MEDIÆVAL BROOCHES (_continued_)--PECTORALS
Another species of brooch peculiar to the Middle Ages is the pectoral,
an article for fastening on to the middle of the breast. It is similar
to our modern brooch, but differs in that it did not always serve to
hold the dress together. In earlier centuries it was often sewn on the
garment, and was only occasionally supplied with a pin. It was worn by
both sexes, as well as by ecclesiastics, who appear to have borne in
mind the chief ornament worn by the Jewish High Priest.
The earliest and most remarkable example of this class is the great gold
pectoral--the Eagle Fibula it is termed--found in 1880 at Mainz--that
ancient and historical Rhenish city, known in former times from
its commercial prosperity as "Goldene Mainz," which has proved
extraordinarily rich in discoveries dating from classical and early
mediæval periods. This famous jewel, both on account of its size (4 by
3-5/8 inches) and good state of preservation, probably deserves to rank
first among all golden ornaments that have come down to us from the
early Middle Ages. "Its composition," says Herr Luthmer, "is extremely
clear and conscious. An eagle, of heraldic form, it is true, but not
with any of that unnatural emaciation peculiar to the later style of
heraldry, fills the inner circle of a flat ring of stamped gold enriched
with beaded filigree, which at its upper end--in order to give space
for the head of the bird--is not closed, but connected by a curve in the
circle of wire. The eight flowers inserted in the open-work of the ring,
as well as the whole form of the eagle with the exception of the claws,
are filled with cloisonné enamel which unfortunately has disappeared
from the body of the eagle, where only the punctured outlines of the
feathers are perceptible upon the plate of gold. Otherwise the enamel,
made of translucent green and blue, turquoise-blue, white and yellow,
has been preserved in all its freshness."[75] This pectoral dates from
the commencement of the twelfth century, and is one of the chief
treasures in the rich collection of antiquities preserved in the Mainz
Museum.
[75] Luthmer, _op. cit._, p. 74.
Jewels of this species and of this period are of the utmost rarity.
Another very beautiful example was discovered at Mainz just five years
after the Eagle Fibula, and is now in the collection of Baron von Heyl
zu Herrnsheim at Worms. It is formed of repoussé gold, and represents an
eagle standing upon a branch rolled up at both ends. A fine sapphire
occupies the middle of the breast, in the centre of the wings are
emeralds, the tail is set with lapis-lazuli, and the eye of the bird
with a small ruby. This exquisite jewel dates from the early part of the
thirteenth century. It measures 2-1/8 inches in height and 1-5/8 inches
in width.[76] The most remarkable among jewels of about the same date
(the twelfth century) are the splendid antique cameos already
described--the Cameo of St. Hilary in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris,
and the Schaffhausen Onyx--both of which were originally employed as
pectorals or brooches.
[76] _Kunstgewerbe-Blatt_, III, p. 21, 1887.
[Illustration: _PLATE XXII_ MEDIÆVAL BROOCHES (PECTORALS AND MORSE)]
A few brooches are attached, as was once the jewel of St. Hilary, as _ex
voto_ on the breast of reliquary figures, like that of St. Foy at
Conques, which still exhibits an ornament of this kind. A brooch or
fermail (for this latter term is not confined to the ring-brooch), 1¾
inches in diameter, which once formed part of the ancient jewels of
the French Crown, is in the Galerie d'Apollon of the Louvre.[77] Two
exceedingly fine brooches of about the end of the twelfth century,
found at Mainz in 1896 and now in the treasury of the cathedral, are
described by Dr. Schneider in the _Jahrbuch der Königlich Preussischen
Kunstsammlungen_ (Vol. XVIII); and a pectoral or brooch of a similar
form, a large stone in the centre, surrounded by smaller ones--to take
only one among many examples--is represented on the twelfth-century
statue of a queen, probably intended for the Queen of Sheba, from the
west portal of the church of Our Lady of Corbeil, and now at
Saint-Denis.
[77] Barbet de Jouy, _Gemmes et joyaux de la couronne_, Pl. XI.
In the case of original jewels of this kind, it is not always easy to
determine whether they were articles of adornment for the clergy or the
laity, and though those for ecclesiastical use probably predominate, it
is only when they contain the figured representation of some religious
subject that they can with certainty be identified as cope-clasps or
_morses_, the French equivalent for which is _mors de chape_.
Morses were frequently of extraordinary size. Monumental brasses and
tombstones, especially in Germany, exhibit many examples. Adalbert of
Saxony, who was administrator of the archbishopric of Mainz, and died
in 1484, is represented on his tombstone in the cathedral with one
measuring more than 7 inches across. Existing examples vary from 5 to 7
inches in breadth.
The jewellers of the Middle Ages delighted in lavishing their utmost
taste and skill on morses, which were of a variety of shapes, and were
composed of every material. Some were enriched with precious stones,
including ancient cameos, and others rendered attractive with coloured
enamels.
Several lists of English morses are preserved. In the inventory of
Sarum,[78] of the year 1222, gold, silver, and jewelled morses,
_firmacula_, _pectoralia_, or _monilia_ (as they were variously termed
in the Middle Ages) are described at length; in that of St. Paul's,[79]
drawn up in 1295, there are no less than twenty-eight; while the
inventory of jewels (_jocalia_) preserved in York Minster[80] in 1500
includes an extraordinarily rich collection of these ornaments.
[78] Rock, _op. cit._, III, iii, p. 101.
[79] Dugdale, _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_ (1818 ed.), p. 310.
[80] _Fabric Rolls of York Minster_ (Surtees Society), p. 222.
Though some were clearly made fast to one side of the garment, and were
hitched to the other by hooks, or by a pin, like a brooch, they were not
always employed to unite the two sides, but were sometimes used simply
as a decoration upon the front of the vestment, and perhaps hung there
by a chain round the neck.[81] Examples to be found in many museums are
pierced with holes, or have loops behind them, showing that they were
sewn to the vestment with purely decorative purpose.
[81] Compare p. 121.
From the close of the twelfth century champlevé enamel upon copper was
much employed for the decoration of morses. In the fourteenth century
champlevé was largely superseded by transparent enamel on silver relief
(_basse-taille_), many of the finest specimens of which were produced in
Italy. Two fine morses displaying this species of work are preserved;
the one in the British Museum[82] and the other at South Kensington.
[82] Shaw, _Decorative arts of the Middle Ages_, Pl. 7.
The use of ancient cameos as personal ornaments has already been
mentioned; and there is in the British Museum a mediæval intaglio, the
finest of its kind, which was used as a morse. It is known as the
Crystal of Lothair, since it was made, in all probability, for Lothair
II, King of the Franks from 855 to 869. It is a lenticular plaque of
rock crystal, 4½ inches in diameter, engraved in intaglio,[83] with
the history of Susanna.[84]
[83] It is intended, however, to be looked at from the reverse
side through the crystal--when the device appears like a cameo.
[84] _Archæologia_, LIX, p. 25.
Public collections at home and abroad possess a variety of examples
of Gothic morses of exquisite design. One of the most remarkable of
German workmanship of the fourteenth century is in the Musée Cluny at
Paris;[85] while among the finest German jewels of the fifteenth century
must be ranked a morse of beautiful execution in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.[86] Other noteworthy examples are, three in the treasury of
the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, one of them[87] containing a
representation of the Annunciation--a subject which, judging from the
inventories, appears to have been a very favourite one for the purpose,
particularly in England. Three more are in Paris: one--the beautiful
morse of St. Louis--in the Galerie d'Apollon,[88] a second in the
Rothschild Bequest[89] in the Louvre, and a third in the Dutuit
Bequest.[90] In the Kunstgewerbe Museum at Berlin is a silver-gilt morse
which was made in the year 1484 for Albert von Letelen, canon of Minden,
by the goldsmith Reinecke van Dressche of Minden. It is a circular
disc 5½ inches in diameter, filled with three elaborate Gothic
tabernacles, each containing a figure. Entirely symmetrical in
composition, it follows a design commonly found on the seals of the
same date (Pl. XXII, 3).
[85] Figured by Shaw, _Dresses and decorations_, Pl. 88, where
it is erroneously described as the clasp of the Emperor Charles V.
[86] Pollen, _Gold and silversmith's work in the S. Kensington
Museum_, p. 98.
[87] Beissel, _Kunstschätze des Aachener Kaiserdomes_, Pl. XIII.
[88] Barbet de Jouy, _op. cit._, Pl. X.
[89] Molinier, _Donation de Adolphe de Rothschild_, Pl. XIX.
[90] Giraud, _Les arts du métal_, Pl. VII.
An excellent idea of the extraordinary beauty of the morses in use at
the close of the Middle Ages can be obtained from fifteenth-century
paintings, particularly of the Flemish school. Few of the latter
can surpass what is one of its finest examples in the National
Gallery--Gerard David's beautiful picture of the "Canon and his Patron
Saints," in which are displayed, in almost all their pristine freshness,
some of the most magnificent representations of the jeweller's art.
Besides these pectorals, which sometimes served a practical, but often a
purely decorative purpose, there were various other ornaments that acted
as clasps (_agrafes_). These _agrafes_ are similar to those still made
use of in our day, working on a system of a hook fitting into a loop.
Clasps for mantles were sometimes made of massive loops fastened on
either side of the border of the mantle, like parts of a hinge, which
could be clasped by a pin being thrust through them, or by a cord or
strap.
[Illustration: Mantle clasp (portion) on effigy of Henry IV
(Canterbury Cathedral).]
A heavy ornamental mantle was often worn by both sexes over the dress.
It was open in front, and displayed the dress underneath. Upon its
opposite edges were fixed two ornamental rosettes or lozenges, connected
by cords terminating in tassels, or by a band across the breast. In the
case of ceremonious attire this band was of metal, profusely jewelled,
while the ornamental pieces or clasps at each end were of elaborate
goldwork set with precious stones. On the monumental effigy of Henry IV
in the Chapel of St. Thomas à Becket, at Canterbury Cathedral, the cloak
is secured by a rich band fastened at each end by diamond-shaped clasps
of fine design. Henry's Queen, Joanna of Navarre, who lies beside him,
has clasps of almost the same form, fixed near the shoulders, and united
by a simple band. Somewhat similar ornaments, rosette-shaped, can be
seen on the effigy of Anne of Bohemia, first wife of Richard II, in
Westminster Abbey.
Since the pectoral is sometimes worn together with these clasps, it is
evident that it often had nothing to do with closing the mantle; but
when a pin is attached behind, and it is employed for secular purposes,
it assumes the ordinary type of the modern brooch.
The English word for this smaller and secular variety of morse, which is
distinct from the fermail or ring-brooch, was _nouch_.[91] It was also
called _ouch_, by misdivision of _a_ nouch as _an_ ouch, and was
variously spelt _nuche_, _nowche_, _owche_, etc. That the nouch is the
actual English equivalent to the morse or pectoral is proved by a will
dated 1400,[92] in which among the jewels bequeathed to the shrine of
the Head of St. William of York was "unum monile, Anglicè nouche auri,
cum uno saphire in medio, et j. dyamand desuper, et circumpositum cum
pereles et emeraudes." Nouches were attached to the front of the
garment, but were occasionally worn upon the shoulder. On the effigy of
Henry II, at Fontevraud, and on that of Henry III[93] in the Chapel of
Edward the Confessor at Westminster Abbey, the mantle in each case is
fastened upon the right shoulder with a brooch of this kind.
[91] Probably a corruption of the Latin words _nusca_, _nuxa_,
a brooch or _fibula_ (_Prompt. Parv._, p. 359).
[92] _Testamenta Eboracensia_ (Surtees Society), I, p. 267.
[93] This effigy, and that of Anne of Bohemia, and of Henry IV
and his Queen, may be studied from reproductions in the National
Portrait Gallery.
It would be an almost impossible task to describe all the motives
selected for the English brooches of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, their numerous compositions of human figures and animals of
all sorts, and the various stones with which they were set. The old
inventories give endless descriptions, but hardly any actual examples,
apart from the ring-brooches and William of Wykeham's magnificent nouch
at New College, have survived. In the British Museum is a silver-gilt
brooch in form of St. Christopher leaning on his staff and bearing the
infant Saviour on his shoulder. It is of fifteenth-century workmanship,
2¾ inches long, and was found at Kingston-on-Thames (Pl. XX, 7). This
brooch is of peculiar interest, since in the _Canterbury Tales_ that
worn by the "Yeman" is described as "A Crystofre on his brest of silvyr
shene."
Brooches and nouches, mentioned frequently in the English inventories of
the fourteenth century, became even more numerous and elaborate in the
century following. Foreign influence, strong at this period, left its
imprint upon all works of art; and the most extensive commerce was
carried on with Flanders, which was then the workshop of the world. Yet
though the following descriptions of brooches drawn from the inventory
of Henry IV in the Inventories of the Exchequer[94] show a striking
similarity to the continental jewels of the same date, there is no
reason to suppose that these were not actually produced in England by
English workmen. Five nouches, probably very similar in form to the
splendid jewel at New College, Oxford, and dating approximately from the
same period, are thus recorded: "Item v. nouches de letres M apparellez
de perles et diverses peres de petit value." Other brooches exhibit a
variety of forms: "Item i. g^ant nouche dun griffon seisant un deyme
ove i. saphir en my lieu iij. baleys et vi. grosses perles"; "Item i.
nouche [dor] ove i. damoysell es blancz flours portant i. papingey en la
mayn apparellez ove i. baleys iij. saphis iij. troches de perles ove
trois diamantz contrifaitz." Similarly enriched jewels have for their
subjects: "i. enfant dor et i. blanc deime enaymellez"; "i. damoisell et
i. unicorn [dor]"; and "un damoisell seant en un solaill." Finally we
meet with the following entry: "Item i. nouche d'un aungell blanc tenant
en sa mayn un saphir feble garnisez de vi. perles enterfoiles."
[94] _Kalendars and Inventories of the Exchequer_, III. p. 344, etc.
Of all the immense wealth of jewellery of the Dukes of Burgundy in the
fifteenth century almost every vestige has disappeared, and the public
museums of the Continent are practically destitute of Flemish-Burgundian
jewellery of this date. Yet the British Museum, through the generosity
of the late Sir A. W. Franks, is in fortunate possession of several
exquisite examples, which were dredged a few years ago from the bed of
the River Meuse. The most remarkable is a gold brooch of delicate
workmanship, the centre of which is occupied by a female figure: a
garland encircles her head, a flower set with a small triangular diamond
adorns her breast, while her hands hold in front a large faceted
sapphire. Around, in the midst of foliage, are three cabochon rubies,
and the settings of other stones and pearls which have disappeared (Pl.
XX, 11). The form of this jewel is peculiarly interesting in comparison
with the above-quoted _aungell tenant en sa mayn un saphir_ of the
inventory of Henry IV. A smaller circular brooch of similar _fabrique_
has a diamond above and a pale ruby below, and is encircled by radiating
buds of flowers, the centre of each bud being formed of a ball of white
enamel.
Of the few examples of jewels of similar character that exist at the
present day upon the Continent, there is in the treasury of the
Collegiate Church of Essen in Rhenish Prussia, amongst several fine
objects of the goldsmith's art, a remarkable and comparatively unknown
collection of enamelled jewels of the fifteenth century.[95] Each of
the sixteen objects of the series possesses what appears to be a
characteristic of most jewels of this date--that is to say, it is
enclosed by an encircling wreath-like ornament of the naturalistic late
Gothic style formed of a circular tube of gold to which are affixed
leaves of stamped gold, enamelled and enriched with pearls. The centres
of the jewels are occupied by a variety of motives. Seven are of a
purely formal composition, enriched with small white flowers, the stalks
of which, covered with green enamel, resemble with their interlacing
design the necklace worn by Maria Portinari in the Van der Goes triptych
at Florence. The remaining and more elaborate jewels contain enamelled
figures of men and animals executed with extraordinary minuteness and
vivacity. The finest, and on the whole the best preserved, has in the
centre a female figure in full relief clothed in a white robe and long
green cloak and a head-dress in the form of leaves. She is seated in a
field sewn with flowers in the manner of the pictures of the period, and
behind are golden rays[96] (Pl. XX, 9). The figure upon another jewel
has a somewhat similar background. Her robe is white, and her head-dress
and the edges of her wing-like sleeves red. In front of both figures
is a small cluster of precious stones. Though all the objects in
this remarkable collection are of about the same date, they differ
sufficiently to make it clear that, like the treasures from Saragossa,
they owe their presence here to the devotion of perhaps more than one
wealthy person to a highly revered shrine. In spite of the fact that the
majority are considerably damaged, they are yet eloquent proofs of the
magnificent style of living at the period of their production, and
valuable examples of the ornaments of the Middle Ages of which no other
collection possesses so large and choice a variety.
[95] _Revue de l'art chrétien_, 1887, p. 276; and Humann (G.),
_Die Kunstwerke der Münster-Kirche zu Essen_, Pl. 62.
[96] Compare this jewel with "_un damoisell seant en un
solaill_" in Henry IV's inventory.
In date one is disposed to place these brooches (or nouches, as they
would be termed in old English inventories) in the first half of the
fifteenth century--at least as far as the figured pieces are concerned,
for jewellery in pictures of the second half of the century is mostly
formed of pearls and precious stones alone. Jewelled brooches of this
kind ornamented with figures in relief are particularly well represented
in the works of the older German painters and above all those of Stephan
Lochner (d. 1451), in whose masterpiece in Cologne Cathedral, known as
the "Dombild," the Virgin is seen wearing on her breast a brooch
ornamented with clusters of pearls and the figure of a seated maiden,
with a unicorn resting one foot on her lap.[97] In another celebrated
picture by Master Stephan--the "Virgin of the Rose-Arbour," in the
Cologne Museum--the same subject is represented on the _mandorla_, or
almond-shaped, brooch which closes the Virgin's robe; while in a third
picture by him in the Episcopal Museum of the same city--a picture
which, like the rest, bears traces of Flemish influence--the Virgin's
brooch or morse is ornamented with a female figure seated, full face,
after the manner of the British Museum and Essen brooches.[98]
[97] Compare Henry IV's "_i. damoisell et i. unicorn_."
[98] The same motive is figured on a morse shown on the left wing of
a picture in the Cologne Museum known as the "Sippenaltar" (by the
_Meister der heiligen Sippe_), dating from the end of the fifteenth
century. The jewel is worn by S. Nicasius. It is trefoil in shape, and
decorated with the figure of an angel, full face, holding a large stone
in front.
[Illustration: Brooch of the Virgin in Lochner's "Dombild"
(Cologne Cathedral).]
Such is the extraordinary quality and extreme rarity of jewels of this
type that attention must be drawn to yet two more examples: one in the
Imperial Collections at Vienna, and the other in the Carrand Collection
in the Bargello at Florence. The former is a jewel of quite remarkable
character. Within the usual circle of gold wire is a pair of lovers
standing side by side each holding the end of a wreath. The figures,
dressed in Burgundian costume of the fifteenth century and enamelled
with various colours, breathe the spirit of the mediæval _amourette_ as
represented upon ivory mirror-cases and jewel-caskets and in miniatures
of the twelfth to the sixteenth century. Between them is a triangular
diamond set like the example in the British Museum, and below it a pale
cabochon ruby. Around are five pearls (Pl. XX, 8).[99] The jewel at
Florence (2 inches in diameter) has a border of green enamelled leaves
set with pearls, and in the centre a finely modelled figure of a
dromedary in white enamel. This brooch, which is in splendid condition,
was perhaps intended to be worn, as were some other of these pieces, as
an _enseigne_ on the hat or cap (Pl. XVII, 12).
[99] This jewel once formed part of the treasure of the House of
Burgundy, and came into the Imperial Collections through the marriage
of Mary of Burgundy with the Emperor Maximilian I.
Whatever may have been their nationality, a glance at each, from those
in the British Museum to the one last described, is sufficient to
determine the identity of their source of inspiration. All bear the
stamp of the Flemish-Burgundian art, which throughout the fifteenth
century dominated the creations of the goldsmiths, as well as the
sculptors, miniaturists, and tapestry workers, of the entire west of
Europe.
Every one of these brooches is worthy of the most careful examination,
particularly by the craftsman of the present day, for unlike the
ornaments of more ancient times, they possess qualities which render
them peculiarly appropriate to the circumstances of our later
civilisation. In the refinement and simplicity of their arrangement
and design these mediæval examples of the jeweller's art transcend
many of the greatly admired and more famous jewels of the Renaissance.