DR. COOK’S EXPEDITION (1907−9)
=[=Dr. Cook’s statements, both as regards Mount McKinley and his
discovery of the North Pole, have been seriously called in question. The
writer prefers to accept his statements until his opponents prove that
they are false.
According to the latest reports, a committee of the American Explorers’
Club have examined Dr. Cook’s data regarding his ascent of Mount
McKinley, and have come to the conclusion that his data do not stand the
test to which they were submitted.
The Council of the Copenhagen University, to whom Dr. Cook sent certain
documents for examination, have decided that from the material supplied
no proof can be adduced that he reached the North Pole.
As Dr. Cook’s instruments and most of his astronomical observations were
left behind at Etah, and are still there in consequence of Peary’s
refusal to allow them on his ship, it is impossible at present to
pronounce a final judgment.=]=
Dr. Frederick A. Cook first took part in Arctic exploration as surgeon
and ethnologist to Peary’s expedition of 1891. He was then twenty-six
years of age. Before the expedition reached Greenland his services were
required in a critical emergency. Peary received a fracture of both
bones of his leg, and it was to Dr. Cook’s skill that he owed a rapid
and successful recovery.
Dr. Cook was one of the party on the ice-cap as far as Humboldt Glacier,
and when Peary asked for a volunteer to accompany him to the farthest
north, Dr. Cook was the first to offer his services. Peary decided to
take Astrup, probably because he wished Dr. Cook to take charge of the
base camp where Mrs. Peary and the remainder of the expedition had to
wait anxiously till his return. Peary states that “to Dr. Cook’s care
may be attributed the almost complete exemption of the party from even
the mildest indisposition, and personally I owe much to his professional
skill, and unruffled patience and coolness in an emergency. In addition
to his work in his special ethnological field, in which he has obtained
a large mass of most valuable material concerning a practically
unstudied tribe, he was always helpful and an indefatigable worker.”
After his return from the Arctic, Dr. Cook had a great ambition to try
the Antarctic, but did not obtain an opportunity till 1897, and he then
had to go on very short notice. The Belgian Expedition had considerable
trouble and some disappointment in connection with the surgeons
appointed. The first candidate was put aside, after acceptance, for
personal reasons, and the second declined to go at the last moment for
family reasons. Without a knowledge of this difficulty, Dr. Cook cabled
to Belgium from America, volunteering his services, though at the time
he had not previously written a line, nor was he acquainted with a
single individual of the expedition or its representatives. In reply, he
received the instruction, “Meet us at Rio, end of September.” He had
only a few days to prepare himself and his outfit for a journey which
might take one year or several. French was the language spoken on the
ship, but Dr. Cook could not speak a word of it. The Commandant,
however, could speak English, and all the scientific staff could speak
German, with which Dr. Cook was familiar. This expedition, after doing
some valuable work, was beset in the ice, and drifted throughout the
whole winter. After an absence of fifteen months, it returned to
civilisation in the spring of 1899.
Dr. Cook’s next venture was an attempt to reach the summit of Mount
McKinley, in Alaska, the highest mountain in North America. His first
attempt was made in 1903, and although he reached a height of only
11,400 feet, he explored a good deal of new territory. His second
attempt was made in 1906, and was successful. He began the ascent with
two companions, but one of them became afraid of the crevasses in the
glaciers and returned to the base camp. The summit, 20,390 feet above
sea-level, was reached by Dr. Cook and Edward Barrille on 16th September
in a temperature of 16° F. below zero.
In the following year, 1907, Dr. Cook quietly made preparations for a
daring expedition to the North Pole. He was fortunate in having a
wealthy friend, John R. Bradley, who paid all expenses. A strong fishing
schooner was purchased and well stocked with suitable supplies. Mr.
Bradley was especially interested in Arctic game, and a considerable
time was spent in hunting walruses and other large animals. At Annootok,
25 miles to the north of Etah, a large settlement of natives was found,
in a most prosperous condition, and here Dr. Cook decided to make his
winter quarters. Rudolph Francke was chosen to be his only companion.
The necessary supplies of food and fuel were landed from the schooner,
and a winter house was soon erected. Steps were at once taken to secure
a large supply of meat and blubber to support the Eskimo during the
winter, and to make provision for the families during the absence of the
men accompanying the expedition in the spring. The whole of the winter
was occupied in preparing furs and equipment of all kinds.
Cook had an abundance of the best hickory wood, and the sledges were
made of a pattern combining the qualities of the Yukon and the Eskimo.
Unlike many others, he did not abandon the old-fashioned iron shoes for
strips of German silver. For dog-harness the Eskimo pattern was adopted,
but in order to prevent the dogs eating the harness, the shoulder-straps
were made of folds of strong canvas, while the traces were cut from
cotton log-line.
Pemmican, made of pounded dry beef, sprinkled with a few raisins, some
currants, and a small quantity of sugar, was selected as the staple food
both for men and dogs.
Early in January 1908 some sledges were sent across Smith Sound to
explore a route and to advance supplies. These advance expeditions were
only partly successful, however, owing to storms having rendered the
moonlight of little service.
The main expedition left Annootok on 19th February 1908. It consisted of
eleven men, one hundred and three dogs, and eleven heavily loaded
sledges. The crossing of Smith Sound to Cape Sabine was found to be
about the most difficult part of the whole journey. The temperature was
low, and as the season was early, there were only a few hours of
sunlight daily. From Cape Sabine a course was made into Flagler Fiord.
From the head of this fiord Ellesmere Island was crossed to Bay Fiord.
In crossing the land the temperature went down to the astonishingly low
figure of 83° F. below zero.
In Bay Fiord a large number of musk-oxen were obtained, which enabled
the party to save their provisions. From Bay Fiord the expedition
entered Eureka Sound, and proceeded northward along the coast of Heiberg
Island. The ice was fairly smooth, and long marches were made. Caches of
food and ammunition were left along Heiberg Island for the return
journey, which Dr. Cook intended to make by way of Cañon Fiord. As an
abundance of musk-oxen, bears, and hares were obtained, it was found
unnecessary to use the provisions taken from Greenland. This also
supplied them with sufficient fat to use as fuel in the snow-houses
which were nightly built for sleeping-quarters.
Svartevog, at the north end of Heiberg Island, was reached on the 17th
March. A distance of nearly 400 geographical miles had been covered in
twenty-eight days. This included the difficult and dangerous crossing of
Smith Sound, and the crossing of Ellesmere Island. It was a remarkable
feat, and justified the leader in daring the remaining 525 miles which
lay between him and the Pole.
At Svartevog a cache was made in which were placed not only a large
quantity of food, but also many discarded articles of equipment. Dr.
Cook had decided to take only two Eskimo with him on the final part of
the journey to the Pole. The two men chosen were Etukishuk and Ahwelah,
each twenty years old. Twenty-six dogs were picked, and provisions for
eighty days were loaded on two sledges. The sledges were made of hickory
and had iron shoes. The provisions consisted of pemmican, musk-ox meat,
tea, coffee, sugar, condensed milk, biscuits, and pea-soup. By way of
fuel, 40 lb. petroleum, 2 lb. wood-alcohol, 3 lb. of candles, and 1 lb.
of matches were carried. Each sledge carried 600 lb., which included the
following articles of equipment: pails, cups, and teaspoons made of
aluminium; 1 tablespoon, 3 tin plates, 6 pocket-knives, 2
butcher-knives, 1 saw-knife, 2 rifles, 110 cartridges, 1 hatchet, 1
Alpine axe, a 12-foot folding canvas boat, 1 silk tent, 2 reindeer
sleeping-bags, and screws, nails, and rivets. The sledges weighed 52 lb.
each, and the weight of the canvas boat was 34 lb. In addition to these,
Dr. Cook had 3 compasses, 1 sextant, 1 glass artificial horizon, 1
pedometer, 3 pocket chronometers, 1 watch, 3 thermometers, 1 aneroid
barometer, and a camera with films.
On the march Dr. Cook wore woollen drawers, a bird-skin shirt, a
blue-fox coat, bear-skin pants, kamiks and hare-skin stockings. A band
of fox-tails was fastened under the knee and about the waist. A
seal-skin coat and some extra clothing were also carried in the personal
bag.
On the morning of 18th March six of the Eskimo left Svartevog on the
return journey. Koolootingwah and Inugito were taken on by Dr. Cook as a
supporting party to give assistance over the rough ice of the pack-edge.
Shortly after noon Dr. Cook started over the polar floes, on a course
slightly west of north. The first day’s march covered 26 miles. Next
morning the temperature was minus 56° F. Some troublesome crushed-ice
was encountered on the second march, but yet the party added 21 miles to
their credit. The difficulties increased on the third day, and the
distance travelled was reduced to 16 miles. Here Dr. Cook sent his two
supporting Eskimo back. They returned with empty sledges, and although
their dogs had received no food during the previous three days, they
hoped to cover the 63 miles to land in one long day’s travel! They
carried a letter instructing Francke to wait until 5th June 1908, and if
Dr. Cook had not returned he was to place Koolootingwah in charge and go
home, either by the whalers or by Danish ships to the south.
Dr. Cook believed that he had now passed beyond the zone of ice crushed
by the influence of land-pressure. On the morning of the fourth march
the temperature was at the low figure of 63° below zero F., but
fortunately there was no wind. Heiberg Island was now nearly lost to
view. A march of fourteen hours carried the party 29 miles. Soon after
the usual snow-house was built, a storm arose, and a further start was
not made until the afternoon of the following day. From minus 59° the
temperature rose to minus 46°, but the wind made the party feel the
piercing cold very keenly. This march brought them to a great lead
several miles wide. It was covered with ice too thin to be crossed with
safety. A partially bridged place was, however, discovered about a mile
from camp, and the low temperature during the night had strengthened the
ice sufficiently for an attempt to be made to cross it. On snow-shoes,
Dr. Cook led the way with spread legs. In two crossings all the supplies
were landed on the other side.
This was probably an extension westwards of the same lead encountered by
Peary, and may indicate the dividing line between the central polar pack
and the land-ice.
A course was now set to reach the 85th parallel on the 97th meridian. At
noon on the 24th March a satisfactory observation gave the position as
latitude 83° 31′; longitude, 96° 27′. From here a glimpse was obtained
of what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west.
The bright light of the sun now began to trouble the eyes, but
amber-coloured goggles were found to be a very satisfactory protection.
On the 25th March a hurricane was experienced, and during the storm the
temperature rose to minus 26° F. The ice cracked with thundering noise,
and Dr. Cook sank into a crevasse which formed under the floor of the
snow-house where he was lying in his sleeping-bag. He was, however,
quickly pulled out by the Eskimo.
During the next three marches it was estimated that 53 geographical
miles were travelled. A cold wind was blowing from the west, and added
much to the misery of the party by forming icicles on every hair about
the face.
On the night of 28th March a violent storm swept away the dome of their
snow-house and buried them under a considerable quantity of snow, from
which they extricated themselves with difficulty.
Next day the weather improved, and on the 30th March the clear
atmosphere enabled them to discover land some distance to the west,
extending parallel to the line of their route. The position at this time
was found to be 84° 50′, and longitude 95° 36′. This land gave the
impression that it probably consisted of two islands, and was named by
Dr. Cook “Bradley Land.” It was seen to extend from about 83° 20′ to
about 85° 11′ near to the 102nd meridian. It was buried under snow, and
resembled the high lands of Heiberg Island.
Dr. Cook has stated that from latitude 83° 31′ a glimpse was obtained of
what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west. He now states
that Bradley Land extends as far south as 83° 20′. If this is correct,
Bradley Land must include Crocker Land.
The weather again changed on the 31st March, and hid the land from view.
Strong winds made progress rather slow for several days. On 7th April
the sun was first observed above the horizon at midnight. The journey
had now lasted from the time the sun first appeared above the horizon at
midday until it did not set during the twenty-four hours.
On 8th April the position was ascertained to be 86° 36′, longitude 94°
2′. In nine days 106 miles had been covered, in a temperature ranging
from 36° to 46° F. below zero. Dr. Cook at this time remarked that in
dreams Heaven was hot, and the other place was cold.
On 11th April the latitude was 87° 20′, and the longitude 95° 19′. Ice
conditions now improved, and good distances were made. For two days the
march was over old ice without pressure-lines or hummocks. The winds,
however, were still bitterly cold, and on 13th April Ahwelah nearly
collapsed. The position on the 14th was 99 miles from the Pole. Some of
the dogs had already been killed to feed the others, but a sufficient
number remained to enable the party to make a determined effort to cover
the remaining distance to the Pole.
On to the 89th parallel the ice was in large fields and comparatively
smooth. The noon observation on 19th April gave the latitude as 29 miles
from the Pole, and the longitude 94° 3′. The next march was made under
great excitement, and when camp was pitched it was within 14 miles of
the goal, in longitude 94° 52′. Shortly after midnight of 21st April the
party again set out, and when the pedometer had registered 14½ miles
camp was made. The observation here gave latitude 89° 59′ 45″. A
distance equal to the 15″ was advanced, the tent was pitched, and a
snow-house was built so that the party might stay long enough for two
rounds of observations to be made. The temperature was 38.7° below zero.
The North Pole had at last been conquered. The struggle which had been
carried on more than three centuries was finally over. It had cost many
lives and unparalleled hardships before man’s ambition was satisfied.
And what a desolate spot to have aroused the competition of nations! No
land was in sight, no life had been seen within a long distance of it,
and nothing but endless fields of ice and snow stretched away to the
horizon. Yet here was the most interesting geographical point on the
surface of the earth; here was the axis on which the world turned.
Soon after midnight of 22nd April, Dr. Cook and his two companions began
their return journey. They set their course along the 100th meridian,
and during the first few days, with fair weather and good ice, they
succeeded in making long marches. On 30th April the latitude was found
to be 88° 1′, and the longitude 97° 42′. As this showed a drift to the
eastward, a more westerly course was set. The temperature still remained
between 30° and 40° below zero, and the wind was again troublesome. Dr.
Cook, with compass in hand, marched ahead of the sledges. Near the 88th
parallel very heavy ice was crossed.
On the 6th May they were stopped by a very severe snowstorm. An attempt
was made to build a snow-house, but the wind swept the blocks away. An
effort was then made to put up the tent, but this was found impossible.
In sheer despair, they crept under the tent without erecting the pole.
For several days the wind was too strong to allow them to travel, and
the atmospheric conditions made it impossible to take observations.
Added to these difficulties was the fact that the food-supply was
running short.
On 24th May the weather cleared sufficiently to enable Dr. Cook to make
an observation, which placed them on the 84th parallel, near the 97th
meridian.
The temperature now gradually rose to zero, and caused the formation of
a fog which proved a serious obstacle to progress. It was Dr. Cook’s
intention to make for his cache in Nansen’s Sound, but when next the sky
cleared, after a long struggle, the party found themselves far south, in
Crown-Prince Gustav Sea. Open water and broken ice made it impossible
for them to reach Heiberg Island.
Dr. Cook was still anxious to return home in 1908, and when he saw that
he was cut off from Annootok, he decided to make for Lancaster Sound,
where he hoped to find one of the Scottish whalers. This allowed him to
take advantage of the southerly drift of the ice. Passing through Hassel
Sound, the party were fortunate in securing both bears and seals. Dr.
Cook states that from this point they travelled southward over Norwegian
Bay into Wellington Channel.[3] Here, however, they found the ice so
much broken up that sledging was impossible, and early in July they
crossed the island of North Devon into Jones Sound. Open water was again
met, and the party were forced to take to the folding canvas boat. As
there was no food for the dogs, they were left behind to shift for
themselves. One of the sledges had also to be left, and the other was
taken to pieces and carried in the boat.
Now followed a long struggle, partly by boat and partly by sledge. Birds
formed their chief food, and in securing these the last of the
ammunition was expended. Baffin’s Bay was reached early in September,
but it was found impossible to return to Greenland or to reach a place
of safety farther south. The only alternative was to make a winter-hut
and endeavour to secure sufficient food to carry them through till the
following spring. They returned westwards to search for a suitable place
to winter, and found it at Cape Sparbo, in Jones Sound. Here an
underground hut was made of stones, bones, and turf; and by means of
primitive weapons they succeeded in killing a sufficient number of
animals to enable them to live through the winter, and to provide food
and equipment for the return journey to Greenland.
On 18th February 1909 the winter quarters were left, and Annootok was
reached on 15th April. Anxious to return home as speedily as possible,
Dr. Cook set out for the Danish settlement at Upernavik, where he
arrived on 21st May. From there he travelled to Copenhagen by Danish
steamers.
This journey by Dr. Cook is unparalleled in the history of Arctic
exploration. The bare idea of attempting to reach the North Pole, in one
season, from the latitude of Annootok, was daring in the extreme. It is
probably correct to say that no Arctic authority could expect that he
would have the smallest chance of success. Many expeditions with much
greater resources than Dr. Cook possessed had in the same region made
the attempt from points hundreds of miles nearer the Pole, and had
suffered utter defeat. Markham’s starting-point was about 240
geographical miles nearer the Pole, and his farthest north was 400 miles
from the Pole. Lockwood’s base was over 200 miles nearer the Pole, and
his record was only 4 miles farther than Markham’s. Dr. Cook was well
aware that Commander Peary himself, by far the most experienced of
Arctic explorers, had repeatedly made attempts from a base much nearer
the Pole. Starting from Lockwood’s base in 1900, his farthest point
reached was 370 miles from the Pole. A second attempt from the same
point in 1902 reached a latitude 343 miles from the Pole. In 1906 his
third trial was made from a ship situated more than 240 geographical
miles nearer the Pole than Annootok, but the farthest north attained was
still 174 miles from the Pole.
This was the position when Dr. Cook decided to make the attempt from
Annootok. It is not surprising, therefore, that those acquainted with
the history of the subject should find a serious difficulty in at once
accepting Dr. Cook’s statement that he had accomplished such an
extraordinary achievement.
His idea of avoiding the route through Kennedy Channel and adopting a
course sufficiently west to escape the crushed-up land-ice was no doubt
a good one, but making every allowance for this advantage, the contrast
between his expedition and Commander Peary’s expedition of 1909 is very
great. Commander Peary had relief parties to assist him until he was
within 132 geographical miles of the Pole. His problem then was to
travel these 132 miles and return to land 413 miles distant. Dr. Cook,
on the other hand, was about 462 miles from the Pole when his last
supporting party left him. To reach the Pole he had therefore to travel
462 miles against Peary’s 132, without being able to obtain any further
supply of food. The return journey, again, was very different. Dr. Cook
expected to find his cache 525 miles distant, but in reality the first
land reached was more than 670 miles from the Pole. The total distance
in latitude covered by Peary with the supply he was able to carry on his
sledges was therefore 545 miles, whereas Cook states that he covered the
extraordinary distance of 1132 miles.
Dr. Cook has still to satisfy experts, but no one will question the fact
that Commander Peary has reached the North Pole; so that, no matter what
the result of the unfortunate controversy may be, to the American nation
belongs the great honour of winning the coveted prize.
During more than three centuries the record was held by the British. It
was then captured by America in 1882. In 1895 it passed into the hands
of the Norwegians, who held it until won by the Italians in 1900.
America regained it in 1906, and now must keep it finally.
The chief records are as follows:—
British {Parry 82° 45′ on 25th July 1827.
{Markham 83° 20′ ” 12th May 1876.
American Lockwood 83° 24′ ” 13th ” 1882.
Norwegian Nansen 86° 13′ ” 7th April 1895.
Italian Cagni 86° 34′ ” 24th ” 1900.
American Peary 87° 6′ ” 21st ” 1906.
American {Cook 90° 0′ ” 21st ” 1908.
{Peary 90° 0′ ” 6th ” 1909.
-----
[3] Dr. Cook seems to have made a mistake here. His route was evidently
west of Norwegian Bay.
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[The end of _The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole_, by George
Bryce.]