CICERO AND CATILINE
Political honors under the Roman republic were generally to be won
only by military success, or by aggressive leadership in the factional
politics of the city. The single instance of a man's rise to a leading
place in Roman politics solely through the power of his oratory is
found in the case of Marcus Tullius Cicero. His success in the defense
of Roscius and in the prosecution of Verres, as well as his growing
reputation as a lawyer and orator, have already been referred to.
In 65 B.C. Cicero was a successful candidate for the consulship. His
letters written to his friend Atticus at Athens, during his campaign,
give a most vivid insight into the practical Roman politics of the
times, and show us the striking similarity, in many respects, between
the political battles of the Roman republic and our own election
contests.
In one of his early letters Cicero wrote: "Let me tell you that there
is no class of people so harassed by every kind of unreasonable
difficulty as candidates for office."
In a later letter he discusses the details of his campaign as follows:
"The state of things in regard to my candidature, in which I
know that you are supremely interested, is this, as far as
can be as yet conjectured. The only person actually
canvassing is P. Sulpicius Galba. He meets with a good
old-fashioned refusal without reserve or disguise. In the
general opinion this premature canvass of his is not
unfavorable to my interests; for the voters generally give
as a reason for their refusal that they are under
obligations to me. So I hope my prospects are to a certain
degree improved by the report getting about that my friends
are found to be numerous. My intention was to begin my own
canvass just at the very time that Cincius tells me that
your servant starts with this letter, namely, in the campus
at the time of the tribunician election, on the 17th of
July. My fellow candidates, to mention only those who seem
certain, are Galba and Antonius, and Q. Cornificius. At this
I imagine you smiling or sighing. Well, to make you
positively smite your forehead, there are people who
actually think that Cæsonius will stand. I do not think
Aquitius will, for he openly disclaims it and has alleged as
an excuse his health and his leading position at the bar.
Catiline will certainly be a candidate, if you can imagine a
jury finding that the sun does not shine at noon. As for
Aufidius and Policanus, I do not think you will expect to
hear from me about them. Of the candidates for this year's
election, Cæsar is considered certain. Thermus is looked
upon as the rival of Silanus. These latter are so weak both
in friends and reputation that it seems possible to me to
bring in Curius over both. But no one else seems to think
so. What seems most to my interests is that Thermus should
get in with Cæsar. For there is none of those at present
canvassing who, if left over to my year, seems likely to be
a stronger candidate, from the fact that he is commissioner
of the via Flaminia, and when that has been finished I shall
be greatly relieved to have seen him elected consul this
election. Such in outline is the position of affairs in
regard to candidates up to date. For myself I shall take the
greatest pains to carry out all the duties of a candidate,
and perhaps, as Gaul seems to have a considerable voting
power, as soon as business at Rome has come to a standstill
I shall obtain a _libera legatio_ and make an excursion in
the course of September to visit Piso, but so as not to be
back later than January. When I have ascertained the
feelings of the nobility, I shall let you know. You must
undertake to secure for me the support of our friend Pompey,
since you are nearer to him than I. Tell him I shall not be
annoyed if he does not come to my election."
The year of Cicero's consulship (64 B.C.) was disturbed by the famous
conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catiline. It was in this conspiracy, and
during this consulship, that the culmination was reached of the
discontent and plotting which had been fermenting at Rome for a
number of years among a large class of the Roman nobility. The most
discontented men in any community are generally to be found among
those who, while belonging by birth to the upper classes of society,
and accustomed to and desirous of the luxuries of life, have lost
their fortunes and are unable to live in the style to which they
consider themselves as of right entitled. Rome, at this time, was
filled with this class of malcontents, the extravagant and wasteful
style of living, combined with the reckless gambling of the age,
having reduced great numbers among the young nobles almost to beggary.
The overthrow of Sulla's system of government, resulting from the
defection of Pompey and the consequential loss of power and prestige
by the Senate, had also roused a bitter feeling of resentment among
the whole aristocratic party. The effect of this resentment upon the
more solid and substantial element of this party had been to lead them
to make preparations for the overthrow of Pompey upon his return to
Rome; while the effect upon the ruined young nobles was to render
them more than ever ready for any desperate undertaking by which they
stood a chance of repairing their fortunes.
No cause, whether good or bad, ever lacks a leader; and the leader at
this time was found in Catiline, a young noble of the most profligate
character, but of some degree of ability and possessed of boundless
audacity and ambition.
Catiline was descended from one of the oldest families in Rome, and
his loyalty to the cause of the aristocracy was proved by the ferocity
with which he had served under Sulla and had assisted in carrying into
execution his most bloodthirsty orders. Catiline did not fail to
derive some profit from these terrible times, as he secured the
proscription and murder of his brother and the grant to himself of his
brother's forfeited estate.
In spite of these and many other equally heinous crimes, Catiline had
been elected prætor in 68 B.C. and had then spent two years in the
government of Africa. Returning to Rome in 66 B.C., he at once offered
himself as a candidate for the consulship. His political hopes on this
occasion, however, were wrecked by an accusation of misconduct in the
government of his province, brought against him by Publius Clodius. In
revenge, Catiline then conspired with Autronius Pætus, who had just
been deprived of the consulship for bribery, and other profligate and
reckless nobles, to murder Cotta and Manilius, the successful
candidates for consul, and to seize the government. According to
rumor, both Crassus and Cæsar were connected with the conspiracy. The
conspiracy was discovered and the enterprise was abandoned; but the
proceedings against the suspected conspirators were stopped by the
interposition of one of the tribunes, and the facts of the matter were
never definitely ascertained.
It is a peculiar fact that Cicero was ready, at this time, to defend
Catiline against the charges of Clodius; which charges, however, were
dropped, without being brought to trial. Two years later, Catiline was
again a candidate for consul, but was defeated by Cicero and Antonius.
Catiline now began to make preparations for civil war. The plot was
betrayed by a woman. Curius, one of Catiline's adherents, boasted of
the plot to his mistress Fulvia, and she not only gave information of
the plot to Cicero but entered into his employ as a spy upon the
conspirators.
In spite of the overwhelming character of the evidence against him,
Catiline continued on his course with the utmost assurance and
insolence. He even took his place in the Senate, and upon being
attacked by Cicero replied, "There are two parties in the
commonwealth; the nobles, weak in both head and body; the people,
strong in body, but headless. I intend to supply this body with a
head."
On the seventh of November Catiline attempted the assassination of
Cicero by two of his adherents, C. Cornelius and L. Vargunteius.
Cicero was immediately informed of this attempt by his spies, and the
attempt was blocked. The following day Cicero summoned a meeting of
the Senate, and upon Catiline appearing in his place, Cicero burst out
in the first of those famous orations against Catiline, so well known
to all Latin students, which begins: "How long, O Catiline, will you
thus abuse our patience? To what end will your unrestrained audacity
display itself?"
It is always one of the most difficult of tasks to persuade the
citizens of any republic that any political leader is actually
planning the overthrow of the republican form of government. This
blindness, not restricted to any one race or age, was so dense at this
time in Rome that many people had refused to believe even in the
existence of the conspiracy of Catiline, and had suspected Cicero of
having invented the whole story with the object of making political
capital for himself.
The fierce fire in the Senate of the oration by Cicero against
Catiline, however, proved sufficient to force Catiline to action; and
the night after Cicero's first oration against him Catiline fled to
Tuscany to join the forces which had been collected there under his
lieutenant Manlius. Catiline, keeping up his deceit and duplicity to
the end, even while en route to the army of the conspirators wrote
letters to Rome declaring that he was the victim of a conspiracy and
that his present purpose was to go into voluntary banishment at
Marseilles.
Upon reaching his army Catiline threw off the mask and prepared to
take active steps for the overthrow and destruction of Rome. The
conspiracy had now passed the point where it was merely intended to
overthrow the duly elected Roman officials, and to install Catiline
and his friends in their places; the conspirators now sought nothing
less atrocious than the sack of Rome and the murder of her wealthiest
citizens. The contest had now become one directed against the rich
class of the nobles by the poor and bankrupt members of the same
order, assisted by all the unprincipled and desperate adventurers of
Italy.
The plans of Catiline and his supporters were that the army in Tuscany
should march upon Rome, while the friends of Catiline in the city
should watch for a favorable opportunity to murder the consuls and set
fire to the city.
To meet this two-sided danger Antonius was sent with an army against
Catiline, while Cicero remained in Rome to secure the safety of the
city. Cicero was the first to complete his part of the work. The
untiring efforts of the consul at length resulted in securing legal
proof against the leading conspirators who had remained at Rome, and
these were immediately arrested and brought to trial. The people were
at length convinced of the truth of the conspiracy, but even now it
was only with the greatest difficulty that Cicero was able to have
the death sentence decreed against the prisoners.
Catiline now attempted to retreat into Gaul, but was pursued by
Antonius, and in the battle which ensued the army of Catiline was cut
to pieces and Catiline himself killed.
Cicero had earned the gratitude of Rome by preserving it from its
threatened destruction at the hands of Catiline; but the rest of his
record as consul was not of a very creditable character. Throughout
his year of office Cicero was the consistent champion of the
senatorial party, and the opponent of all measures to improve the
economic conditions of the people. In particular, Cicero is to be
censured for his opposition to the agrarian law proposed at this time.
Cicero was also largely responsible for the defeat of a bill to
restore the right of citizenship to the children of the men who had
been proscribed by Sulla.