and along the
coast of that State; therefore, after Stevens had launched his boat on
the Hudson, he was unable to employ it there. In this predicament he
ventured on the hazardous experiment of taking his steam-vessel by sea,
and successfully accomplished his voyage from New York to Delaware.
This was the first attempt to put to sea in a steam-boat.
Mr. Stevens introduced many important improvements. He increased the
length of stroke of the engines; he applied upright guides for the
piston-rod, to supply the place of the parallel motion; and he divided
the paddle-wheel by boards, by which means a more uniform motion was
obtained. By these improvements he succeeded in raising the speed of
steam-vessels to thirteen miles an hour.
Whilst Steam Navigation was making such progress in America, it was not
neglected in this country. Mr. Henry Bell, of Glasgow, a man of great
ingenuity, had for some time directed his attention to the subject,
and had given some useful hints to Fulton. Seeing, as he afterwards
said, no reason why others should profit by his plans without his
participation in the fame and the profits, he determined to build a
steam-boat himself, which was completed and launched in 1811. Bell
called his boat the "Comet," in commemoration of the remarkable
eccentric luminary which was at that time frightening Europe from
its propriety. The boat was 25 tons burthen, with an engine of about
3-horse power. It plied on the Frith of Forth for a distance of 27
miles, which in ordinary weather it accomplished in 3½ hours. The
"Comet" is generally supposed to have been the first steam-boat that
plied regularly in Europe; and its construction was so perfect, that
no boat built for many years afterwards surpassed it, taking into
consideration its size and the small power of its engine. Bell, though
he had done so much to advance Steam Navigation in this country, was
allowed to suffer neglect and penury in his old age, till the town of
Glasgow granted him a small annuity for his services.
A claim has been preferred on behalf of Messrs. Furnace and Ashton, of
Hull, to priority in building the first steam-vessel that was worked
in England. It is stated, that "about the year 1787, experiments were
made on the river Hull, by Furnace and Ashton, on the propulsion
of vessels by steam power. Furnace and Ashton built a boat, which
plied on the river, between Hull and Beverley, for some time, and
answered exceedingly well. In consequence of the good results of their
experiments, they built a much larger vessel and engine, and sent the
whole to London, to be put together and finished; after which it was
subjected to the severest tests, and gave the greatest satisfaction.
The vessel was bought by the Prince Regent (afterwards George IV.),
who had it fitted and furnished as a pleasure yacht; but it was soon
afterwards burnt, having, it is supposed, been wilfully set on fire
by persons who were afraid that such an invention would be injurious
to their calling. The Prince was so much pleased with the invention
and ingenuity of Furnace and Ashton, that he granted them a pension
for their lives of £70 a year each."[1] This steamer was on the
paddle-wheel principle, propelled by a steam engine, to which was
attached a copper boiler.
From this time forward the progress of Steam Navigation was very
rapid. Steam-ships were built longer and larger, and with more
powerful engines; and the most skilful builders rivalled each other
in the construction and adaptation of their vessels and engines, so
as to attain the highest possible speed. The locality in which Steam
Navigation may be said to have had its birth continued for a long time
to be pre-eminent, and steam-boats built on the Clyde still rank very
high, if not the highest, in the scale of excellence.
The ordinary land steam engine required considerable alterations to
adapt it to marine purposes; nor was it till great experience had been
gained in propelling vessels by steam power, that the more essentially
requisite modifications were adopted. It was found important, in the
first place, to reduce the space occupied by the machinery as much as
possible. The boilers were consequently made of less dimensions, but
more extensive in their heating surface. It was also found desirable
to employ two engines instead of one, the pistons being made to rise
and descend alternately. By this means the motion was rendered more
equable, and by placing the cranks of the common shaft at right angles,
the "dead points" were passed more readily, and the want of a fly wheel
was thus compensated.
The steam-boats employed in this country were, almost from the first,
and continue with few exceptions to be, on the low-pressure condensing
principle; the whole of the machinery being placed below the deck. This
renders it necessary to diminish the height of the engines as much
as possible; and in all marine steam engines, till within the last
twenty years, instead of having a working beam over the cylinders,
a cross-head was placed at the top of the piston-rod, the action of
which was conveyed by parallel motions to cross beams on each side,
which were situated at the bottom part of each engine. The motion,
compared with that of an ordinary land engine, was thus inverted. The
proportions of the cylinders were also different; the length of stroke
being shorter, to diminish the height, and the diameter consequently
greater. The valves, and the gearing connected with them, the air pump,
the condenser, and other subsidiary parts, do not differ essentially
from those of land engines; but the governor is omitted, as it is found
impracticable to work a marine engine with great regularity.
Latterly, many engineers have introduced, with much success,
arrangements for communicating the action directly from the piston-rod
to the crank, without the intervention of the beam and parallel
motions. This is generally done by causing the piston-rod to work
between guides, and a jointed arm connects it with the crank. One
method of producing the same effect is to make the cylinders oscillate
on pivots, as contrived by Mr. Murdoch, in the first model steam
carriage, made in 1784. This principle has been successfully carried
into operation by Messrs. Penn, of Greenwich. The oscillating cylinders
accommodate themselves to the varying directions of the cranks, and
the strain occasioned by guide rods is diminished; but when very large
cylinders are required, the friction and the pressure on the pivots
must tend to counterbalance the advantage otherwise obtained.
In the ordinary paddle-wheel steam-boats, the floats of the
paddle-wheels are fixed at equal distances round the rim, radiating
from the centre; therefore they enter and come out of the water
obliquely. There is, consequently, a considerable loss of power
attending the use of such paddle-wheels, as only one float at a time
can be acting vertically on the water, and exerting the propelling
force in a direct line. Several attempts have been made to remedy this
defect, and to produce what is called "feathering" floats, every one
of which will act against the water at right angles. The mechanism
required for making this adjustment is, however, liable to get out
of order, and the introduction of vertically acting floats has
consequently been very limited.
The large projecting paddle-boxes are objectionable in sea-going
ships, as they present so large a surface to the action of the wind,
and either impede the course of the ship, or make it unweatherly.
This inconvenience was experienced in the early progress of Steam
Navigation, and many attempts were made to overcome it, by substituting
a different kind of propeller. Recourse was had to the inventions of
the ancients, from whom the paddle-wheel was taken, to find some other
means of propulsion. A method of propulsion, similar in principle to
the action of sculls at the back of a boat, had been contrived long
before the inconvenience of paddle-wheels in Steam Navigation was
experienced. In 1784, Mr. Bramah obtained a patent for a propeller
similar in its forms to the vanes of a windmill, which by acting
obliquely on the water as it revolved, pushed the boat forward. Ten
years afterwards, an "aquatic propeller" was patented by Mr. William
Lyttleton, a merchant in London. It consisted of a single convolution
of a three-threaded screw, and may be considered to be the first screw
propeller invented. Numerous other ingenious persons, among whom were
Tredgold, Trevethick, Maceroni, and Millington, afterwards invented
propellers on the screw principle; but none of them were sufficiently
satisfactory in their results to come into practical use.
In 1836, Mr. Smith and Mr. Ericsson obtained a patent for a screw
propeller, which nearly resembled Mr. Lyttleton's original contrivance;
and by perseverance in struggling against the many obstacles with
which he had to contend, Mr. Smith succeeded, though all previous
efforts had failed. His partner, however, became disheartened by the
obstacles thrown in their way, and left this country for America before
the success of the screw was established.
The first ship fitted with the screw propeller was called the
"Archimedes." It was a vessel of 237 tons burthen, with a draught of
water of 9 feet 4 inches. The screw projected at the stern, and being
turned rapidly round by the steam engine, the oblique action of the
thread of the screw against the water impelled the vessel forward.
The "Archimedes" was originally fitted with a single-threaded screw,
the threads of which were 8 feet apart, and there were two convolutions
of the screw round the shaft. One convolution of the screw having
been accidentally broken off, the ship was found to go faster in
consequence; and, following the course of investigation suggested by
the accident, Mr. Smith at last adopted a double-threaded screw, with
only half a convolution. The average performance of the engines was 26
strokes per minute, and the number of revolutions of the screw in the
same time was 138½. The "pitch" of the screw was 8 feet; that is, the
space across one entire convolution of the thread would have measured
8 feet; consequently, had it been acting against a solid body, as a
cork-screw when entering a cork, one revolution of the shaft would have
advanced the vessel 8 feet, and the speed would have been 12½ miles an
hour; but the utmost speed the "Archimedes" obtained was 9¼ nautical
miles. The difference was owing to the screw "slipping" in the water,
because the fluid yielded to the oblique action of the blades.
[Illustration]
The results of the working of that experimental ship were so
satisfactory, that other ships were soon built, with modifications
of the form of the propeller. It was found disadvantageous to have
an entire convolution of the thread of the screw; for one part of it
worked in the wake of the other, and resistance was produced by the
backwater. After numerous experiments, in which the dimensions of the
screw were successively diminished, the propeller was at length reduced
to two oblique blades. Experiments on a large scale were conducted by
Captain Carpenter, to determine the size and angle of inclination best
adapted for the purpose of propulsion; and nearly all the ships now
built for the Royal Navy are fitted with propellers on his principle.
The annexed diagram represents on a scale of one-eighth of an inch to a
foot, the form of the propeller of the "Agamemnon," of 606-horse power,
which was recently engaged in successfully laying down the Atlantic
Telegraph cable. The diameter of the screw is 18 feet, and the pitch 20
feet.
The screw propeller possesses great advantages in ships of war, as
it is not exposed to damage by shot, and it leaves the entire deck
clear for mounting guns. It has also the further advantage of not
interfering with the working of sails, and is, therefore, admirably
adapted for sea-going ships that economize fuel by alternately steaming
and sailing, as the wind is adverse or favourable. The commotion in
the water made by paddle-wheels, which is an objection to their use in
narrow rivers, is avoided by screw propellers, which being immersed
under the water, make little agitation on the surface, and the ships
move along without any apparent impelling power.
The speed of ships with the best constructed screw propellers is fully
equal to that of paddle-wheel vessels; and when two vessels of the same
size, and with engines of equal power, one fitted with paddles, and the
other with the screw, are fastened stem and stern together, in a trial
of strength, the screw propeller has been found to have the advantage,
and to pull its antagonist along at the rate of one or two miles an
hour.
The difficulty at first experienced in the application of the screw
propeller was to communicate a sufficiently rapid motion to the shaft
to which it is fixed; but, by the employment of direct-acting engines,
this difficulty has been for the most part overcome. The power is
generally first applied to drive a large cog-wheel, the teeth of which
take into the teeth of a smaller cog-wheel fixed to the propeller
shaft, and in this manner the velocity is sufficiently increased.
In 1852 the proportion of screw to paddle-wheel vessels building
in the Clyde was as 43 to 30. The advantages of the propeller are
becoming every year more appreciated, and it is rapidly superseding the
paddle-wheel.
In the steam-boats of the United States the engines are constructed on
the high-pressure principle; and by working with steam of the pressure
of 100 pounds on the square inch, and with larger paddle-wheels, their
boats attain a speed exceeding sixteen miles an hour. But numerous
explosions of boilers on the North American rivers have operated
as a caution against the introduction of high-pressure engines in
steam-boats in this country. The dread of high-pressure steam was early
impressed by the destructive explosion of the boiler of a steam-vessel
at Norwich in 1817, which led to a long parliamentary inquiry into
the subject; and the subsequent loss of life by the explosion of the
"Cricket" on the Thames, has tended to strengthen the apprehension
of high-pressure steam engines. For river use, however, when fresh
water is always at command for generating the steam, there appears to
be no more cause for fear of high-pressure engines in boats than on
railways, provided the boilers are constructed with sufficient care.
The experiments made by Mr. Fairbairn on the strength of boilers,
the results of which were communicated at the meeting of the British
Association in 1853, prove, that by increasing the number and strength
of the "stays," or internal supports, of the boilers, they may be made,
if sufficiently strong, to resist any possible pressure; and that the
square shape, which was supposed to be the weakest, offers, on the
contrary, peculiar facilities for giving increased strength. In one
of these experiments made to determine the ultimate strength of the
flat surfaces of boilers, when divided into squares of sixteen inches
area, the boiler did not give way until it had sustained the enormous
pressure of 1,625 pounds on the square inch.
It might be desirable, in the construction of steam boilers, to adopt
the same principle that is introduced in the building of gunpowder
mills, one-half of which is built in strong masonry, whilst the other
is made of wood. By this means, when an explosion does occur, much
less damage is done, for the lighter part only is blown away, which
does little injury. In the same manner, steam engine boilers might
be constructed with a small portion comparatively weaker, so that if
it gave way there would not be much damage done. Safety-valves are
intended to act in that manner; and if they were properly constructed,
they would sufficiently answer the purpose, and guard against the
possibility of danger; but the numerous accidents that occur with
boilers provided with imperfect safety-valves, show that there is
a necessity for some more effectual protection. Engineers are not
sufficiently alive to the importance of improvements in this respect.
They supply an engine with safety-valves, which would answer the
purpose if kept in proper condition; but they do not make effectual
provision against careless management and reckless misconduct. Some
years since, a gentleman in America sent to the author a description,
with drawings, of a safety-valve that combined the principles of the
safety-plug without its inconvenience; it being so contrived that
when the boiler became too hot, it melted some fusible metal which
previously held down the valve, and then a weight pulled it open to
allow an ample escape of steam; but when the heat was lowered, the
valve again closed. This was shown to an eminent engineer for his
opinion. He pronounced it to be very ingenious, and that it would, no
doubt, answer the purpose; but he said, "_An improved safety-valve is
not wanted_, those in use being quite sufficient for the purpose."
In steam-ships, where salt water is used for generating the steam, the
incrustation on the sides of the boilers becomes a serious annoyance.
It obstructs the communication of heat from the furnace to the water,
and the metal is thus liable to become red-hot. Numerous plans have
been adopted for the purpose of preventing the accumulation of salt
on the sides of the boiler, the most common of which is to allow the
water, when saturated with saline matter, to escape, and then to fill
the boiler afresh. Among other contrivances for effecting the same
purpose, without the waste of heating power which the change of
water occasions, is Mr. Hall's plan of condensing the steam in dry
condensers, cooled externally, so that the distilled water may be used
again and again. This plan though theoretically good, is not much
adopted; for the condensation of steam cannot be so well accomplished
by that means as when a jet of cold water is thrown directly into the
condenser. The principle of the dry condenser has, however, been lately
made available in a new kind of engine, wherein the combined action of
steam and of spirit vapour is applied as the propelling power.
Steam-boats had been for many years in extensive use on the rivers and
seas of Europe and America before it was thought practicable to make
voyages in them across the Atlantic. At the meeting of the British
Association at Liverpool in 1837, that subject was brought forward for
consideration, and it was then attempted to be shown, by calculations
of the quantities of coal requisite for such a voyage, that steam
communication with America would not be profitable, if it could be
accomplished, as the coal would occupy so much of the tonnage as to
leave scarcely any space for passengers and goods. Within a few months
afterwards those calculations were set at nought by the "Sirius" and
the "Great Western," which successfully crossed the Atlantic with
passengers and cargo, the former in nineteen days from Cork, and the
latter in sixteen. At the present time, steam-packets are constantly
crossing from New York to Liverpool in eleven days.
Steam-ships now find their way to India and even to Australia, though
the necessity of taking in coals at depôts supplied from England
not only prolongs the time, but adds so materially to the cost, as
to render steam communication with those distant places scarcely
practicable with profit, since no freight can pay for the expense of
coaling under such circumstances. To overcome that difficulty, it
was proposed to build ships large enough to carry a supply of coals
sufficient for the voyage there and back. One of those ships has
been built for the Eastern Steam Navigation Company by Mr. J. Scott
Russell, from the plans of Mr. Brunel, which is 675 feet long, 83 feet
broad, and 60 feet deep. It is adapted to carry 6,000 tons burthen,
in addition to the engines and requisite quantity of fuel, and to
accommodate 2,000 passengers. This monster ship has been built on what
is called the "wave principle" of ship-building, with long concave
bows. It is to be propelled by the combined powers of the paddle-wheel
and the screw. The engines for the former consist of 4 oscillating
cylinders, 16 feet long and 74 inches in diameter, and the screw is
to be worked by 4 separate engines, with cylinders of 84 inches in
diameter. The speed which the "Great Eastern" is estimated to attain
is 24 miles an hour, and it is calculated that the voyage to Australia
will be accomplished in 30 days. There seems, at present, but small
prospect of those calculations being realized, for the great cost
incurred in launching the vessel and other expenses have exhausted the
funds of the company by whom the ship was constructed.
Another company has, however, been formed for the purpose of
completing, if possible, this great experiment in Steam Navigation;
and the opinion so strongly expressed by Mr. Fairbairn at the recent
meeting of the British Association at Leeds, of the strength of the
monster ship, will give additional stimulus to their exertions. The
ship is built on the same principle of construction as the Britannia
Bridge over the Menai Straits, and it was stated by Mr. Fairbairn that
it might be supported out of water, either in the centre or at each
end, without injury.