=Experiment 36--Determining Shrinkage=_Textiles, for Commercial, Industrial, and Domestic Arts Schools Also Adapted to Those Engaged in Wholesale and Retail Dry Goods, Wool, Cotton, and Dressmaker's Trades

Apparatus: Hot water.

Material: Sample of woolen fabric.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.

_Directions_

1. Take a sample of a woolen fabric 12 in. by 20 in. and pour hot

water over it and leave it immersed over night. Then dry it in the

morning at a moderate temperature without stretching. Then measure its

length and divide the difference in lengths by the original length.

The quotient multiplied by 100 will give the per cent of shrinkage.

2. Repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric, and with a cotton

fabric.

3. Why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted?

=Experiment 37--Test of Fastness[28] of Color under Washing=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, soap solution. Materials: Cotton and woolen

fabrics. Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

1. Colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action of

washing. They require more care than white goods and should be soaked

in cold water containing very little soap and no soda. They should be

dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them. If it is

necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are dried wrong

side out, as direct sunlight fades them about five times as much as

reflected light.

2. All colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the

action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation. In

order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a

soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household, and

heated to 131° F. The treatment should be repeated several times.

3. If the color fails to run it is fast to washing.

_Questions_

1. Why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods than

white?

2. How may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand the

action of soap solution?

3. Does a moderately warm temperature (131° F.) affect the fastness of

colored fabric?

=Experiment 38--Test of Fastness of Color under Friction=

Apparatus: Yarn, white unstarched cotton fabric.

Materials: Fabrics worn near the skin.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

Stockings, hosiery yarns, corset stuffs, and all fabrics intended to

be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand friction

and must not rub off, stain, or run, that is, the dyed materials must

not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis (skin),

or in close contact with other articles of clothing, as in the case of

underwear.

In order to test two fabrics to see which is the better, it is

necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric.

In comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary to

have the rubbing equal in all cases.

_Questions_

1. What is meant by friction?

2. What is meant by the expression "fastness of color of two fabrics"?

3. How may the fastness of a colored material be tested to withstand

friction?

=Experiment 39--Test of Fastness of Color against Rain=

Apparatus: Water, undyed yarn.

Materials: Silk and woolen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

_Directions_

Silk and woolen materials for umbrella making, raincoats, etc., are

expected to be rainproof. These fabrics are tested by plaiting with

undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water. Notice whether the

color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns.

Take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on it.

Notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried. Spotting

may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong side of the

material; roll the two together, and when evenly damp, unroll and

press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron.

Place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain may

come in contact with it. Notice whether it loses its color and becomes

gray and dull.

=Experiment 40--Test of Fastness of Color in Sunlight=

Apparatus: Cardboard.

Materials: Silk, woolen, and cotton fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.

_Directions_

Cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard. Expose

the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth

each day and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when

compared with the part covered. Count the number of days it has taken

the sunlight to change the color. Does direct sunlight have any effect

upon colored fabrics? Which is the most affected by the sun, silk,

woolen, or cotton fabrics, dyed with same dyestuff, in the same length

of time? Are fabrics changed any sooner by the sun than by the

weather?

=Experiment 41--Test of Fastness of Color to Weather, Light, and Air=

Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 244.

_Directions_

Examine various fabrics for fastness to weather, light, and air by

placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed to

the weather, light, and air. Have duplicate samples of the above away

from the weather and light. Compare the samples exposed to the weather

with those in the house and note the number of days it takes to

change. Classify the fabrics. Which of the fabrics are most easily

affected by the weather, light, and air?

=Experiment 42--Test of Fastness of Color against Street Mud and Dust=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, lime, and water.

Materials: Cotton, silk, and woolen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

Ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and

dust. In order to test a fabric for the resistance, the sample should

be moistened with lime and water (10 per cent solution), dried, and

brushed. Or sprinkle with a 10 per cent solution of soda, drying,

brushing, and noting any change in the color.

_a._ Is there any change in color after the lime water

has been removed from the cloth?

_b._ With what may the action of the lime water or soda

be compared?

=Experiment 43--Testing Rubberized Fabrics=

Materials: Rubberized fabrics.

A great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals, domestic

purposes and for clothing. On account of the high price of excellent

rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the market

that are satisfactory to the eye, but have not the wearing qualities

for the service they are intended to render.

Strength and Resistance to Scratching.--In order to test a rubberized

fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand everyday use,

see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail. Then crease

it and crumple it between the hands. Then spread it out very carefully

and notice whether there are any broken places. If there are it should

be rejected.

Waterproof Qualities.--A rubberized fabric should be waterproof. A

sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and filling it with

water. Crumple the bag while it is filled with water. Notice whether

it cracks or leaks.

Examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they are

substantial.

=Experiment 44--Test for Vegetable and Animal Fiber=

Apparatus: Acid, fire.

Materials: Warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 239.

_Directions_

One of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made of

wool, cotton, or silk, and if a composition of two or more materials,

to estimate the percentage of each. Practical experience can teach one

much in this respect, and in many cases inspection is quite

insufficient. A more reliable test is to burn a piece of material and

notice how it burns.

Take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric; separate the warp and

filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of filling yarn.

Burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether it burns slowly and

curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable smell, or

burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind.

_Questions_

1. Describe the burning process.

2. What is the burning test for vegetable fiber?

3. What is the burning test for animal fiber?

Repeat the same experiment, placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric

acid. Apply heat and note the effect.

What is the acid test for vegetable fiber?

What is the acid test for animal fiber?

Examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable or

animal fibers.

=Experiment 45--Difference between Cotton and Linen Fabrics=

Examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel. Wet your hands and use

both towels to dry them. Notice which of the fabrics absorbs the

moisture quicker, or which towel dries the hands better.

Compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth. Notice that the

linen fabric has a natural gloss, a cool, smooth feel, and launders

much better than cotton. The cotton fabric on the other hand gives off

a fuzz, and irons dull and shapeless.[29]

Linen is tough and strong, cool feeling, and has a long fiber. Linen

cannot be given a cotton fabric finish.[30]

Cotton on the other hand has a weak, short fiber, dull, warm, and

non-absorbent. After washing, cotton resembles a limp rag while linen

retains firmness and stiffness.

Which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily?

What is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics? Between

the fibers of the fabrics?

=Experiment 46--Test to Distinguish Artificial Silk from Silk=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, potassium hydrate.

Material: Piece of silk fabric.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

Since silk fabrics, particularly hosiery, are becoming popular,

various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real silk.

To test a silk fabric, boil the sample in 4 per cent potassium hydrate

solution and note the effect. If it produces a yellow solution it is

artificial silk, if colorless it is pure silk.

Another simple way used by some workmen, although unhygienic, is to

unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric, place them in the

mouth, and masticate them vigorously. Artificial silk will soften

under the operation and break up into a mass of pulp. Natural silk

will retain its fibrous strength.

Test various samples of cheap "silk" hosiery.

=Experiment 47--Test to Distinguish Silk from Wool=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish, hydrochloric acid.

Material: Silk or woolen fabric.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

Silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected thread

or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. If silk is present

it will dissolve, while wool merely swells.

Test various samples of silk and wool.

=Experiment 48--Test to Distinguish Cotton from Linen=

Apparatus: Fuchsine, ammonia.

Materials: Cotton and linen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 240.

_Directions_

1. On account of the high price of linen various attempts are made to

pass cotton off for linen. While it is possible sometimes to detect

cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb and finger,

the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine. If the fibers of

the fabric turn red, and this coloration disappears upon the addition

of ammonia, they are cotton; if the red color remains, the fibers are

linen. The most reliable test is to examine the fiber under the

microscope and note the difference in structure.

2. Test a cheap _linen_ fabric for cotton.

3. When cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy

through wear, and when used to adulterate other fabrics, it wears

shabby and loses its brightness. Linen is a heavier fabric, and

wrinkles much more readily than cotton. It wears better, and has an

exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics.

4. Describe a chemical test for linen.

5. What is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities of

cotton and linen?

=Experiment 49--Test of Fabric to Withstand Ironing and Pressing=

Apparatus: Hot iron.

Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.

_Directions_

Place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot iron

(about 200° F.). Compare the sample immediately with one not ironed.

Remember that many colors, particularly colored silks, change while

they are hot. If the original shade returns when the fabric has

cooled, then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing.

_Questions_

1. What is the object of ironing and pressing clothes?

2. Is it a good plan to press clothes often?

3. Is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the three

kinds of fabrics?

=Experiment 50--Test of Fabric to Withstand Perspiration=

Apparatus: Porcelain dish.

Materials: Silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 243.

_Directions_

1. In addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact with

the human skin, fabrics like hosiery, etc., should withstand the

excretions of the body.

2. To test a fabric for resistance, place the sample in a bath of

dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a quart

of water warmed to the temperature of the body, 98.6° F. The fabric

should be dipped a number of times, and then dried, without rinsing,

between parchment paper.

_Questions_

1. What is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics?

2. Would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration, even

if they did withstand the acetic acid solution? Why?

=Experiment 51--Test for Determining Dressing=

Apparatus: Magnifying glass, porcelain dish.

Materials: Various fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 242.

_Directions_

1. A great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain

considerable sizing or dressing. In order to examine a fabric and

determine whether too much dressing has been used, take a small sample

of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it together, so that

the dressing is removed and the quantity employed may be determined.

If much dressing has been used, dust will be produced in rubbing.

Prick the surface with your finger nail. Notice whether the starch

comes off. Then wet your finger and rub it on the cloth and allow it

to dry. Does the gloss disappear?

2. Another method is to hold the sample before the light and notice

whether you can recognize the dressing. Examine the sample with a

magnifying glass (or pick glass) and notice whether the dressing is

superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric.

3. Would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss and pasty

look?

4. Notice the effect (lusterless) of fabrics containing much dressing

after washing.

5. A very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting in

a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample, then "boil the fabric out

in hot water,"--boiling for several hours and then drying it. The

difference in weight after drying and before boiling gives the weight

of sizing material per sample piece.

6. If mineral loading has been used to a great extent, a large residue

is left after burning.

=Experiment 52--Testing the Strength of Cloth=

Apparatus: Dynamometer.

Materials: Various fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 237.

_Directions_

1. An excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place the

two thumbs together and press them down on the sample, holding it

tight underneath. Then try to break the threads, first in one

direction and then in the other. Do they break easily? Notice whether

one set is very much stronger than the other.

2. Manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an

instrument called a dynamometer. In this way one can find out whether

a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength, and whether it

has the required yield or stretch. Both these points are of importance

in practical work, for it is essential that the yarn as shown should

at least be strong enough to bear the strain of manufacture. The test

is made by stretching a hank of yarn between the two hooks of a cloth

testing machine. The handle at the side is now turned, so that the

lower hook descends and puts a strain on the hank. This strain is

increased, and at the same time the pointer moves around the dial,

which indicates in pounds the amount of strain. When the threads of

the hank begin to break, the strain is released, and the catch at the

side keeps the pointer in position until the amount of strain is read

on the dial. The distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs

is shown in inches and fractions of an inch, in the small indicator

arranged near the upper hook.

Test different fabrics and yarns.

=Experiment 53--Characteristics of a Knitted Fabric=

Apparatus: Pick glass.

Materials: Knitted fabric, woven fabric.

Reference: _Textiles_, page 153.

_Directions_

1. Examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and notice

the construction. How does it differ from weaving? The single thread

is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each other, thus giving

the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness. Why is hosiery

suitable for underwear? Try to obtain the thread of the knitted fabric

and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by cutting it. Is the yarn

intact?

2. A knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying the

following sketch. (See page 310.)

Note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking in

the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in the

threads themselves. On the other hand, referring to the printed

diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen that its

very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual loops that

if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to return to

the normal.

The essential characteristics of good hose are:

1. That they should be without seams.

2. That they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of the

wearer.

3. That they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest wear

comes.

[Illustration: ORDINARY WEAVING

_a._ Weft. _b._ Warp.]

[Illustration: PLAIN STOCKING FABRIC]

The essential characteristics of good underwear are:

1. It should be made from elastic cloth, which implies a knitted

cloth.

2. It should be porous in a high degree--whether in winter weight or

summer weight.

3. The seams should be made upon the most modern sewing machines, with

as little bulk as possible.

=Experiment 54--Experiment to Illustrate Imperfections in Hosiery=

Apparatus: Magnifying glass.

Materials: Hosiery (seconds).

Reference: _Textiles_, page 159.

Examine a piece of hosiery called a _second_, obtained from a hosiery

mill, and notice whether any of the following defects are present:

_a._ Yarn contains thick bits and buns.

_b._ Knots are badly tied.

_c._ Discolored yarn.

_d._ Lacks solidity and firmness, due to the gauge being

too coarse for the yarn.

_e._ Full work-yarn too thick for gauge.

=Experiment 55--Characteristics of a Crochet Fabric=

Apparatus: Crochet needle.

Material: Thread.

_Directions_

1. Crocheting is another method, like knitting, of making a fabric.

Examine the operation of crocheting. Notice that only one thread is

made use of, and is formed into loops by means of a large needle with

a hook at the end. The chief point is that the loops are not formed in

uniform rows, but one loop at a time, and with the greatest liberty to

choose any part of the article already made to form a new loop. For

this reason, crocheting adapts itself to the production of fancy

patterns useful for ornamenting.

2. A knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting that

a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a single

yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks of loops,

while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of which is

a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached at

intervals to itself.

=Experiment 56--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Cotton Cloth=

Materials: Different samples of cotton fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, pages 151-152.

_Directions_

1. Examine different kinds of cotton fabrics. Compare the lowest,

medium, and highest priced varieties of the same fabric. Notice how

quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a _thick_ gloss

loses its luster after washing.

2. Examine the different grades of the following fabrics: white lawn,

Indian Head cotton suiting, muslin, lawn, and cambric. Wash the

samples several times.

Does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear, etc.?

What are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth?

=Experiment 57--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Woolen Cloth=

Materials: Different samples of woolens.

Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.

_Directions_

1. Woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less covered face,

with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable, and the general

color effects are much smoother and softer than those of worsteds.

2. Examine different grades of woolen fabrics, such as serges.

Defects.--If a piece of woolen is not constructed right from the start

or if the work is not properly finished, that is, enough fulled in

width or length, it is liable to be raggy or slazy. As a great many

fabrics are more or less teaseled, there is a possibility of such

pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy.

=Experiment 58--Characteristics of a Good Piece of Worsted Cloth=

Materials: Different kinds of worsted fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, pages 71-82.

_Directions_

1. A good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of the

pattern, perfection of weave lines, and when the fabric is exposed to

light should show a luster without polish.

2. Examine different types of worsted fabrics, and notice how many

conform to the above requirements.

3. The most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean

and even looking face. By clean is meant well sheared. By even is

meant that the individual ends and picks used should be _even_ and not

full of knots, or of any foreign matter. Of course, there are some

exceptions, for instance, in an unfinished worsted which has more or

less nap on the face, it could not be sheared absolutely clear, but at

the same time, the face should be very evenly cropped.

Defects.--A serious defect would be if the cloth was not well sheared

or if it contained many uneven cords and picks, or ends and picks

missing, or coarse ends and slubs.

Examine different worsteds and notice any defects.

WORSTEDS.--Speaking generally, worsteds may be divided into two

classes, distinguishable according to the _luster_ of their surface,

or to the softness of their feel. They are used both for ladies' and

men's wear. Worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds. The

coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy weave

effects for piece dyes, marketed in variety of finish, according to

fashion.

Under this heading may be classified staple cloths, such as serges,

clays, and fancy weave effects without any illumination. They can be

finished in three ways:--Clear, undressed, and cheviot, used for

ladies' dress goods or men's wear, according to weight.

The finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion, but there is

always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds, for men's

wear.

Examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them.

SUITINGS.--The term suitings covers various manipulations of

manufactured goods.

1. Tennis suitings, composed of all wool, or all worsted, white or

cream ground, decorated with solid color, silk and weave stripe

effects.

2. Piece-dyed worsteds, such as a blue ground with white silk line,

cable cord, and fancy weave stripe effects, or any other ground shade

color with its complementary decoration applied.

3. Mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics,

decorations applied in color; cable, silk, and weave effects in

stripes or overline color checks, suitable for men's wear, or

decorated suitable for woman's wear. The darker shades for fall and

the lighter shades for spring.

General weight of fabric for men's wear, 12 to 14 oz. per yd., 56

in.; general weight of fabric for ladies' wear, 8 to 12 oz. per yd.,

54 in.

4. As a rule, when one speaks of a suiting, you expect to see a fancy

effect, in the form of a fancy stripe, check, or a colored mixture, in

loud or quiet tones of decoration. Long naps in fancy effects are

sometimes fashionable, and at other times the cloth finish is popular.

This class may be subdivided into

1. Light weight for spring or fall.

2. Heavy weight for winter.

The light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in lighter

colors for spring, and cloths usually of the undressed finish from

worsted or woolen stock for fall.

The heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods,

such as meltons, beavers, naps, etc., which give a heavier and warmer

coat for winter use only, and where an exceptionally heavy coat is

required, double and treble cloths are occasionally employed.

Examine different kinds of suitings and classify them.

TROUSERINGS.--Trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings and are

heavier. They invariably have a stripe. The ground shade of the better

grade of men's wear fabrics is generally composed of twist warp yarns,

ranging from dark slate gray to light lavender gray. An endless

variety of broad and narrow fine line effects is produced by expert

manipulation and combination of weave and silk decorations, producing

the pleasing effect required for this class of goods. The filling is

nearly always black; but sometimes a dark slate is used.

The cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures and

twists, down to all cotton, in imitation of the better grades.

OVERCOATINGS.--Overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted fabrics and

heavily teaseled or gigged, giving a rough, hairy appearance. Whether

thick or thin, coarse or fine, they should always be elastic fabrics,

that is, as much so as well fulled woolen goods can be. When hard or

stiff they never make a graceful garment. The special goods made for

overcoats are nearly all soft goods.

Examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings,

overcoatings, trouserings, etc.

=Experiment 59--Characteristics of a Good Silk Fabric=

Materials: Samples of different cheap silk fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, pages 203-218.

There are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market. The consumer

is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders why there is

such a difference in price. The difference in price is due to the cost

of raw material and additional cost is due to the care in

manufacturing. For example, raw silk costs from $1.35 to $5 a pound

according to its nature, quality, and the country from which it comes.

The cost of throwing silks preparatory to dyeing also varies, the

average being 55 cents a pound for organzine or warp, and 33 cents a

pound for tram and filling. The prices here also vary according to the

nature of the twist imparted to the silk, which is regulated by the

kind of cloth it is to enter into. The cost of dyeing varies from 55

cents a pound upwards to perhaps $1.50 a pound, according to the dye

and the treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of

dyeing. The cost of winding, quilling, and sundry labor items

necessary with soft silk prior to its being woven, will perhaps

average about a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths

and range upwards according to the grade of the fabric. The cost of

weaving also varies with the cloth, and may be 9 cents for one fabric

and 25 cents or more per yard for the more expensive.

Weavers are paid from 2 cents to 60 cents per yard for weaving the

different fabrics, and other operations vary greatly in cost; for

instance, the cost of printing is entirely dependent upon the work and

the number of colors used, whether it is blotch printing, discharge

work, or block printing. Different processes in finishing have widely

varied costs. At the present time moire work is done which costs as

high as 25 cents per yard. There are also other materials which can be

finished for as little as 1/2 cent per yard. Some goods have to be

finished over and over again in the dyeing and finishing while others

are very simply done. Many printed goods are handled 150 times after

they come from the loom.

When it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by

different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which

good construction can easily be determined. Most pure dye fabrics when

burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn, while those which are

weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply char and turn white

without losing the structure of the fabric.

A fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal weight

gives the maximum strength for the amount of material used. For the

same weight and material, that having the most bindings of warp and

filling will give the greater service. Fabrics with an insufficient

number of warp or filling threads slide easily and do not give good

service, though sometimes fashionable. A fabric having a twist in the

warp and filling will last longer than one using the same amount of

silk and the same binding with less twist.

All of these things may be taught to women many times over, but if the

fashion demands an article which breaks all of the above laws and is

everything that it should not be, they will buy it in preference to a

serviceable fabric. As a general rule, the consumer will be safest in

buying goods produced by houses of good reputation and whose products

are well known.

A large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion demand

and is quite independent of their cost of production. For instance, at

the present time crêpe fabrics, brocades, and prints are commanding a

premium while such goods as plain taffetas could not be sold for the

cost of production.

The advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones are

pure dye, long wear, and more expensive manufacturing.

=Experiment 60--How to Determine the Count of Yarn in Cloth=

Apparatus: Scales, ruler.

Material: Samples of fabrics.

Reference: _Textiles_, pages 144-146.

The United States Government imposes a tax on certain imported fabrics

and yarn. In the case of cotton, the rates of duty are to be

ascertained according to the average number of the yarns in the

condition in which it is imported.

The length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance

covered by it in the cloth, all clipped threads to be measured as if

continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the

count taken of the total singles; any excessive sizing is to be

removed by boiling or other suitable processes. The number of the yarn

is the English number of 840 yd. to a lb. for a No. 1 yarn.

The average number of yarn may be found without unraveling the fabric,

and is the quotient of the total thread length, by the weight in the

proportion of 840 yd. of yarn equaling 8-1/3 grains, which is

equivalent to a No. 1 yarn.

The following simple formula may be used:

Multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number of square

inches in the sample used, this product to be multiplied by 100; then

divide the product thus obtained by the weight of the sample in grains

multiplied by 432. The quotient will give the number of the yarn.

For example, take a sample of cotton cloth 4 in. square, which equals

16 sq. in., having 28 warp and 28 woof threads, a total of 56 threads

to the square inch, and weighing 8.6 grains. The formula applied would

be as follows:

56 × 16 × 100 ÷ 8.6 × 432 = 24, the number of the yarn.

The formula may be further simplified by weighing a square yard of the

cloth and dividing the number of threads per square inch by 1/300 of

the weight per square yard in grains.

Find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics.

=Experiment 61--Study of Fabrics=

A great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard

fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection and

know how to test them for adulterants.

This may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one by one,

placing a sample of each in a note-book. Underneath the sample should

be written the use of the fabric, the width, the different grades,

with prices, wearing qualities, and how the fabric is made. In

connection with this work special effort should be made to develop a

textile vocabulary so as to be able to discriminate between the

different fabrics, to know the types of weaves, and the different

kinds of finish, etc. In this way develop the ability to know what

materials and colors weave best, the prices which should be paid for

strong materials, the amount of material necessary, and the trade

names of fabrics which can be depended upon for substantial goods.

Occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the teacher

by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that they have

previously studied and have them give the name, approximate price or

grade, weave, qualities, etc.

Remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained from the

leading dry goods stores of the country. Teachers should have on

exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics with a card

attached giving the name and use of each.

=Experiment 62--How to Examine a Fabric=

The first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics is

the finish. The finish is tested by feeling and seeing. To illustrate:

broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap evenly laid. If the

finish is in keeping with the character of the cloth, he next examines

the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is composed of pure wool or

two or more fibers in combination.

Then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the

requirements.

A test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well dyed.

There is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain this,

neither is it possible to judge by the eye. The best way is to take a

small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing and light test.

FOOTNOTES:

[21] Dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a

pen holder.

[22] A hand loom consisting of simply a square frame, may be obtained

from Hammett & Co., Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.

[23] In the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are

called _tow_, and the long fibers _line_.

[24] Absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of

liquids; they include varieties of chalk, paste of chalk, or fullers'

earth, rough surface of a visiting card, buckwheat flour, crumbs of

bread, powdered soapstone, pumice, whiting. These substances are used

to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate

fabrics. They absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from

spreading.

[25] Alum in this case is called a mordant, which is a substance that

will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring

matter. Other mordants are oxides, hydroxides, and basic salts of

aluminum, iron, tin, and chromium.

[26] Place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by

placing it in the flame and allow it to burn. Cover the bottle by

means of a glass plate.

[27] Bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers

of slaked lime (lime to which a slight amount of water has been

added). Bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set

free, which in turn gives up oxygen, being converted into hydrochloric

acid. The French use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of

soda. They are called Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. A similar

solution of a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called Eau de

Javelle.

[28] A description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from

_Shoemaking_, published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston.

[29] In Ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth

4 sq. yd. is 16_d._ or 32 cts.; cost of hackling a pound of flax is

1/2_d._ or 1 ct. per lb.; cost of preparing and spinning a pound of

flax is 6_d._ or 12 cts. per lb.; cost of winding and weaving a pound

of flax is 2-1/2_d._ or 5 cts. per lb.; cost of bleaching and

finishing a pound of flax is 7_d._ or 14 cts. per lb.; $75 is spent in

turning $100 worth of flax into yarn; $75 is spent in turning $100

worth of yarn into brown linen; $50 is spent in turning $100 worth of

brown linen into linen for market.

[30] A linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to

the light and examining the evenness of the threads. Cotton can be

more easily spun level than flax, therefore threads that present

considerable irregularities may be taken to be flax. In a union fabric

the nap is usually cotton and the threads more regular than the

filling (flax). The best linen is made from fine and fairly regular

threads; common linen from coarse and irregular tow yarns. Linen is no

more subject to weak places in weaving than cotton, although it is

harder to bleach and may be weakened in this process. If each

operation is not perfect the linen will become yellow in storage.

SOURCES OF SUPPLY

The author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are willing to

supply schools with samples of their products. But the demand for

samples has been so great that it is necessary in most cases to pay a

small sum to cover the cost.

The following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are named

here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies.

The names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers may

obtain them. They contain a large number of names of dealers in

textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies.

_Catalogues of Cotton Machinery_

Kitson Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton pickers.

Howard and Bullough, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Saco-Pettee Machine Shop, Saco, Me.--Cotton machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Draper Co., Hopedale, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Woonsocket Machine Works, Woonsocket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Faler & Jencks, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

Potter & Johnson, Pawtucket, R. I.--Cotton machinery.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton machinery.

Cohoes Iron Foundry Co., Cohoes, N. Y.--Cotton machinery.

American Moistening Co., 120 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Humidifiers

and textile machinery.

_Standard Textile Papers_

American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

American Silk Journal, East 28th St., New York City, N. Y.

Textile World Record, Congress St., Boston, Mass.

Technical Education Bulletin on Illustrative and Laboratory Supplies,

published by Teachers College, Columbia University, West 120th St.,

New York.

Fibre and Fabric, 127 Federal St., Boston, Mass.

Textile Manufacturers Journal, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

_Wool, Cotton, and Silk Samples_

American Woolen Co., Boston, Mass.--Booklets on _From Wool to Cloth_;

samples of fabrics.

Arlington Mills, Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of cotton and

wool in different stages of manufacture; fabrics.

S. Blaisdell, Jr., Chicopee, Mass.--Egyptian and Peruvian cotton, etc.

Frank A. Tierney, 260 Broadway, New York--Ramie.

Geo. Carter, 246 Broadway, New York--Linen yarns and thread.

Boston Yarn Co., 50 State St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarn.

Wonalancit Co., Nashua, N. H.--Samples of cotton.

Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N. J.--French spun worsted yarn.

C. E. Riley, 65 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Yarns and fabrics.

Adirondack Wool Co., Little Falls, N. Y.--Wools and shoddies.

Sutcliffe, Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Foreign wools.

Francis Willey & Co., 556 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.--Top, foreign

wools.

John L. Farrell, 210 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Mohair, noils, and

carpet wools.

The J. R. Montgomery Co., Windsor Locks, Conn.--Novelty yarns.

Catlin & Co., 67 Chauncey St., Boston, Mass.--Cotton yarns.

Norfolk Woolen Co., Franklin, Mass.--Shoddies.

Parker & Wilder Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Lawrence & Co., Franklin St., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Joy, Langdon, & Co., Boston, Mass.--Samples of fabrics.

Clark Thread Co., Newark, N. J.--Exhibit.

George A. Clark & Bro., 400 Broadway, New York--Cabinet and booklet.

Cheney Bro., So. Manchester, Conn.--Silk samples, silk fabrics.

Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.--Wall chart of cotton field.

Scordill, 902 Canal St., New Orleans, La.--Cotton postal cards.

Storey Cotton Co., The Bourse, Philadelphia, Pa.--Booklet, _All about

Cotton_.

White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C.--Stereoscopic views.

Willimantic Thread Co., Willimantic, Conn.

Flax Spinning Co., York St., Belfast, Ireland.--Prints illustrating

linen manufacture and samples.

Jas. McCutcheon & Co., 5th Ave. and 34th St., New York.--Flax cabinet.

The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New York.--Flax cabinet.

Belding Bro. & Co., 526 Broadway, New York.--School exhibits of silk.

Brainerd & Armstrong, 100 Union St., New London, Conn.--Book and

cabinet of silk.

Champlain Silk Mills, Whitehall, N. Y.--Spun silk and exhibits.

M. Heminway & Sons, Silk Co., Watertown, Conn.--Booklets on silk.

Nonatuck Silk Co., Florence, Mass.--Sealed cabinets and books on silk.

William Skinner & Sons, 47 East 17th St., New York City.--Silks and

satins.

S. Miller, 304 Second Ave., New York.--Wool fiber.

Milton, Bradley Co., Springfield, Mass.--Sheep chart.

A. H. Post, Quaker Hill, New York.--Raw wool by the pound.

Schermerhorn & Co., 12 West 33d St., New York City, N. Y.--Wall chart

illustration of sheep.

L. S. Watson Mfg. Co., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.

Howard Bros., Worcester, Mass.--Hand cards.

Prin. Columbus Industrial School, Columbus, Ga.--Samples of cotton

plant or bolls.

_Woolen Yarns_

Horstman Co., 5th and Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Lion Yarn Co., 408 Broadway, New York.

_Catalogue of Woolen and Worsted Machinery_

C. G. Sargent's Sons, Graniteville, Mass.--Wool machinery.

Davis & Ferber Co., No. Andover, Mass.--Woolen and worsted machinery.

Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass.--Worsted machinery.

Crompton & Knowles, Worcester, Mass.--Worsted silk machinery.

Speed & Stephenson, 170 Summer St., Boston, Mass.--Textile machinery.

George Gerry & Co., Athol, Mass.--Shoddy machinery.

Tolhoust Machine Works, Troy, N. Y.--Hydro extractor.

Parks & Woolson Machine Co., Springfield, Vt.--Machinery.

Curtis, Marble Co., Worcester, Mass.--Finishing machinery.

General Electric Co., 84 State St., Boston, Mass.--Pictures, showing

textile machinery in operation by motors.

Hopkins Machine Works, Budgeton, R. I.--Finishing machinery.

_Knitting Machinery_

Scott & Williams, 88 Pearl St., Boston, Mass.

Nye & Tudick Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

_Chemicals, Dyestuffs, and Sizing Materials_

The Arabol Mfg. Co., 100 Williams St., New York.--Sizing materials.

Cassella Color Co., 182 Front St., New York.--Coal tar products,

dyestuffs, and literature.

Arnold Hoffman & Co., Providence, R. I.--Sizing materials.

H. A. Metz & Co., 122 Hudson St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.

Badische Co., 128 Duane St., New York.--Dyestuffs and literature.

INDEX

Acid test, 239

Adelaide wool, 10

Adulterations of wool, 80, 82

Albatross, 83, 173

Alma, 219

Alpaca, 1, 15, 34, 83

American cotton, 110

American wool, 3

Angora, 32, 83

Animal fibers, 1

Artificial fibers, 1

Artificial silk, 1, 230

Asbestos, 1, 234

Astrakhans, 15, 84

Australian wool, 3, 8, 9

Awning, 173

Baling cotton, 117

Bandanna, 84

Barège, 219

Bast fibers, 193

Batiste, 173

Beam, 53

Beaver cloth, 52, 84

Bedford cord, 84, 174

Beige, 85

Bengaline, 219

Berber, 219

Bindings, 84

Bleaching cotton, 148

flax, 196

thread, 141

Blending, 11, 31

Bombazine, 84, 220

Bottany, 84

Boucle, 85

Bourrette, 174

Bradford system of spinning, 44

Branding sheep, 7

Broadcloth, 52, 85

Brocade, 219

Brocatel, 220

Buckram, 174

Bunting, 85

Bur picker, 30

Burling, 72

Burring, 29, 30

Calendering, 149, 150

Calico, 175

Caniche, 86

Canvas, 177

Cape wools, 10

Carbonizing, 29, 30

Carding cotton, 126

wool, 3, 4

Carpet wools, 3, 4

Cashmere, 85, 86

goat, 13

wool, 13, 87

Castor, 87

Challis, 87

Chambray, 177

Characteristics of cotton cloth, 152

of linen cloth, 196

of woolen cloth, 50

of worsted cloth, 46

Cheese cloth, 178

Chenille, 220

Cheviot, 33, 35, 52, 87

wool, 14

Chiffon, 220

China grass, 232

China silks, 220

Chinchilla, 52, 98

Chintz, 178

Chudah, 89

Cloth-rolls, 54

Clothing wool, 3

Cocoons, 203

Combing cotton, 127

Combing wool, 4, 39

Combustion test, 239

Construction of cloth, 70, 71

Corduroy, 89

Côte cheval, 89

Cotton, 1, 105

carding, 126

combing, 127

drawing, 128

finishing, 147

flannel, 178

growing countries, 106

picker, 125

substitutes, 232

varieties of, 105, 106, 111, 112

yarns, 125, 134

Cotton-gin, 114-116

Counts of yarn, 9, 49, 51

Coupure, 90

Covert cloth, 90

Crabbing, 74

Crash, 178

Creel, 52

Crêpe, 179, 221

Crêpe de Chine, 221

Crepon, 179

Cretonne, 90

Crinoline, 179

Crocheting, 56, 253

Cross-dyed, 65, 67, 68

Cyprian gold, 234

Damask, 179

Dark colored fibers, 33

Dead wool, 20

Delaine wool, 22, 90

Denim, 179

Diaper cloth, 179

Difference between lamb's wool and sheep's wool, 20

Difference between wool and hair, 2

Difference between woolen and worsted yarns, 39

Dimity, 179

Doeskin, 52, 90

Domet, 180

Double-cloth, 58, 62

Drap d'Été, 90

Dress faced fabrics, 8

Drill, 180

Duck, 180

Dusting operation, 35

Dyeing, 66

black silks, 210

colored silks, 210

cotton, 67

wools, 65

yarns, 68, 209

East Indian cotton, 107

Egyptian cotton, 108

Elasticity of knitted textures, 253

Embroidery silk, 207

Empress cloth, 90

Ends, 53, 54

English system of spinning, 4, 40

English wools, 3

Eolienne, 181, 221

Épingline, 90

Etamine, 91, 181

Extract-wool, 1, 32, 37

Fancy goods, 79

Felt, 91

Felting, 2, 4

Fibers, 1

Figure weaving, 58, 61, 62

Figured poplins, 225

Finishing, 71, 151

Finishing hosiery, 163

Flannel, 52, 91-93

Flannelette, 181

Flax, 1, 123

preparation, 193-195

sources, 194, 198

Fleece, 7

Flocks, 1, 32, 37

Florentine, 93

Fly frames, 130

Foulard, 221

Foule, 93

Frame, 54

French system of spinning, 4, 44

Frieze, 52, 93

Full blood, 19

Full grade cotton, 121

Fulling, 73

Fustian, 180

Galatea cloth, 182

Gauge weaving, 63

Gauze, 182

Gill boxes, 42

Gingham, 182

Ginning cotton, 114

Glacé, 222

Gloria, 94

Goat, 1

Grades of wool, 18

Granada, 94

Great Britain wools, 12

Grenadine, 94

Grinding rags, 36

Ground lace, 164

Hackling, 195

Hair, 2

Half blood, 19

Half-grades of cotton, 121, 122

Hand-loom, 56

Harness, 55

Heddles, 54

Hemp, 1, 199

Henrietta cloth, 94

Hoggett wool, 20

Homespun, 58, 94

Hop sacking, 94

Hosiery, 159

Hosiery manufacture, 159-163

Humidifying cotton, 124

Hydro extractor, 28

India silk, 204, 222

Indigo blue flannel, 92

Inspection of cloth, 123, 124

Intermediate frame, 130

Irish wools, 14

Italian cloth, 183

Jaconet, 183

Jacquard machine, 55

Japanese silk, 222

Jeans, 95

Jersey cloth, 222

Jute, 1

uses of, 201

Kapok, 230

Kersey, 95

Kerseymere, 96

Khaki, 183

Knitting, 253

cotton, 159

finishing, 163

frames, 154

rib, 158

silk, 159

stripe, 159

wool, 3

Lace, 164, 165

terms, 166-172

Lamb's wool, 15, 20

Lappet-weaving, 63, 64

Lawn, 183

Leicester wool, 12

Leno weaving, 63

Lincoln wool, 12

Linen, 196

Lingerie, 184

Linon, 184

Linsey woolsey, 96

Long cloth, 184

manufacture of, 194, 195

Long or clothing wool, 3

Loom, 54

Luster of wool, 26

Mackinaw, 92

Madras, 185

Manila hemp, 200

Melrose, 97

Melton, 97

Meltonette, 97

Mending, 72

Mercerizing, 151

Merino, 2, 3, 18, 19, 97

Metallic threads, 1, 234

Meteor, 222

Mexican Sheep, 4

Milling, 8

Mineral fibers, 1

Mohair, 1, 18, 34, 97

Moire, 223

Moisture contained in cotton, 123

Montagnac, 98

Montevideo, 11

Mordant, 69

Moreen, 186

Mozambique, 223

Mule spinning, 134

Mull, 186

Mummery, 186

Mungo, 1, 10, 32, 34

method of making, 32

Muslin, 186

Nainsook, 186

Naphtha, 26

Napping, 75

Navy twill flannel, 92

Netting, 253

New Zealand wool, 10

Noils, 1, 32, 40

Norfolkdown wool, 14

Oiling rags, 35

Olive oil, 29

Organdie, 186

Organzine, 223

Orleans, 98

Osnaburg, 186

Panama cloth, 98

Panne velvet, 223

Peau de soie, 223

Pelts, 20

Percale, 188

Percaline, 188

Perching, 72

Peruvian sheep, 15, 32

Pick, 54

Piece-dyeing, 65

Pile-weave, 62, 63

Pillow-lace, 165

Pineapple fiber, 233

Piqué, 188

Plain weave, 58

Planting cotton, 110

Plumetis, 190

Plushes, 15, 224

Pongee, 224

Popeline, 224

Poplin, 190

Port Philip wool, 9

Pressing machine, 76

Printing textiles, 65

Prunella, 98

Pulled wool, 20

Quarter blood, 19

Ramie, 232

Raw silk, 206

Reeling silk, 205

Remanufactured material, 1, 32

Rep, 190

Rib work in knitting, 158

Ribbons, 215

Ring spinning, 134

Russian hemp, 199

Russian wool, 12

Sacking, 99

Sanglier, 99

Sarsenet, 225

Satin, 225

weaving, 58

Satine, 190

Saxony wool, 8

Scour, 27

Scrim, 190

Scutching, 195

Sea Island cotton, 109

Seaming rags, 35

Seamless hosiery, 161

Sebastopol, 99

Serges, 99

Sewing silk, 207

Shaker flannel, 93

Shawls, 33

Sheep shearing, 5, 6, 7

Shetland wool, 14

Shoddy, 1, 10, 32, 34, 101

Short wools, 3

Shrinking of wool, 2, 3

Shropshiredown wool, 13

Shuttle, 55

Sicilian, 101

Silesia, 190

Silesian wool, 8

Silk, 1

cotton, 230

dyeing, 210

finishing, 218

varieties of, 207

warp flannel, 92

waste, 207

Sisal hemp, 200

Size of yarn, 9, 49, 51

Sizing, 53

Slag wool, 1, 234

Slasher, 53

Sliver, 39

Slubber, 130, 131

Soleil, 227

Souffle, 191

South American wool, 11

Southdown wools, 13

Spinning, 4, 40, 44, 50, 134

Spooler, 53

Spun glass, 233

fibers, 233

Spun numbers, 209

Spun silk, 208

Staple goods, 79

Starching cotton, 149

Stripe knitting, 159

Structure of wool, 1, 2

Styles, 70

Suffolkdown wool, 14

Sultane, 101

Superfines, 8

Swiss muslin, 191

Sydney wools, 9

Tabby velvet, 228

Taffeta, 227

Tamise, 101

Tape, 191

Tarletan, 191

Tartans, 101

Teaser, 31

Tentering, 74

Terry cloth, 191

Terry poplin, 225

Test for animal fiber, 239

artificial silk from silk, 231

cotton from linen, 240

density of a fabric, 239

dressing, 241

fastness against rain, 243

fastness under friction, 242

fastness to weather, light, and air, 244

linen, 240

permanence of dyes, 242

resistance to perspiration, 243

resistance to street mud and dust, 243

shoddy, 241

silk from wool, 240

wasting fastness, 242

Testing constituents of filling, 239

constituents of warp, 239

count of warp, 238

count of warp and filling threads, 238

elasticity of fabric, 237

for shrinkage, 239

piece-dyed fabric, 69

strength of fabric, 237

style of weave, 236

yarn-dyed fabric, 69

Textile printing, 69, 70, 216

Theories of coloring in textile designs, 76-79

Thibet, 101

Thread, 138

bleaching, 143

combing, 141

dyeing, 143

numbers, 144

sizing, 145

Throwing, 206

Thrown silk, 207

Tinsel, 1

Top, 11, 33, 40

Tricot, 101

Tulle, 228

Tussah silk, 204

Tweed, 15, 31, 35, 102

Twill weaving, 58, 59

Union cloth, 37

Van wool from Tasmania, 10

Vegetable fibers, 1

Veiling, 102

Velour, 228

Velvet, 15, 216, 228

Velveteen, 228

Venetian cloth, 102

Vigogne (Vienna), 103

Vigoureux, 103

Voiles, 103, 229

Warp, 53, 54

Warp-beam, 54

Waterproofing, 218

Weaving, 53, 54, 56

processes, 54-56

Weft, 54

Welsh wool, 14

Wether-wool, 15, 20

Whipcord, 104

Wood-pulp, 232

Wool, 1, 2

carding, 50

classing, 3, 16, 18

drying, 28

dyeing, 76

fibers, 2

grease in, 24

marketing, 7, 8, 15

oiling, 29

sorting, 16-18, 22-24

varieties of, 3, 4

washing, 24-28

Woolen yarn, 33, 50

Worsted carding, 39

combing, 39

diagonal, 104

Worsted spinning, 44

tops, 40

unfinished, 104

yarn, 33, 46

Yarn, 33, 39, 46

dyed, 65, 68

Yolk, 10, 25

Zephyr gingham, 192

wool, 49

Zibeline, 104