[1] This word, meaning "that which binds," is a phonetic variant of
"band," and is derived from the Teutonic root seen in _bindan_, to
bind; it must be distinguished from the obsolete "bond," meaning
originally a householder. In the laws of Canute this word is used as
equal to the Old English _ceorl_ (see CHURL), and thus, as the
churl's position became less free after the Norman Conquest, the
"bond" approximated to the "villein," and still later to the "serf."
The word is in Old English _bonda_, and appears in "husband"
(q.v.), and is derived from the root of the verb _bua_, to dwell,
to have a house, the Latin _colere_, and thus in origin is cognate
with German _Bauer_ and English "boor." The transition in meaning to
the idea of serfdom, and hence to slavery, is due to an early
confusion with "bond," from "bind." The same wrong connexion appears
in the transition of meaning in "bondage," properly "tenure in
villeinage," but now used as synonymous with "slavery." A trace of
the early meaning still survives in "bondager" (q.v.).
BONDAGER, a word meaning generally a servant, but specially used in the
south of Scotland and Northumberland as the term for a female outworker
whom a married farm-labourer, living in a cottage attached to the farm,
undertakes as a condition of his tenancy to supply for field-labour,
sometimes also to board and lodge. The origin of the system was a dearth
of field-labour.
BONDE, GUSTAF, COUNT (1620-1667), Swedish statesman. He is remarkable
for being the persistent advocate of a pacific policy at a time when war
on the slightest provocation was the watchword of every Swedish
politician. Even the popular Polish adventure of Charles X. was
strenuously opposed by Bonde, though when once it was decided upon he
materially assisted the king to find the means for carrying it on. He
was also in favour of strict economy coupled with the recovery of the
royal domains which had fallen into the hands of the nobles, though his
natural partiality for his fellow-peers came out clearly enough when in
1655 he was appointed a member of Charles X.'s land-recovery commission.
In 1659 he succeeded Herman Fleming as lord high treasurer, and was one
of the council of regency appointed to govern Sweden during the minority
of Charles XI. In 1661 he presented to the senate a plan which aimed at
rendering Sweden altogether independent of foreign subsidies, by a
policy of peace, economy and trade-development, and by further recovery
of alienated estates. His budget in the following year, framed on the
same principles, subsequently served as an invaluable guide to Charles
XI. Bonde's extraordinary tenacity of purpose enabled him for some years
to carry out his programme, despite the opposition of the majority of
the senate and his co-regents, who preferred the more adventurous
methods of the chancellor Magnus de la Gardie, ultimately so ruinous to
Sweden. But the ambition of the oligarchs, and the fear and jealousy of
innumerable monopolists who rose in arms against his policy of economy,
proved at last too strong for Bonde, while the costly and useless
expedition against Bremen in 1665, undertaken contrary to his advice,
completed the ruin of the finances. In his later years Bonde's powers of
resistance were weakened by sickness and mortification at the triumph of
reckless extravagance, and he practically retired from the government
some time before his death.
See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_ (Stockholm, 1881).
BONDED WAREHOUSE, a warehouse established by the state, or by private
enterprise, in which goods liable to duty are lodged until the duty upon
them has been paid. Previous to the establishment of bonded warehouses
in England the payment of duties on imported goods had to be made at the
time of importation, or a bond with security for future payment given to
the revenue authorities. The inconveniences of this system were many; it
was not always possible for the importer to find sureties, and he had
often to make an immediate sale of the goods, in order to raise the
duty, frequently selling when the market was depressed and prices low;
the duty, having to be paid in a lump sum, raised the price of the goods
by the amount of the interest on the capital required to pay the duty;
competition was stifled from the fact that large capital was required
for the importation of the more heavily taxed articles; there was also
the difficulty of granting an exact equivalent drawback to the exporter,
on goods which had already paid duty. To obviate these difficulties and
to put a check upon frauds on the revenue, Sir Robert Walpole proposed
in his "excise scheme" of 1733, the system of warehousing, so far as
concerned tobacco and wine. The proposal, however, was very unpopular,
and it was not till 1803 that the system was actually adopted. By an act
of that year imported goods were to be placed in warehouses approved by
the customs authorities, and importers were to give "bonds" for payment
of duties when the goods were removed. It was from this that the
warehouses received the name of "bonded" or "bonding." The Customs
Consolidation Act 1853 dispensed with the giving of bonds, and laid down
various provisions for securing the payment of customs duties on goods
warehoused. These provisions are contained in the Customs Consolidation
Act 1876, and the amending statutes, the Customs and Inland Revenue Act
1880, and the Revenue Act 1883. The warehouses are known as "king's
warehouses," and by s. 284 of the act of 1876 are defined as "any place
provided by the crown or approved by the commissioners of customs, for
the deposit of goods for security thereof, and the duties due thereon."
By s. 12 of the same act the treasury may appoint warehousing ports or
places, and the commissioners of customs may from time to time approve
and appoint warehouses in such ports or places where goods may be
warehoused or kept, and fix the amount of rent payable in respect of the
goods. The proprietor or occupier of every warehouse so approved
(except existing warehouses of special security in respect of which
security by bond has hitherto been dispensed with), or some one on his
behalf, must, before any goods be warehoused therein, give security by
bond, or such other security as the commissioners may approve of, for
the payment of the full duties chargeable on any goods warehoused
therein, or for the due exportation thereof (s. 13). All goods deposited
in a warehouse, without payment of duty on the first importation, upon
being entered for home consumption, are chargeable with existing duties
on like goods under any customs acts in force at the time of passing
such entry (s. 19). The act also prescribes various rules for the
unshipping, landing, examination, warehousing and custody of goods, and
the penalties on breach. The system of warehousing has proved of great
advantage both to importers and purchasers, as the payment of duty is
deferred until the goods are required, while the title-deeds, or
warrants, are transferable by endorsement.
While the goods are in the warehouse ("in bond") the owner may subject
them to various processes necessary to fit them for the market, such as
the repacking and mixing of tea, the racking, vatting, mixing and
bottling of wines and spirits, the roasting of coffee, the manufacture
of certain kinds of tobacco, &c., and certain specific allowances are
made in respect of waste arising from such processes or from leakage,
evaporation and the like.
BONDU, a French protectorate in West Africa, dependent on the colony of
Senegal. Bondu lies between the Faleme river and the upper course of the
Gambia, that is between 13 deg. and 15 deg. N., and 12 deg. and 13 deg.
W. The country is an elevated plateau, with hills in the southern and
central parts. These are generally unproductive, and covered with
stunted wood; but the lower country is fertile, and finely clothed with
the baobab, the tamarind and various valuable fruit-trees. Bondu is
traversed by torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains but are empty
in the dry season, such streams being known in this part of West Africa
as _marigots_. The inhabitants are mostly Fula, though the trade is
largely in the hands of Mandingos. The religion and laws of the country
are Mahommedan, though the precepts of that faith are not very
rigorously observed. Mungo Park, the first European traveller to visit
the country, passed through Bondu in 1795, and had to submit to many
exactions from the reigning prince. The royal residence was then at
Fatteconda; but when Major W. Gray, a British officer who attempted to
solve the Niger problem, visited Bondu in 1818 it had been removed to
Bulibani, a small town, with about 3000 population, surrounded by a
strong clay wall. In August 1845 the king of Bondu signed a treaty
recognizing French sovereignty over his country. The treaty was
disregarded by the natives, but in 1858 Bondu came definitely under
French control. The country has since enjoyed considerable prosperity
(see SENEGAL).
See A. Rancon, _Le Bondou: etude de geographie et d'histoire
soudaniennes de 1681 a nos jours_ (Bordeaux, 1894).
BONE, HENRY (1755-1834), English enamel painter, was born at Truro. He
was much employed by London jewellers for small designs in enamel,
before his merits as an artist were well known to the public. In 1800
the beauty of his pieces attracted the notice of the Royal Academy, of
which he was then admitted as an associate; in 1811 he was made an
academician. Up to 1831 he executed many beautiful miniature pieces of
much larger size than had been attempted before in England; among these
his eighty-five portraits of the time of Queen Elizabeth, of different
sizes, from 5 by 4 to 13 by 8 in. are most admired. They were disposed
of by public sale after his death. His Bacchus and Ariadne, after
Titian, painted on a plate, brought the great price of 2200 guineas.
BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of
which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German _Bein_),
the hard tissue constituting the framework of the animal skeleton. For
anatomy see SKELETON and CONNECTIVE TISSUES.
BONE DISEASES AND INJURIES.--The more specific diseases affecting the
bones of the human body are treated under separate headings; in this
article _inflammation of bone_ and _fractures_ are dealt with.
Ostitis.
_Ostitis_ ([Greek: osteon], bone), or inflammation of bone, may be acute
or chronic. _Acute ostitis_ is one of the most serious diseases which
can be met with in young people. It is due to the cultivation of
virulent germs in the delicate growing tissue of the bone and in the
marrow. Another name for it is _septic osteomyelitis_, which has the
advantage of expressing the cause as well as the exact seat ([Greek:
myelos], marrow) of the inflammation. The name of the micro-organism
causing the inflammation is _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_, which
means that the germs collect in clusters like grapes, that they are of
the virulent pus-producing kind, and that they have a yellow tinge. As a
rule, the germs find their way to the bone by the blood-stream, which
they have entered through the membrane lining the mouth or gullet, or
some other part of the alimentary canal. In the pre-antiseptic days they
often entered the sawn bone during the amputation of a limb, and were
not infrequently the cause of blood-poisoning and death. When the
individual is well and strong, and there has been no hurt, strain or
accident to lower the power of resistance of the bone, the staphylococci
may circulate harmlessly in the blood, until they are gradually eaten up
by the white corpuscles; but if a bone has been injured it offers a
likely and attractive focus to the wandering germs.
The disease is infective. That is to say, the micro-organisms having
begun to germinate in the damaged bone find their way by the
blood-stream into other tissues, and developing after their kind, are
apt to cause blood-poisoning. Should a surgeon prick his finger whilst
operating on a case of septic osteomyelitis his blood also might be
poisoned, and he would run the risk of losing his finger, his hand, or
even his life. The starting-point of the disease is the delicate growing
tissue recently deposited between the main part of the shaft of the bone
(diaphysis) and the cartilaginous end. And it often happens that the
earliest complaint of pain is just above or below the knee; just above
the ankle, the elbow or the wrist. If the surgeon is prompt in operating
he may find the disease limited to that spot. In the case of infants,
the germs are very apt to make their way into the neighbouring joint,
giving rise to the very serious disease known as _acute arthritis of
infants_.
Probably the first sign of there being anything amiss with the limb will
be a complaint of aches or pains near a joint; and these pains are apt
to be miscalled rheumatic. Perhaps they occur during convalescence from
scarlet or typhoid fever, or after exposure to injury, or to wet or
cold, or after unusual fatigue. The part becomes swollen, hot, red and
excessively tender; the tenderness, however, is not in the skin but in
the bone, and in the engorged membrane around it, the periosteum. The
temperature may run up to 104 deg., and may be associated with
convulsions or shiverings. The patient's nights are disturbed, and very
likely he has violent delirium. If the case is allowed to drift on,
abscess forms, and death may ensue from septic pneumonia, or
pericarditis, or from some other form of blood-poisoning.
As soon as the disease is recognized an incision should be made down to
the bone, and the affected area should be scraped out, and disinfected
with a solution of corrosive sublimate. A considerable area of the bone
may be found stripped bare by sub-periosteal abscess, and necrosis is
likely to ensue. Perhaps the shaft of the bone will have to be opened up
in the chief part of its length in order that it may be cleared of germs
and pus. The surgeon is more apt to err on the side of doing too little
in these serious cases than too much. It may be that the whole of that
piece of bone (diaphysis) which lies between the joint-ends is found
loose in a large abscess cavity, and in some cases immediate amputation
of the limb may be found necessary in order to save life; in other
cases, amputation may be called for later because of long-continued
suppuration and grave constitutional disturbance. Several bones may be
affected at the same time, and large pieces of them may be killed
outright (_multiple necrosis_) by inflammatory engorgement and
devastating abscess.
Septic ostitis may be confounded with erysipelas and rheumatism, but
the central thickening and tenderness should suffice to distinguish it.
_Chronic ostitis_ and _periostitis_ denote long-continued and increased
vascular supply. This may be due to injury, syphilis or rheumatism. The
disease is found chiefly in the shafts of the bones. There is a dull
pain in the bone, which is worse at night, and the inflamed piece of
bone is thickened and tender. The lump thus formed is called a _hard
node_, and its outline shows clearly by X-rays. The affected limb should
be rested and kept elevated. Leeches and fomentations may ease the pain,
and iodide of potassium is the most useful medicine.
_Chronic inflammation of tuberculous origin_ affects the soft,
cancellated tissue of such bones as the vertebrae, and the bones of the
hands and feet, as well as the spongy ends of the long bones. In
tuberculous ostitis the presence of the bacilli in the spongy tissue
causes an escape of colourless corpuscles from the blood, which,
collecting around the bacilli, form a small greyish white heap, a
_tubercle_. These tubercles may be present in large numbers at the
expense of the living tissue, and a _rarefying ostitis_ is thus
produced. Later the tubercles break down and form tuberculous abscesses,
which slowly, and almost painlessly, find escape upon the surface. They
should not be allowed to open spontaneously, however, as the wounds are
then likely to become infected with pus-producing germs, and fuel being
added to the fire, as it were, destruction advances with increased
rapidity. The treatment for these tuberculous foci is to place the limb
or the part at absolute rest upon a splint, to give plenty of fresh air
to the patient, and to prescribe cod-liver oil and iron. And when it is
seen that in spite of the adoption of these measures the tuberculous
abscess is advancing towards the surface, the surgeon should cut down
upon the part, scrape out the foci, and disinfect with some strong
antiseptic lotion. Consideration should also be given to the treatment
by injection of tuberculin.
_Caries_ (rottenness, decay) is the name given to tuberculous disease of
bone when the tubercles are running together and are breaking down the
cancellous tissue. In short, caries generally means tuberculous ostitis,
though syphilitic ulceration of bone has also received the same name.
Fracture.
_Fractures._--A bone may be broken at the part where it is struck
(fracture from direct violence), or it may break in consequence of a
strain applied to it (fracture from indirect violence), or the fracture
may be due to muscular action as when a violent cough causes a rib to
break. In the first case the fracture is generally transverse and in the
second more or less oblique. The fully developed bone is broken fairly
across; the soft bones of young people may simply be bent--_green stick_
or _willow fracture._ Fractures are either _simple_ or _compound_. A
simple fracture is analogous to the subcutaneous laceration in the soft
parts, and a compound one to an open wound in the soft parts. The wound
of the soft parts in the compound fracture may be due either to the
force which caused the fracture, as in the case of a cart-wheel going
over a limb, first wounding the soft parts and then fracturing the bone,
or to the sharp point of the fractured bone coming out through the skin.
In either case there is a communication between the external air and
injured bone, and the probability arises of the germs of suppuration
finding their way to the seat of fracture. This greatly increases the
risks of the case, for septic inflammation and suppuration may lead to
delayed union, to death of large pieces of the bone (necrosis), and to
osteomyelitis and to blood-poisoning. In the treatment of a fracture,
every care should be taken to prevent any sharp fragment coming near the
skin. Careless handling has often been the means of a simple fracture
being converted into a compound one.
In most cases of fracture _crepitus_ can be made out; this is the
feeling elicited when two rough osseous surfaces are rubbed together.
When a bone is merely bent there is, of course, no crepitus. It is also
absent in fractures in which the broken extremities are driven into one
another (impacted fracture). In order to get firm bony union it is
necessary to secure accurate apposition of the fragments. Putting the
broken ends together is termed "setting the fracture," and the needful
amount of rest is obtained by the use of splints. As a rule, it is also
advisable to fix with the splint the joint above or below the fracture.
In cases in which a splintering of the bone into a joint has taken
place, more especially in those cases in which tendons have been
injured, there may be a good deal of effusion into the joint and the
tendon sheaths, and this may be organized into fibrous tissue leading to
permanent stiffness. This is particularly apt to occur in old people.
Care must be taken in such instances by gentle exercises, and by passive
movement during the process of cure, to keep the joint and tendons free.
To take a common example,--in fracture close to the wrist joint, it is
necessary to arrange the splint so that the patient can move his fingers
and thumb, and the splint must be taken off every day, in order that the
wrist and fingers may be gently bent, straightened and exercised.
The treatment of fractures has undergone considerable improvement of
late years. Simple fractures are not kept so long at rest in splints,
but are constantly "taken down" in order that massage and movements of
the limb may be resorted to. This, of course, is done with the utmost
gentleness, and with the result that swelling, pain and other evidences
of the serious injury quickly disappear, whilst a more rapid and
complete recovery is ensured. Stiff hands and feet after fracture are
much less frequently met with. By the aid of the X-rays it is now easy
for the surgeon to assure himself that fractured surfaces have been well
adjusted and are in close apposition. But if they are not in a
satisfactory position, and it be found impracticable to assure their
close adjustment by ordinary methods, the surgeon now, without undue
loss of time, cuts down upon the broken ends and fixes them together by
a strong wire suture, which remains permanently in the tissues. If the
fracture be associated with an open wound of the part (compound
fracture), and the broken ends are found incapable of easy adjustment,
immediate wiring together of the fragments is now considered to be a
necessary part of the primary treatment. The French surgeon, Just
Lucas-Championniere, has done more than any one else to show the
advantage of discreet movements, of massage and of exercises in the
treatment of fractures.
_Special Fracture in Young People._--The long bones of children and
growing persons consist of a shaft with cartilaginous ends in which bone
is developed. As the result of injury, the end of the bone may become
detached, a variety of fracture known as _diastasis_. Such a
fracture--however well treated--may be followed by arrest of growth of
the bone or by stiffness of the neighbouring joint.
_Delayed union_ means that consolidation is taking place very slowly, if
at all. This may be due to local or constitutional causes, but provided
the bones are in good position, nothing further than patience, with
massage, and with due attention to general health-measures, is
necessary.
An _ununited fracture_ is one in which after many weeks or months no
attempt has been made by nature to consolidate the parts. This may be
due to the ends not having been brought close enough together; to the
seat of fracture having been constantly disturbed; to muscle or tendon
being interposed between the broken ends, or to the existence of some
constitutional defect in the patient. Except in the last-named
condition, the treatment consists in cutting down to the broken ends;
freshening them up by sawing off a thin slice, and by adjusting and
fixing them by a wire or screw. Ununited fracture of the leg-bones in
children is a most unsatisfactory and rebellious condition to deal with.
There is still a difference of opinion as to the best way of treating a
recent _fracture of the patella_ (knee-cap). Many surgeons are still
content to follow the old plan of fixing the limb on a back-splint, or
in plaster of Paris splints, and awaiting the result. It is beyond
question that a large percentage of these cases recover with a perfectly
useful limb--especially if the fibrous bond of union between the pieces
of the broken knee-cap is adequately protected against being stretched
by bending the leg at too early a date. But in some cases the fragments
have been eventually found wide apart, the patient being left with an
enfeebled limb. Still, at any rate, this line of treatment was
unassociated with risk. But after Lister showed (1883) that with due
care and cleanliness the knee-joint could be opened, and the fragments
of the broken patella secured in close apposition by a stout wire
suture, the treatment of the injury underwent a remarkable change. The
great advantage of Lister's treatment was that the fragments, being
fixed close together by the wire stitch, became solidly united by bone,
and the joint became as sound as it was before. Some surgeons, however,
objected to the operation--in spite of the excellence of the results
obtainable by it--because of the undoubted risk which it entailed of the
joint becoming invaded by septic micro-organisms. As a sort of
compromise, Professor A.E.J. Barker introduced the method, which he
deemed to be less hazardous, of holding the fragments close together by
means of a strong silver wire passed round them vertically by a large
needle without actually laying open the joint. But experience has shown
that in the hands of careful and skilful surgeons Lister's operation of
openly wiring the fragments gives a perfect result with a comparatively
small risk. Other surgeons secure the fragments in close contact for
bony union by passing a silk or metal suture around them
circumferentially. Many years ago Lister remarked that the careful
selection of one's patients is an antiseptic measure--by which he meant
that if a surgeon intended to get the most perfect results for his
operative work, he must carefully consider whether any individual
patient is physically adapted for the performance upon him of any
particular operation. This aphorism implies that not every patient with
a broken knee-cap is suited for the opening of his knee-joint, or even
for the subcutaneous adjustment of the broken fragments. An operative
procedure which is admirably suited for one patient might result in
disaster when adopted for another, and it is an important part of the
surgeon's business to know what to advise in each individual case.
(E. O.*)
_Industrial Applications of Bones._--By the increasing inventiveness
of man, the industrial utilization of animal bone has been so
developed that not one of the constituents fails to reappear in
commerce. Composed of mineral matter--phosphates, &c.--fat and
gelatinous substances, the phosphates are used as artificial manures,
the fat is worked up by the soap-maker and chandler, and the
gelatinous matter forms the basis of the gelatin and glue of commerce;
while by the dry distillation of bones from which the gelatin has been
but partially removed, there are obtained a carbonaceous
residue--animal charcoal--and a tarry distillate, from which "bone
oil" and bone pitch are obtained. To these by-products there must be
added the direct uses of bone--for making buttons, knife-handles,
&c.--when an estimate is desired of the commercial importance of these
components of the animal frame.
While most of the world's supply of bones goes to the glue and gelatin
works, the leg and thigh bones, termed "marrows" and "knuckles," are
used for the manufacture of bone articles. The treatment which they
receive is very different from that practised in the glue-works. The
ends are removed by a saw, and the bones are steeped in a 1% brine
solution for three to four days, in order to separate the fibrous
matter. The bones are now heated with water, and allowed to simmer for
about six hours. This removes a part of the fat and gelatinous matter;
the former rises as a scum, the latter passes into solution, and the
bones remain sufficiently firm to be worked up by the lathe, &c. The
fat is skimmed off, and, after bleaching, reappears as a component of
fine soaps, or, if unbleached, the oil is expressed and is used as an
adulterant of other oils, while the stearine or solid matter goes to
the candle-maker; the gelatinous water is used (after filtration) for
making size for cardboard boxes; while the bones are scrubbed, dried,
and then transferred to the bone-worker.
The glue-worker first removes the fat, which is supplied to the soap
and candle trades; the bones are now treated for glue (q.v.); and
the residue is worked up for manures, &c. These residues are ground to
a fine or coarse meal, and supplied either directly as a fertilizer or
treated with sulphuric acid to form the more soluble superphosphates,
which are more readily assimilated by growing plants. In some places,
especially South America, the residues are burned in a retort to a
white ash, the "bone-ash" of commerce, which contains some 70-80% of
tricalcium phosphate, and is much used as a manure, and in the
manufacture of high-grade superphosphates. In the gelatin industry
(see GELATIN) the mineral matter has to be recovered from its solution
in hydrochloric acid. To effect this, the liquors are freed from
suspended matter by filtration, and then run into vats where they are
mixed with milk of lime, or some similar neutralizer. The slightly
soluble bicalcium phosphate, CaHPO4, is first precipitated, which,
with more lime, gives ordinary tricalcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2. The
contents of the vats are filter-pressed, and the cakes dried on
plates supported on racks in heated chambers. This product is a very
valuable manure, and is also used in the manufacture of phosphorus.
Instead of extracting all the gelatinous matter from degreased bones,
the practice of extracting about one half and carbonizing the residue
is frequently adopted. The bones are heated in horizontal cast-iron
retorts, holding about 5 cwt., and the operation occupies about twelve
to thirteen hours. The residue in the retorts is removed while still
red-hot to air-tight vessels in which it is allowed to cool. It is
then passed through grinding mills, and is subsequently riddled by
revolving cylindrical sieves. The yield is from 55 to 60% of the bones
carbonized, and the product contains about 10% of carbon and about 75%
of calcium phosphate, the remainder being various inorganic salts and
moisture (6-7%). Animal charcoal has a deep black colour, and is much
used as a filtering and clarifying material. The vapours evolved
during carbonization are condensed in vertical air condensers. The
liquid separates into two layers: the upper tarry layer is floated off
and redistilled; the distillate is termed "bone oil,"[1] and mainly
consists of many fatty amines and pyridine derivatives, characterized
by a most disgusting odour; the residue is "bone pitch," and finds
application in the manufacture of black varnishes and like
compositions. The lower layer is ammoniacal liquor; it is transferred
to stills, distilled with steam, and the ammonia received in sulphuric
acid; the ammonium sulphate, which separates, is removed, drained and
dried, and is principally used as a manure. Both during the
carbonization of the bones and the distillation of the tar inflammable
gases are evolved; these are generally used, after purification, for
motive or illuminating purposes. (C. E.*)