GREEK JEWELLERY
Before dealing with Greek jewellery of the classic period some reference
must be made to the primitive and archaic ornaments that preceded it.
The period and phase of Greek culture to which the primitive ornaments
belong is known widely as "Mycenæan"--a title it owes to the discoveries
made at Mycenæ, where in 1876 Schliemann brought to light the famous
gold treasure now preserved in the National Museum at Athens. A
characteristic motive of the decoration of these objects is the use
of spiral patterns almost identical with those employed on Celtic
ornaments. Besides these and other primitive exhibitions of decorative
skill, we find representations of naturalistic animal forms, such as
cuttlefish, starfish, butterflies, and other creatures. These are
displayed in repoussé patterns worked in low relief. Among the most
notable objects are a number of gold crowns usually in the form of
elongated oval plates ornamented with fine work chiefly in the shape
of rosettes and spirals.
Most numerous are the gold plates intended to be fastened to the
dress. They are ornamented with spirals and radiating lines, with the
above-mentioned animal forms, or with leaves showing the veins clearly
marked (Pl. III, 1). Specially worthy of note also are the finger rings
with the designs sunk into the oval surface of the bezel.
Ornaments of this same epoch, like those in the British Museum from
Ialysos in Rhodes, and Enkomi in Cyprus, have been discovered throughout
the whole Ægean district. They are likewise mainly in the form of gold
plates used for sepulchral purposes, ornamented with embossed patterns
impressed from stone moulds. Some of them are enriched with fine
granulation. This particular process, however, which abounds in Etruscan
work, is more frequent on Greek ornaments of the archaic epoch, which
dates roughly from about the seventh or eighth century B.C. The types of
these, generally semi-Oriental in character, show the influence of
Phoenician art, with its traces of Egyptian and Assyrian feeling.
Lions and winged bulls on some objects betray the Assyrian style; the
treatment of the human figure displays on others the influence of Egypt.
Among the best examples of this Græco-Phoenician jewellery are those
found at Kameiros in Rhodes, and now in the Louvre and the British
Museum. Between these and the fourth-century jewels from the Crimea to
be described next, the only known Greek jewels are the quasi-Oriental
ones from the tombs of Cyprus, which belong to about the fifth century.
The jewellery of ancient Greece, which requires more detailed
consideration, is that worn from the close of the fifth century onwards.
The jewellery of the Greeks at this epoch was, like all their other
works of art, of surpassing excellence. Gold was wrought with a skill
which showed how well the artist appreciated the beauty of its colour
and its distinctive qualities of ductility and malleability. The Greek
craftsman was ever careful to keep the material in strict subordination
to the workmanship, and not to allow its intrinsic worth so to dominate
his productions as to obscure his artistic intention. The Greek
goldsmiths excelled in the processes of repoussé, chasing, engraving,
and of intaglio cutting on metal, and brought to great perfection the
art of soldering small objects on to thin surfaces and joining together
the thinnest metal plates.
[Illustration: _PLATE III_ EARLY GREEK JEWELLERY]
Granulated work, in which they were rivalled by the Etruscans alone, the
Greeks practised with success, but preferred filigree ornamentation,
that is the use of fine threads of gold twisted upon the surface with
very delicate effect. Precious stones were very rarely used in the
finest work, though on many of the post-Alexandrine jewels, stones such
as garnets were frequently employed. Colour was obtained by a sparing
use of enamel. The value of Greek jewellery lies in the use of gold and
the artistic development of this single material. The minuteness of
jewellery did not lead the Greeks to despise it as a field of labour.
Whatever designs they borrowed from others the Greeks made their own and
reproduced in a form peculiar to themselves. In other respects they went
straight to nature, choosing simple motives of fruit, flowers, and
foliage, united with a careful imitation of animal forms and of the
human body.
The objects we have to consider fall into two classes, according as they
are either substantial articles for use or ornament in daily life, or
mere flimsy imitations of them made only to be buried with the dead. As
in the case of other nations of antiquity, the demands of Greek piety
were satisfied if the dead were adorned with jewels made cheaply of
leaves of stamped or bracteate gold. This course was followed mainly for
the purpose of lessening expense; but it served also to obviate the
chance of tombs being rifled by tomb-robbers or _tymborychoi_, who
practised a profession which was common in ancient times and offered
large and certain profits.
Jewels simply and entirely funereal occupy a prominent position in
every public and private collection of Greek jewellery. The rarity of
jewels for actual use may be further explained by the fact that articles
of that kind would only be associated with the grave of a person of
wealth and distinction, and that the more important graves were the
first prey of robbers.
The almost complete absence of specimens of jewellery from the mainland
of Greece is due to those acts of pillage which continually took place
at localities well known as cemeteries. Only in tombs concealed by their
environment, or lost to sight in semi-barbarous countries, have
sufficient ornaments been found for us to form an estimate of the
perfection which this branch of the industrial arts then attained. The
chief sources of these discoveries have been the Crimea, the Greek
islands, the west coast of Asia Minor, and Southern Italy--known in
ancient times as Magna Græcia. Of these districts by far the most
important was that on the northern shore of the Black Sea, called
formerly the Tauric Chersonese and now the Crimea, where in close
proximity to the warlike Scythian tribes a Greek colony had settled as
early as the sixth century before our era. Excavations made also in the
adjacent peninsula of Taman have revealed numerous articles of gold, all
belonging to the latter half of the century. The wealth of gold on the
shores of the Black Sea, which is the basis of the early Greek legends
of the Golden Fleece, had attracted merchant adventurers at an early
date. And the Greek goldsmiths who settled there forwarded their
productions both to their mother-country and to the neighbouring lands
of the barbarians. Excavations undertaken by the Russian Government near
Kertch, the ancient Pantikapaion, gave rise to an important discovery in
1831, when the opening of the celebrated tumulus Koul-Oba revealed a
magnificent display of Greek jewellery. These treasures, and others
which the enterprise of the Russian Government has brought to light,
are preserved at St. Petersburg in the Museum of the Hermitage.
Italy, less systematically ravaged than Greece, has proved exceedingly
rich in finds of antique jewellery. Except for a few scattered fragments
from Greece proper and the other sources mentioned above, public and
private cabinets, outside Russia, are made up almost exclusively of the
results of excavations in the burial-places of Magna Græcia.
In no ornament did the Greek jeweller exhibit his fertility of invention
to a greater degree than in the variety and beauty of the forms given
to earrings. They divide naturally into two classes. The first, the
earlier, are ring-shaped, of two halves formed in a mould and united
together. They terminate at one end with a human head--like that of a
Mænad in a specimen in the British Museum--or more usually with the head
of a lion, bull, or some other animal. To the second class belong those
attached to the ear by a hook masked by a rosette or disc. From this
hang one or more pendants of a variety of designs. In rare instances
these consist of beads hung to little chains; but the logical sense of
the ancients preferred for the purpose things that might be imagined as
floating, such as a little figure of Eros, or a tiny Victory bearing a
wreath. The place on the ring where the pendant is attached is almost
invariably made prominent by a saucer-shaped rosette, a mask, or similar
object ornamented with fine threads of gold. Opaque enamel, of white,
blue, or green, is sometimes found applied thinly to the surface of the
metal. Many earrings are of the most complicated design. When the
ear-pendant was confined to a ring with a crescent-shaped lower part,
this ornament would produce no effect except when the wearer was seen
in profile. In order to make the ornament visible from the front, the
idea suggested itself to hang the crescent ring on to a smaller one.
Wonderfully well executed are some of the later Greek earrings in which
small figures are attached directly to the hook which is inserted into
the ear. Among these are figures of Eros playing a musical instrument or
holding a jug as if pouring a libation.
By the amplification of the appendages we find the simpler earrings
assume such an immense increase in dimension as to make it impossible
that they were attached to the lobe of the ear. It may be assumed that
they were fastened to the diadem or frontlet, or to a plaited tress of
hair, and hung over the ear, or more to the front over the temples.
Naturally this species of ornament, owing to its weight and the many
separate pieces of which it was made, would prevent the wearer from
making any rapid movements, but was adapted to a slow and dignified pace
in walking. It would also have the additional motive of increasing the
commanding appearance of the individual. A splendid pair of head
appendages of this character discovered at Kertch are now at St.
Petersburg. They are composed of two large medallions representing the
head of Athene, whose helmet is adorned with sphinxes and gryphons. From
these are suspended several rows of amphora-shaped ornaments covered
with fine filigree decoration.
The decorating of the head with wreaths was a very common practice among
the ancients on festive occasions of every description. The wreaths with
which the dead were adorned for burial, made in imitation of natural
leaves, form a large portion of funereal jewellery. One of the most
famous of this species, found in 1813 at Armento (S. Italy), and
purchased about 1826 by Ludwig I, King of Bavaria, from Countess Lipona
(formerly Queen of Naples and wife of Joachim Murat) is now in the
Antiquarium at Munich. Here the wreath, formed of roses, narcissus,
myrtle and oak leaves, is enlivened by small figures of genii, while
on the top is placed a statue with an inscription underneath it. This
splendid specimen was probably employed for votive purposes. Dating from
the third century B.C., and also from Magna Græcia, is the gold crown in
the British Museum which was acquired from the collection of Count
Tyszkiewicz in 1898 (Pl. V, 1). Being of more solid construction, though
excessively light and elegant, this, and similarly elaborate crowns in
the Louvre, were probably worn by ladies of high rank.
[Illustration: _PLATE IV_ GREEK JEWELLERY
(EARRINGS, NECKLACE AND HAIR-PIN)]
In addition to these diadems composed of many minute parts, the simplest
and probably the most usual form is that of a flat band increasing in
breadth towards the middle, and ending there sometimes in a blunt point
marked by a palmette.
Pins that served the purpose of fastening up and decorating the hair
vary in style, their heads being formed sometimes of flowers, and
sometimes of animals or human figures, resembling those employed as
pendants to earrings. Probably the most important is the handsome pin
in the British Museum from Paphos in Cyprus (Pl. IV, 6). The head,
surmounted with a bead of Egyptian porcelain with a pearl above, is in
the form of a capital of a column. At the four corners are projecting
heads of bulls, and between these are open cups or flowers, towards
which four doves with outstretched wings bend as if to drink.
Typical necklaces of the best period consist of a chain about
three-eighths of an inch in width, of closely plaited gold wire. From
this are suspended numerous smaller chains, masked at the top by small
rosettes and hung below with vases, spindle-shaped pieces, or a
rhythmical combination of other ornaments covered with fine filigree.
The British Museum possesses several superb necklaces. To the finest
one, found in the island of Melos, colour is added by means of green
and blue enamel (Pl. V, 3).
Bracelets and armlets, which are rarer than necklaces, are of three
forms: a fine plaited chain, like that of the necklaces, united by a
clasp in the form of a knot; repoussé plaques hinged together; and a
circlet of beaten gold of more solid construction.
The primary object of the finger ring was its use as a convenient method
of carrying the engraved stone which was to serve as a signet. Hence in
early times more attention was paid to the engraving of the gem set in
the ring than to its mounting. Many early rings are entirely of gold and
made generally of one piece, with a large flat bezel engraved like a
gem. A great number of them, though apparently solid, are hollow, and
formed of gold leaf punched into shape and then filled up with mastic to
preserve the form. The ornamental rings of the later Greeks have been
found chiefly in the luxurious colonies of Magna Græcia. One of the most
charming designs is in the shape of a serpent which coils itself many
times round the finger, with its head and tail lying along the finger.
It is worthy of remark that though a number of Greek rings are in
existence, never in Greek art, as in Etruscan and Roman, do we find any
representation of the human figure with rings on the fingers.
In earlier times simple pins formed of gold wire appear to have been
often employed to fasten the dress. Bow-shaped brooches were also worn,
but few gold brooches are met with except those belonging to the later
Greek ornaments. These are characterised by a small arched bow and a
long sheath for the point of the pin decorated with designs in fine
filigree.
The goldsmith's art is much more limited in its application to girdles
than to head or neck ornaments; and yet, as is well known, girdles
formed an important item in the dress of men and women. The girdle over
which the long tunic hung in deep folds was often of simple cords with
tassels affixed to the ends: thus Homer speaks of Hera as wearing a
"zone from which a hundred tassels hang." Girdles appear to have been
mainly of soft ligaments, which probably, with the increase of luxury,
were adorned with gold ornamentations. It is remarkable, at all events,
that those species of gold ornament that can certainly be recognised as
girdles are obvious imitations of textile fabrics.
[Illustration: _PLATE V_ GREEK JEWELLERY
(CROWN, NECKLACES, BRACELET, RINGS)]
Corresponding to the ornaments found at Mycenæ which were employed by
the primitive Greeks for decorating their garments are thin plates of
gold, termed _bracteæ_, pierced with small holes, which served the later
Greeks for similar purpose. They are repoussé, and have clearly been
stamped with dies, for the designs on them show constant repetition.
They are of various sizes and shapes, and it is evident that some were
meant to be worn as single ornaments, while others, sewn on in lines,
formed regular borders or designs on the robes. It is possible that,
like the ball-shaped buttons met with in many fanciful formations, some
of more solid construction served the purpose of clasps that drew
together the dress at intervals along the arm, and acted as fastenings
at the neck or on the shoulder. Some attachments of this kind in the
form of round discs, with their gold surface richly ornamented with
filigree and also with enamel, may have been actual brooches and have
had hinged pins affixed below.