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Makers of History
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
by
JACOB ABBOTT
With Engravings
New York and London
Harper & Brothers Publishers
1902
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
eight hundred and forty-nine, by
Harper & Brothers,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District
of New York.
Copyright, 1876, by Jacob Abbott.
PREFACE.
The history of the life of every individual who has, for any reason,
attracted extensively the attention of mankind, has been written in a
great variety of ways by a multitude of authors, and persons sometimes
wonder why we should have so many different accounts of the same
thing. The reason is, that each one of these accounts is intended for
a different set of readers, who read with ideas and purposes widely
dissimilar from each other. Among the twenty millions of people in the
United States, there are perhaps two millions, between the ages of
fifteen and twenty-five, who wish to become acquainted, in general,
with the leading events in the history of the Old World, and of
ancient times, but who, coming upon the stage in this land and at this
period, have ideas and conceptions so widely different from those of
other nations and of other times, that a mere republication of
existing accounts is not what they require. The story must be told
expressly for them. The things that are to be explained, the points
that are to be brought out, the comparative degree of prominence to be
given to the various particulars, will all be different, on account of
the difference in the situation, the ideas, and the objects of these
new readers, compared with those of the various other classes of
readers which former authors have had in view. It is for this reason,
and with this view, that the present series of historical narratives
is presented to the public. The author, having had some opportunity to
become acquainted with the position, the ideas, and the intellectual
wants of those whom he addresses, presents the result of his labors to
them, with the hope that it may be found successful in accomplishing
its design.
CONTENTS.
Chapter Page
I. ALEXANDER'S CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 13
II. BEGINNING OF HIS REIGN 36
III. THE REACTION 57
IV. CROSSING THE HELLESPONT 78
V. CAMPAIGN IN ASIA MINOR 103
VI. DEFEAT OF DARIUS 128
VII. THE SIEGE OF TYRE 147
VIII. ALEXANDER IN EGYPT 169
IX. THE GREAT VICTORY 189
X. THE DEATH OF DARIUS 213
XI. DETERIORATION OF CHARACTER 234
XII. ALEXANDER'S END 251
ENGRAVINGS.
Page
MAP. EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER _Frontispiece._
ALEXANDER AND BUCEPHALUS 27
MAP OF MACEDON AND GREECE 48
MAP OF MACEDON AND GREECE 58
MAP OF THE PLAIN OF TROY 88
PARIS AND HELEN 94
ACHILLES 97
MAP OF THE GRANICUS 104
THE BATHING IN THE RIVER CYDNUS 124
MAP OF THE PLAIN OF ISSUS 134
THE SIEGE OF TYRE 157
THE FOCUS 185
THE CALTROP 197
ALEXANDER AT THE PASS OF SUSA 211
PROPOSED IMPROVEMENT OF MOUNT ATHOS 261
[Illustration: MAP. EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER.]
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
CHAPTER I.
HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH.
B.C. 356-336
The briefness of Alexander's career.--His brilliant exploits.--Character
of Alexander.--Mental and physical qualities.--Character of the Asiatic
and European civilization.--Composition of Asiatic and European
armies.--King Philip.--Extent of Macedon.--Olympias.--The young
prince Alexander.--Ancient mode of warfare.--Ancient and
modern military officers.--Alexander's nurse.--Alexander's
education.--Lysimachus.--Homer.--Aristotle.--Alexander's copy
of Homer.--Alexander's energy and ambition.--The Persian
embassadors.--Stories of the embassadors.--Maturity of Alexander's
mind.--Secret of Alexander's success.--The story of Bucephalus.--Philip
condemns the horse.--Alexander desires to mount him.--Bucephalus
calmed.--An exciting ride.--Sagacity of Bucephalus.--Becomes Alexander's
favorite.--Fate of Bucephalus.--Alexander made regent.--Alexander's
first battle.--Chaeronea.--Alexander's impetuosity.--Philip repudiates
Olympias.--Alexander's violent temper.--Philip's attempt on his
son.--Philip's power.--His plans of conquest.--Alexander's impatience
to reign.
Alexander the Great died when he was quite young. He was but
thirty-two years of age when he ended his career, and as he was about
twenty when he commenced it, it was only for a period of twelve years
that he was actually engaged in performing the work of his life.
Napoleon was nearly three times as long on the great field of human
action.
Notwithstanding the briefness of Alexander's career, he ran through,
during that short period, a very brilliant series of exploits, which
were so bold, so romantic, and which led him into such adventures in
scenes of the greatest magnificence and splendor, that all the world
looked on with astonishment then, and mankind have continued to read
the story since, from age to age, with the greatest interest and
attention.
The secret of Alexander's success was his character. He possessed a
certain combination of mental and personal attractions, which in
every age gives to those who exhibit it a mysterious and almost
unbounded ascendency over all within their influence. Alexander was
characterized by these qualities in a very remarkable degree. He was
finely formed in person, and very prepossessing in his manners. He
was active, athletic, and full of ardor and enthusiasm in all that
he did. At the same time, he was calm, collected, and considerate
in emergencies requiring caution, and thoughtful and far-seeing in
respect to the bearings and consequences of his acts. He formed strong
attachments, was grateful for kindnesses shown to him, considerate in
respect to the feelings of all who were connected with him in any way,
faithful to his friends, and generous toward his foes. In a word, he
had a noble character, though he devoted its energies unfortunately to
conquest and war. He lived, in fact, in an age when great personal and
mental powers had scarcely any other field for their exercise than
this. He entered upon his career with great ardor, and the position in
which he was placed gave him the opportunity to act in it with
prodigious effect.
There were several circumstances combined, in the situation in which
Alexander was placed, to afford him a great opportunity for the
exercise of his vast powers. His native country was on the confines of
Europe and Asia. Now Europe and Asia were, in those days, as now,
marked and distinguished by two vast masses of social and civilized
life, widely dissimilar from each other. The Asiatic side was occupied
by the Persians, the Medes, and the Assyrians. The European side by
the Greeks and Romans. They were separated from each other by the
waters of the Hellespont, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean,
as will be seen by the map. These waters constituted a sort of
natural barrier, which kept the two races apart. The races formed,
accordingly, two vast organizations, distinct and widely different
from each other, and of course rivals and enemies.
It is hard to say whether the Asiatic or European civilization was the
highest. The two were so different that it is difficult to compare
them. On the Asiatic side there was wealth, luxury, and splendor; on
the European, energy, genius, and force. On the one hand were vast
cities, splendid palaces, and gardens which were the wonder of the
world; on the other, strong citadels, military roads and bridges,
and compact and well-defended towns. The Persians had enormous armies,
perfectly provided for, with beautiful tents, horses elegantly
caparisoned, arms and munitions of war of the finest workmanship, and
officers magnificently dressed, and accustomed to a life of luxury and
splendor. The Greeks and Romans, on the other hand, prided themselves
on their compact bodies of troops, inured to hardship and thoroughly
disciplined. Their officers gloried not in luxury and parade, but in
the courage, the steadiness, and implicit obedience of their troops,
and in their own science, skill, and powers of military calculation.
Thus there was a great difference in the whole system of social and
military organization in these two quarters of the globe.
Now Alexander was born the heir to the throne of one of the Grecian
kingdoms. He possessed, in a very remarkable degree, the energy, and
enterprise, and military skill so characteristic of the Greeks and
Romans. He organized armies, crossed the boundary between Europe and
Asia, and spent the twelve years of his career in a most triumphant
military incursion into the very center and seat of Asiatic power,
destroying the Asiatic armies, conquering the most splendid cities,
defeating or taking captive the kings, and princes, and generals that
opposed his progress. The whole world looked on with wonder to see
such a course of conquest, pursued so successfully by so young a man,
and with so small an army, gaining continual victories, as it did,
over such vast numbers of foes, and making conquests of such
accumulated treasures of wealth and splendor.
The name of Alexander's father was Philip. The kingdom over which
he reigned was called Macedon. Macedon was in the northern part
of Greece. It was a kingdom about twice as large as the State of
Massachusetts, and one third as large as the State of New York. The
name of Alexander's mother was Olympias. She was the daughter of the
King of Epirus, which was a kingdom somewhat smaller than Macedon, and
lying westward of it. Both Macedon and Epirus will be found upon the
map at the commencement of this volume. Olympias was a woman of very
strong and determined character. Alexander seemed to inherit her
energy, though in his case it was combined with other qualities of a
more attractive character, which his mother did not possess.
He was, of course, as the young prince, a very important personage in
his father's court. Every one knew that at his father's death he would
become King of Macedon, and he was consequently the object of a great
deal of care and attention. As he gradually advanced in the years of
his boyhood, it was observed by all who knew him that he was endued
with extraordinary qualities of mind and of character, which seemed to
indicate, at a very early age, his future greatness.
Although he was a prince, he was not brought up in habits of luxury
and effeminacy. This would have been contrary to all the ideas which
were entertained by the Greeks in those days. They had then no
fire-arms, so that in battle the combatants could not stand quietly,
as they can now, at a distance from the enemy, coolly discharging
musketry or cannon. In ancient battles the soldiers rushed toward each
other, and fought hand to hand, in close combat, with swords, or
spears, or other weapons requiring great personal strength, so that
headlong bravery and muscular force were the qualities which generally
carried the day.
The duties of officers, too, on the field of battle, were very
different then from what they are now. An officer _now_ must be calm,
collected, and quiet. His business is to plan, to calculate, to
direct, and arrange. He has to do this sometimes, it is true, in
circumstances of the most imminent danger, so that he must be a man
of great self-possession and of undaunted courage. But there is very
little occasion for him to exert any great physical force.
In ancient times, however, the great business of the officers,
certainly in all the subordinate grades, was to lead on the men, and
set them an example by performing themselves deeds in which their own
great personal prowess was displayed. Of course it was considered
extremely important that the child destined to be a general should
become robust and powerful in constitution from his earliest years,
and that he should be inured to hardship and fatigue. In the early
part of Alexander's life this was the main object of attention.
The name of the nurse who had charge of our hero in his infancy was
Lannice. She did all in her power to give strength and hardihood to
his constitution, while, at the same time, she treated him with
kindness and gentleness. Alexander acquired a strong affection for
her, and he treated her with great consideration as long as he lived.
He had a governor, also, in his early years, named Leonnatus, who had
the general charge of his education. As soon as he was old enough to
learn, they appointed him a preceptor also, to teach him such branches
as were generally taught to young princes in those days. The name of
this preceptor was Lysimachus.
They had then no printed books, but there were a few writings on
parchment rolls which young scholars were taught to read. Some of
these writings were treatises on philosophy, others were romantic
histories, narrating the exploits of the heroes of those days--of
course, with much exaggeration and embellishment. There were also some
poems, still more romantic than the histories, though generally on the
same themes. The greatest productions of this kind were the writings
of Homer, an ancient poet who lived and wrote four or five hundred
years before Alexander's day. The young Alexander was greatly
delighted with Homer's tales. These tales are narrations of the
exploits and adventures of certain great warriors at the siege of
Troy--a siege which lasted ten years--and they are written with so
much beauty and force, they contain such admirable delineations of
character, and such graphic and vivid descriptions of romantic
adventures, and picturesque and striking scenes, that they have been
admired in every age by all who have learned to understand the
language in which they are written.
Alexander could understand them very easily, as they were written
in his mother tongue. He was greatly excited by the narrations
themselves, and pleased with the flowing smoothness of the verse
in which the tales were told. In the latter part of his course of
education he was placed under the charge of Aristotle, who was one
of the most eminent philosophers of ancient times. Aristotle had a
beautiful copy of Homer's poems prepared expressly for Alexander,
taking great pains to have it transcribed with perfect correctness,
and in the most elegant manner. Alexander carried this copy with him
in all his campaigns. Some years afterward, when he was obtaining
conquests over the Persians, he took, among the spoils of one of his
victories, a very beautiful and costly casket, which King Darius had
used for his jewelry or for some other rich treasures. Alexander
determined to make use of this box as a depository for his beautiful
copy of Homer, and he always carried it with him, thus protected, in
all his subsequent campaigns.
Alexander was full of energy and spirit, but he was, at the same time,
like all who ever become truly great, of a reflective and considerate
turn of mind. He was very fond of the studies which Aristotle led him
to pursue, although they were of a very abstruse and difficult
character. He made great progress in metaphysical philosophy and
mathematics, by which means his powers of calculation and his judgment
were greatly improved.
He early evinced a great degree of ambition. His father Philip was a
powerful warrior, and made many conquests in various parts of Greece,
though he did not cross into Asia. When news of Philip's victories
came into Macedon, all the rest of the court would be filled with
rejoicing and delight; but Alexander, on such occasions, looked
thoughtful and disappointed, and complained that his father would
conquer every country, and leave him nothing to do.
At one time some embassadors from the Persian court arrived in Macedon
when Philip was away. These embassadors saw Alexander, of course, and
had opportunities to converse with him. They expected that he would be
interested in hearing about the splendors, and pomp, and parade of
the Persian monarchy. They had stories to tell him about the famous
hanging gardens, which were artificially constructed in the most
magnificent manner, on arches raised high in the air; and about a vine
made of gold, with all sorts of precious stones upon it instead of
fruit, which was wrought as an ornament over the throne on which the
King of Persia often gave audience; of the splendid palaces and vast
cities of the Persians; and the banquets, and fetes, and magnificent
entertainments and celebrations which they used to have there. They
found, however, to their surprise, that Alexander was not interested
in hearing about any of these things. He would always turn the
conversation from them to inquire about the geographical position of
the different Persian countries, the various routes leading into the
interior, the organization of the Asiatic armies, their system of
military tactics, and, especially, the character and habits of
Artaxerxes, the Persian king.
The embassadors were very much surprised at such evidences of maturity
of mind, and of far-seeing and reflective powers on the part of the
young prince. They could not help comparing him with Artaxerxes.
"Alexander," said they, "is _great_, while our king is only _rich_."
The truth of the judgment which these embassadors thus formed in
respect to the qualities of the young Macedonian, compared with those
held in highest estimation on the Asiatic side, was fully confirmed in
the subsequent stages of Alexander's career.
In fact, this combination of a calm and calculating thoughtfulness,
with the ardor and energy which formed the basis of his character, was
one great secret of Alexander's success. The story of Bucephalus, his
famous horse, illustrates this in a very striking manner. This animal
was a war-horse of very spirited character, which had been sent as a
present to Philip while Alexander was young. They took the horse
out into one of the parks connected with the palace, and the king,
together with many of his courtiers, went out to view him. The horse
pranced about in a very furious manner, and seemed entirely
unmanageable. No one dared to mount him. Philip, instead of being
gratified at the present, was rather disposed to be displeased that
they had sent him an animal of so fiery and apparently vicious a
nature that nobody dared to attempt to subdue him.
In the mean time, while all the other by-standers were joining in the
general condemnation of the horse, Alexander stood quietly by,
watching his motions, and attentively studying his character. He
perceived that a part of the difficulty was caused by the agitations
which the horse experienced in so strange and new a scene, and that he
appeared, also, to be somewhat frightened by his own shadow, which
happened at that time to be thrown very strongly and distinctly upon
the ground. He saw other indications, also, that the high excitement
which the horse felt was not viciousness, but the excess of noble and
generous impulses. It was courage, ardor, and the consciousness of
great nervous and muscular power.
Philip had decided that the horse was useless, and had given orders to
have him sent back to Thessaly, whence he came. Alexander was very
much concerned at the prospect of losing so fine an animal. He begged
his father to allow him to make the experiment of mounting him. Philip
at first refused, thinking it very presumptuous for such a youth to
attempt to subdue an animal so vicious that all his experienced
horsemen and grooms condemned him; however, he at length consented.
Alexander went up to the horse and took hold of his bridle. He patted
him upon the neck, and soothed him with his voice, showing, at the
same time, by his easy and unconcerned manner, that he was not in the
least afraid of him. A spirited horse knows immediately when any one
approaches him in a timid or cautious manner. He appears to look with
contempt on such a master, and to determine not to submit to him. On
the contrary, horses seem to love to yield obedience to man, when the
individual who exacts the obedience possesses those qualities of
coolness and courage which their instincts enable them to appreciate.
[Illustration: ALEXANDER AND BUCEPHALUS.]
At any rate, Bucephalus was calmed and subdued by the presence of
Alexander. He allowed himself to be caressed. Alexander turned his
head in such a direction as to prevent his seeing his shadow. He
quietly and gently laid off a sort of cloak which he wore, and sprang
upon the horse's back. Then, instead of attempting to restrain him,
and worrying and checking him by useless efforts to hold him in, he
gave him the rein freely, and animated and encouraged him with his
voice, so that the horse flew across the plains at the top of his
speed, the king and the courtiers looking on, at first with fear and
trembling, but soon afterward with feelings of the greatest admiration
and pleasure. After the horse had satisfied himself with his run it
was easy to rein him in, and Alexander returned with him in safety to
the king. The courtiers overwhelmed him with their praises and
congratulations. Philip commended him very highly: he told him that he
deserved a larger kingdom than Macedon to govern.
Alexander's judgment of the true character of the horse proved to
be correct. He became very tractable and docile, yielding a ready
submission to his master in every thing. He would kneel upon his fore
legs at Alexander's command, in order that he might mount more easily.
Alexander retained him for a long time, and made him his favorite war
horse. A great many stories are related by the historians of those
days of his sagacity and his feats of war. Whenever he was equipped
for the field with his military trappings, he seemed to be highly
elated with pride and pleasure, and at such times he would not allow
any one but Alexander to mount him.
What became of him at last is not certainly known. There are two
accounts of his end. One is, that on a certain occasion Alexander got
carried too far into the midst of his enemies, on a battle field and
that, after fighting desperately for some time, Bucephalus made the
most extreme exertions to carry him away. He was severely wounded
again and again, and though his strength was nearly gone, he would not
stop, but pressed forward till he had carried his master away to a
place of safety, and that then he dropped down exhausted, and died. It
may be, however, that he did not actually die at this time, but slowly
recovered; for some historians relate that he lived to be thirty years
old--which is quite an old age for a horse--and that he then died.
Alexander caused him to be buried with great ceremony, and built a
small city upon the spot in honor of his memory. The name of this city
was Bucephalia.
Alexander's character matured rapidly, and he began very early to act
the part of a man. When he was only sixteen years of age, his father,
Philip, made him regent of Macedon while he was absent on a great
military campaign among the other states of Greece. Without doubt
Alexander had, in this regency, the counsel and aid of high officers
of state of great experience and ability. He acted, however, himself,
in this high position, with great energy and with complete success;
and, at the same time, with all that modesty of deportment, and that
delicate consideration for the officers under him--who, though
inferior in rank, were yet his superiors in age and experience--which
his position rendered proper, but which few persons so young as he
would have manifested in circumstances so well calculated to awaken
the feelings of vanity and elation.
Afterward, when Alexander was about eighteen years old, his father
took him with him on a campaign toward the south, during which Philip
fought one of his great battles at Chaeronea, in Boeotia. In the
arrangements for this battle, Philip gave the command of one of the
wings of the army to Alexander, while he reserved the other for
himself. He felt some solicitude in giving his young son so important
a charge, but he endeavored to guard against the danger of an
unfortunate result by putting the ablest generals on Alexander's side,
while he reserved those on whom he could place less reliance for his
own. Thus organized, the army went into battle.
Philip soon ceased to feel any solicitude for Alexander's part of the
duty. Boy as he was, the young prince acted with the utmost bravery,
coolness, and discretion. The wing which he commanded was victorious,
and Philip was obliged to urge himself and the officers with him to
greater exertions, to avoid being outdone by his son. In the end
Philip was completely victorious, and the result of this great battle
was to make his power paramount and supreme over all the states of
Greece.
Notwithstanding, however, the extraordinary discretion and wisdom
which characterized the mind of Alexander in his early years, he was
often haughty and headstrong, and in cases where his pride or his
resentment were aroused, he was sometimes found very impetuous and
uncontrollable. His mother Olympias was of a haughty and imperious
temper, and she quarreled with her husband, King Philip; or, perhaps,
it ought rather to be said that he quarreled with her. Each is said
to have been unfaithful to the other, and, after a bitter contention,
Philip repudiated his wife and married another lady. Among the
festivities held on the occasion of this marriage, there was a great
banquet, at which Alexander was present, and an incident occurred
which strikingly illustrates the impetuosity of his character.
One of the guests at this banquet, in saying something complimentary
to the new queen, made use of expressions which Alexander considered
as in disparagement of the character of his mother and of his own
birth. His anger was immediately aroused. He threw the cup from which
he had been drinking at the offender's head. Attalus, for this was his
name, threw his cup at Alexander in return; the guests at the table
where they were sitting rose, and a scene of uproar and confusion
ensued.
Philip, incensed at such an interruption of the order and harmony of
the wedding feast, drew his sword and rushed toward Alexander but by
some accident he stumbled and fell upon the floor. Alexander looked
upon his fallen father with contempt and scorn, and exclaimed, "What a
fine hero the states of Greece have to lead their armies--a man that
can not get across the floor without tumbling down." He then turned
away and left the palace. Immediately afterward he joined his mother
Olympias, and went away with her to her native country, Epirus, where
the mother and son remained for a time in a state of open quarrel with
the husband and father.
In the mean time Philip had been planning a great expedition into
Asia. He had arranged the affairs of his own kingdom, and had formed a
strong combination among the states of Greece, by which powerful
armies had been raised, and he had been designated to command them.
His mind was very intently engaged in this vast enterprise. He was in
the flower of his years, and at the height of his power. His own
kingdom was in a very prosperous and thriving condition, and his
ascendency over the other kingdoms and states on the European side had
been fully established. He was excited with ambition, and full of
hope. He was proud of his son Alexander, and was relying upon his
efficient aid in his schemes of conquest and aggrandizement. He had
married a youthful and beautiful bride, and was surrounded by scenes
of festivity, congratulation, and rejoicing. He was looking forward to
a very brilliant career considering all the deeds that he had done and
all the glory which he had acquired as only the introduction and
prelude to the far more distinguished and conspicuous part which he
was intending to perform.
Alexander, in the mean time, ardent and impetuous, and eager for glory
as he was, looked upon the position and prospects of his father with
some envy and jealousy. He was impatient to be monarch himself. His
taking sides so promptly with his mother in the domestic quarrel was
partly owing to the feeling that his father was a hinderance and an
obstacle in the way of his own greatness and fame. He felt within
himself powers and capacities qualifying him to take his father's
place, and reap for himself the harvest of glory and power which
seemed to await the Grecian armies in the coming campaign. While
his father lived, however, he could be only a prince; influential,
accomplished, and popular, it is true, but still without any
substantial and independent power. He was restless and uneasy at the
thought that, as his father was in the prime and vigor of manhood,
many long years must elapse before he could emerge from this confined
and subordinate condition. His restlessness and uneasiness were,
however, suddenly ended by a very extraordinary occurrence, which
called him, with scarcely an hour's notice, to take his father's place
upon the throne.