MEDIÆVAL PENDANTS, ROSARIES, AND POMANDERS
The wearing of religious emblems in the form of pendants by the
Christians of the Middle Ages was possibly, in the first place, the
unconscious perpetuation of pagan superstition. The demand for a
convenient mode of carrying a reliquary may account in some degree for
the use of necklaces in early times.
Relics of the saints and of the Passion of our Lord were most eagerly
sought after by mediæval Christendom, and whenever a relic of unusual
importance was obtained, all the resources of the art of the time were
employed to give it a worthy setting. The most famous of early pendent
reliquaries was that worn by the Emperor Charlemagne, which contained
relics from the Crown of Thorns and the True Cross, presented to him by
Haroun al-Raschid. The reliquary was buried with him in 814, and found
at the opening of his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1169. In 1804 it was
given to the Emperor Napoleon by the clergy of Aix, and was afterwards
the property of Napoleon III; but it disappeared during the troublous
times that terminated the Second Empire. The relics were enclosed under
a large sapphire magnificently set in gold and precious stones[62]
(Pl. XVIII, 4). Another historical relic of the early Middle Ages was the
enamelled gold cross suspended from a chain, which was stolen from the
tomb of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey in 1685 and given to
James II. It was only lost sight of in the early part of the nineteenth
century.[63]
[62] See _Jahrbücher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden in
Rheinlande_, XXXIX, p. 272. Bonn, 1866.
[63] Wall (J. C.), _Tombs of the Kings of England_, p. 197.
_Evelyn's Diary_, Sept. 16, 1685.
Portable reliquaries in former times were often made of two plates of
rock crystal or other transparent stones hinged together so as to form a
box. An exquisite example of this style of ornament, and one of the most
remarkable mediæval jewels, is the so-called reliquary of St. Louis in
the British Museum. It is of gold, set with two large bean-shaped
amethysts which act as covers to an inner case with a lid, enclosing
what purports to be a spike from the Crown of Thorns. The back of this
receptacle, as well as the insides of the covers, is enriched with
minute translucent enamels representing the Crucifixion and other scenes
from the Passion and the life of Christ (Pl. XVIII, 5). The jewel is
said to have been given by St. Louis (who bought the Crown of Thorns
from Baldwin, King of Jerusalem) to a king of Aragon, but the style of
the work is somewhat later than the time of St. Louis, and dates from
about the year 1310. It was formerly in the collection of Baron Pichon,
and was presented to the British Museum by Mr. George Salting in 1902.
The pendent ornaments of the Middle Ages not only served as receptacles
for relics but also took the form of crosses, medallions, votive
tablets, and monograms. Though these do not attain the same importance
as the pendants of the Renaissance, their extraordinary variety is
proved by the inventories of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century,
while their beauty is attested by the few examples that have fortunately
been preserved. Small votive tablets, that is to say diptychs or
triptychs with hinged wings, were exceedingly popular as personal
ornaments, judging by their frequent occurrence in the inventories under
the title of _tableau_ or _tabulet_. They were suspended from the girdle
or neck-chain. Some are painted with delicate translucent enamels,
others contain figures in high relief wrought in metal, or carvings in
boxwood of minute dimensions. The last are generally Flemish, while the
others of which there are several splendid examples in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, are mostly of French or of English workmanship. A very
remarkable silver-gilt pendant in the form of the Devil of temptation,
with the forbidden fruit in one hand and a crozier, signifying power, in
the other, is shown on Plate XIX, 9. It is Burgundian work of the second
half of the fifteenth century, and is the property of Mrs. Percy
Macquoid.
An interesting class of pendants is formed by a somewhat extensive
series of silver and silver-gilt ornaments produced by German craftsmen
of the fifteenth century. The National Museum at Munich, where several
fine examples of this kind are preserved, possesses one of more than
ordinary interest. It is of silver-gilt, about five inches in length,
composed of elaborate Gothic tracery, in shape not unlike the tall
Gothic tabernacles of South Germany, of which that by Adam Kraft in St.
Lawrence's Church at Nuremberg is perhaps the finest example. A niche on
each of its four sides contains the figure of a saint and above, half
hidden among the tracery, are four female figures. The jewel is
surmounted by the Virgin and Child, and has three rings above for
suspension and one below (Pl. XIX, 1). Other examples of South German
goldsmith's work of the fifteenth and early sixteenth century take the
form of small pendent charms picturing some religious theme. The figure
of a saint was naturally a favourite subject, since it was supposed to
possess special prophylactic powers. The variety of the subjects thus
represented can be admirably judged from an important series of such
pendants at South Kensington. In addition to these, which are mostly of
cast silver, other pendants of the same period include silver plaques,
nielloed, engraved, or in relief; and likewise fine cameos or reliefs of
mother-of-pearl, and carvings in ivory and wood, set in coronets of
silver-gilt.
[Illustration: _PLATE XVIII_ MEDIÆVAL PENDANTS (RELIQUARIES, ETC.)]
Mediæval neck-pendants were, as has been observed, known as _pentacols_.
In the inventory of Edward III in 1339[64] we find a pentacol composed
of a large Scotch pearl (_perle d'Escoce_) and an image of Our Lady in
enamel; and "_un pentacol dor od. iiij. petites ameraldes et iiij.
petites rubies environ, et une camahue en mylieu_." In mediæval
inventories and wills the Latin word _monile_ signified not only a
necklace, but jewels hung at the neck. The same term was also employed
for the morse, particularly when the latter had a ring for suspension.
Many pendants generally provided with quatrefoil rings, come from
South Germany (like one shown on Plate XVIII, 1) and especially from
Bohemia--there is a good collection of them in the cathedral treasury
of Prague.[65] The majority are silver-gilt, and set with a plaque of
mother-of-pearl or crystal, and are usually hollow, to contain relics.
The term _monile_ was further applied to brooches or _nouches_; and the
nouches described in such detail in the English inventories of the
fifteenth century, which will be mentioned later when the subject of
brooches is dealt with, may in part have been employed as ornaments for
the necklace.
[64] _Kalendars_ etc., III, pp. 185, 188.
[65] Podlaha (A.), and Sittler (E.), _Der Domschatz in Prag_,
pp. 113-132. 1903.
Various _monilia_ or pendants, containing small relics, verses from the
Bible, the names of Christ or the Virgin written upon vellum or upon
metal, and perhaps also ancient magic spells--all possessing the virtues
of talismans, were worn by chains or cords round the neck, and in some
instances very likely hidden under the upper garment. The early Church,
in many an edict, declared itself against this form of superstition, yet
such pendants or phylacteries--a term applied to any amulet worn about
the person against evil of all kinds--appear to have been extensively
used. Another and popular pendant from the fourteenth to the sixteenth
century, which is frequently cited in inventories, but now rarely met
with, takes the form of a small circular box or capsule bearing in front
an _Agnus Dei_ in niello or repoussé, surrounded by a corded edging.
Such boxes were intended for the preservation of a roundel of wax
moulded from the remains of the Paschal candle at Rome with an
impression of the sacred Lamb, and blessed by the Pope for distribution
to the faithful. The cases, of silver-gilt, have occasionally a covering
of transparent horn on the back and front. An example of this kind, of
fifteenth-century German workmanship, is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum (Pl. XIX, 3). The wax it contains bears the name of Pope Urban VI
(1378-1389). An original stamp of bronze, of Italian origin, dating from
the fourteenth century, which was used for making these wax impressions,
is preserved in the British Museum along with other moulds for casting
medals and small articles of jewellery.
In addition to the precious and semi-precious stones already mentioned,
other objects, accounted specially efficacious for certain purposes,
were worn. The _peres de eagle_, also called _ætites_, supposed to be
found in the nest of the eagle, were particularly valuable during
childbirth. _Glossopetræ_, the fossilised teeth of certain kinds of
shark, which passed as serpents' teeth, were much used, as well as
primitive arrowheads. They were hung round the neck of infants in the
belief that they assisted dentition and kept off frights. Of great value
also was the bezoar stone, which, like glossopetræ, at one time occupied
a prominent place in pharmacopoeia. Coral, which has always been
popular, is first mentioned in English wills and inventories in the
fourteenth century. It was used for rosaries, and, above all, as a
charm--a ring of gold or silver being attached to its stalk. The Romans
tied little branches of it round their children's necks to ward off the
evil eye; and the infant Saviour in many an early Italian picture is
represented wearing a piece of coral in a similar manner.[66]
[66] A relic of this superstition still exists in the coral baubles
hung with bells, with which infants are aided in cutting their teeth.
A fear of poison, common for centuries in royal courts, was responsible
for the custom of testing meats and drinks by methods founded upon
certain ancient and groundless beliefs. In order to neutralise or detect
the presence of poison, certain objects were placed in contact with food
or were dipped into liquids. The touching-pieces (_tousches_) or proofs
(_espreuves_) employed for the purpose, and considered especially
efficacious against poison, were toadstones, glossopetræ, serpentine,
jasper, agate and particularly the unicorn's horn. What was foisted upon
the credulous public as the horn of the fabled animal was in reality the
horn or tusk of a fish--the narwhal or sea-unicorn of the northern seas.
Being an object of very great value, the horn was only occasionally kept
entire, like the one preserved to this day at New College, Oxford. It
was more usually cut into pieces and used as "proofs."
An angry unicorne in his full career
Charge with too swift foot a jeweller
That watched him for the treasure of his brow,
And ere he could get shelter of a tree,
Nail him with his rich antler to the earth.[67]
[67] Quoted from Bussy d'Amboise (1607) by Malone, commenting on the
passage, "Unicorns may be betray'd with trees" (_Julius Cæsar_, II, i).
These and other objects, when worn upon the person, as was generally the
practice, were mounted at one end, or surrounded by a claw-like band of
silver.
Another object which occupied an important position in the Middle Ages
and often received special attention at the hands of the goldsmith was
the rosary. It was suspended occasionally from the neck, but was more
often worn upon the wrist, at the girdle, or attached to a finger ring,
and was formed of a string of beads of various sizes and materials
representing Aves, Paternosters, and Glorias: each bead receiving the
name of the prayer it represented. The rosary, as at the present day,
was divided into decades of Aves, each decade being preceded by a
Paternoster and followed by a Gloria. The materials of which they were
composed are well illustrated in the inventory[68] of the jewels
belonging to Adam Ledyard, a London jeweller in 1381. It includes:
"4 sets of paternosters of white amber; 16 sets of paternosters of amber;
5 sets of paternosters of coral and geet [jet]; 6 sets of aves of geet,
and paternosters of silver-gilt; 38 sets of aves of geet, with gaudees
of silver-gilt; 14 sets of aves of blue glass, with paternosters of
silver-gilt; 28 sets of paternosters of geet; 15 sets of paternosters of
mazer; and 5 sets of paternosters of white bone for children."
[68] Riley (H. T.), _Memorials of London and London life_, p. 455.
The makers of these beads were termed paternosterers; and Paternoster
Row and Ave Maria Lane were so called from the "turners of beads"
who resided there. In Paris, as early as the thirteenth century, the
commerce in rosaries was a most flourishing one, and it was customary
there to divide the makers or dealers in these articles into three
categories--paternosterers of bone and horn, of coral and
mother-of-pearl, and of amber and jet. In England the rosary makers
do not seem to have been so specialised.
[Illustration: _PLATE XIX_ MEDIÆVAL PENDANTS]
The larger beads were sometimes of gold, silver, and silver-gilt, of
open-work, beautifully chased and engraved, and of boxwood and ivory
exquisitely carved. The "gaudees" or "gauds" in the above quotation,
the ornaments or trinkets attached to the rosary, were commonly in the
form of a crucifix, while the small German charms mentioned above (p.
120) were mostly employed for the same purpose. Of the spherical-shaped
gauds or nuts pendent to the rosary, called in French _grains de
chapelet_ and known in Germany as _Betnüsse_, many fine examples exist
in boxwood. They have often an open-work case which opens with a hinge,
and displays two hemispheres filled with a number of carved figures of
minute proportions.
Among the many forms assumed by mediæval pendants were those of
fruits--generally apples or pears. These fruit-shaped pendants,
containing either figures or relics, were exceedingly popular. They were
carried in the purse or attached to the rosary or to the girdle, or in
the case of men, were hung from the neck by a cord or chain; and were
constructed so as to be opened during devotions. One of the most
remarkable examples is in the Waddesdon Bequest at the British
Museum.[69]
[69] Read (C. H.), _Catalogue of the Waddesdon Bequest_, No. 231.
The use of perfumes prevailed at all periods of the Middle Ages. They
were enclosed in various receptacles, and especially in those shaped
like a pear or apple. These pendent scent cases or _pomanders_, worn
like other pendants of the same form, were in general use throughout the
whole of the period extending from the fourteenth to the seventeenth
century. Pomander in early inventories is often spelt _pomeambre_,
indicating its derivation from _pomme d'ambre_, a perfume apple or ball;
the word _pomme_ being used for any object resembling an apple in shape,
and _ambre_[70] for perfume in general. Primarily the pomander seems
often to have designated a ball composed of various highly scented
substances which served the purpose both of counteracting the smells
which must have been particularly general and offensive in olden days,
and also of protecting against infection. It was enclosed in a rich
metal case, opening across the centre, and perforated so as to allow the
scent to escape. The title "pomander"--originally meaning simply a scent
or perfume ball--was given to the case which contained it. In many
instances, the perfumes, instead of being mixed together into a ball,
were placed in the pomander case each in a separate compartment, the
lids of which are found inscribed with the names of the contents. These
compartments, varying in number from four to as many as sixteen, are
formed like segments of an orange. They are hinged below, and united at
the top by a screw or pin, which being removed, allows the segments to
open out (Pl. XVIII, 3).
[70] Probably abbreviated from ambregis (ambergris), the well-known
odoriferous substance, so called from its resemblance to grey amber.
It was the most highly prized of all perfumes in mediæval times; and
though its use is now almost entirely confined to perfumery, it
formerly also occupied no inconsiderable place in pharmacy.
[Illustration: Pomander. From _Kreuterbuch_ (Frankfort, 1569).]