[1] According to the theory now generally adopted, the Etruscan
Volsinii occupied the site of Orvieto, which was hence called _Urbs
vetus_ in late classical and medieval times, while the Roman Volsinii
was transferred to Bolaena (see VOLSINII).
BOLSOVER, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division
of Derbyshire, England, 5-1/2 m. E. of Chesterfield, on branch lines of
the Midland and the Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) 6844. It lies at
a considerable height on a sharp slope above a stream tributary to the
river Rother. The castle round which the town grew up was founded
shortly after the Conquest by William Peveril, but the existing
building, a fine castellated residence, was erected on its site in 1613.
The town itself was fortified, and traces of early works remain. The
church of St Mary is of Norman and later date; it contains some
interesting early stone-carving, and monuments to the family of
Cavendish, who acquired the castle in the 16th century. Coal-mining and
quarrying are carried on in the neighbourhood of Bolsover.
BOLSWARD, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, 6-1/2 m. W.N.W.
of Sneek. A steam-tramway connects it with Sneek, Makkum, Harlingen and
Franeker. Pop. (1900) 6517. The Great church, or St Martin's (1446-1466)
is a large building containing some good carving, a fine organ and the
tombs of many Frisian nobles. The so-called Small church, dating from
about 1280, also contains fine carving and tombstones; and is the
remnant of a Franciscan convent which once existed here. Bolsward also
possesses a beautiful renaissance town-hall (1614-1618) and various
educational and charitable institutions, including a music and a drawing
school. It has an active trade in agricultural produce, and some
spinning-mills and tile and pottery works. The town is mentioned in 725,
when it was situated on the Middle Sea. When this receded, a canal was
cut to the Zuider Zee, and in 1422 it was made a Hansa town.
The medieval constitution of Bolsward, though in its government by eight
_scabini_, with judicial, and four councillors with administrative
functions, it followed the ordinary type of Dutch cities, was in some
ways peculiar. The family of Jongema had certain hereditary rights in
the administration, which, though not mentioned in the town charter of
1455, were defined in that of 1464. According to this the head of the
family sat for two years with the _scabini_ and the third year with the
councillors, and had the right to administer an oath to one of each
body. More singular was the influential position assigned, in civic
legislation and administration, to the clergy, to whom in conjunction
with the councillors, there was even, in certain cases, an appeal from
the judgment of the _scabini_.
See C. Hegel, _Stadte u. Gilden der germanischen Volker im
Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1891).
BOLT, an O. Eng. word (compare Ger. _Bolz_, an arrow), for a "quarrel"
or cross-bow shaft, or the pin which fastened a door. From the swift
flight of an arrow comes the verb "to bolt," as applied to a horse, &c.,
and such expressions as "bolt upright," meaning straight upright; also
the American use of "bolt" for refusing to support a candidate nominated
by one's own party. In the sense of a straight pin for a fastening, the
word has come to mean various sorts of appliances. From the sense of
"fastening together" is derived the use of the word "bolt" as a definite
length (in a roll) of a fabric (40 ft. of canvas, &c.).
From another "bolt" or "boult," to sift (through O. Fr. _buleter_, from
the Med. Lat. _buretare_ or _buletare_), come such expressions as in
Shakespeare's _Winter's Tale_, "The fann'd snow, That's bolted by the
northern blasts twice o'er," or such a figurative use as in Burke's "The
report of the committee was examined and sifted and bolted to the bran."
From this sense comes that of to moot, or discuss, as in Milton's
_Comus_, "I hate when vice can bolt her arguments."
BOLTON, DUKES OF. The title of duke of Bolton was held in the family of
Powlett or Paulet from 1689 to 1794. Charles Powlett, the 1st duke (c.
1625-1699), who became 6th marquess of Winchester on his father's death
in 1675, had been member of parliament for Winchester and then for
Hampshire from 1660 to 1675. Having supported the claim of William and
Mary to the English throne in 1688, he was restored to the privy council
and to the office of lord-lieutenant of Hampshire, and was created duke
of Bolton in April 1689. An eccentric man, hostile to Halifax and
afterwards to Marlborough, he is said to have travelled during 1687 with
four coaches and 100 horsemen, sleeping during the day and giving
entertainments at night. He died in February 1699, and was succeeded by
his elder son, Charles, 2nd duke of Bolton (1661-1722), who had also
been a member of parliament for Hampshire and a supporter of William of
Orange. He was lord-lieutenant of Hampshire and of Dorset, a
commissioner to arrange the union of England and Scotland; and was twice
a lord justice of the kingdom. He was also lord chamberlain of the royal
household; governor of the Isle of Wight; and for two short periods was
lord-lieutenant of Ireland. His third wife was Henrietta (d. 1730), a
natural daughter of James, duke of Monmouth. According to Swift this
duke was "a great booby." His eldest son, Charles, 3rd duke of Bolton
(1685-1754), was a member of parliament from 1705 to 1717, when he was
made a peer as Baron Pawlet of Basing. He filled many of the public
offices which had been held by his father, and also attained high rank
in the British army. Having displeased Sir Robert Walpole he was
deprived of several of his offices in 1733; but some of them were
afterwards restored to him, and he raised a regiment for service against
the Jacobites in 1745. He was a famous gallant, and married for his
second wife the singer, Lavinia Fenton (d. 1760), a lady who had
previously been his mistress. He died in August 1754, and was succeeded
as 4th duke by his brother Harry (c. 1690-1759), who had been a member
of parliament for forty years, and who followed the late duke as
lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. The 4th duke's son, Charles (c.
1718-1765), who became 5th duke in October 1759, committed suicide in
London in July 1765, and was succeeded by his brother Harry (c.
1719-1794), an admiral in the navy, on whose death without sons, in
December 1794, the dukedom became extinct. The other family titles
descended to a kinsman, George Paulet (1722-1800), who thus became 12th
marquess of Winchester. In 1778 Thomas Orde (1746-1807) married Jean
Mary (d. 1814), a natural daughter of the 5th duke of Bolton, and this
lady inherited Bolton Castle and other properties on the death of the
6th duke. Having taken the additional name of Powlett, Orde was created
Baron Bolton in 1797, and the barony has descended to his heirs.
BOLTON (or BOULTON), EDMUND (1575?-1633?), English historian and poet,
was born by his own account in 1575. He was brought up a Roman Catholic,
and was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, afterwards residing in
London at the Inner Temple. In 1600 he contributed to _England's
Helicon_. He was a retainer of the duke of Buckingham, and through his
influence he secured a small place at the court of James I. Bolton
formulated a scheme for the establishment of an English academy, but the
project fell through after the death of the king, who had regarded it
favourably. He wrote a _Life of King Henry II._ for Speed's _Chronicle_,
but his Catholic sympathies betrayed themselves in his treatment of
Thomas Becket, and a life by Dr John Barcham was substituted (Wood,
_Ath. Oxon._ ed. Bliss, iii. 36). The most important of his numerous
works are _Hypercritica_ (1618?), a short critical treatise valuable for
its notices of contemporary authors, reprinted in Joseph Haslewood's
_Ancient Critical Essays_ (vol. ii., 1815); _Nero Caesar, or Monarchic
Depraved_ (1624), with special note of British affairs. Bolton was still
living in 1633, but the date of his death is unknown.
BOLTON (BOLTON-LE-MOORS), a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Lancashire, England, 196 m. N.W. by N. from London and 11 m. N.W.
from Manchester. Pop. (1891) 146,487; (1901) 168,215. Area, 15,279
acres. It has stations on the London & North-Western and the Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways, with running powers for the Midland railway. It is
divided by the Croal, a small tributary of the Irwell, into Great and
Little Bolton, and as the full name implies, is surrounded by high
moorland. Although of early origin, its appearance, like that of other
great manufacturing towns of the vicinity, is wholly modern. It owes not
a little to the attractions of its site. The only remnants of antiquity
are two houses of the 16th century in Little Bolton, of which one is a
specially good example of Tudor work. The site of the church of St Peter
has long been occupied by a parish church (there was one in the 12th
century, if not earlier), but the existing building dates only from
1870. There may also be mentioned a large number of other places of
worship, a town hall with fine classical facade and tower, market hall,
museums of natural history and of art and industry, an exchange,
assembly rooms, and various benevolent institutions. Several free
libraries are maintained. Lever's grammar school, founded in 1641, had
Robert Ainsworth, the Latin lexicographer, and John Lempriere, author of
the classical dictionary, among its masters. There are municipal
technical schools. A large public park, opened in 1866, was laid out as
a relief work for unemployed operatives during the cotton famine of the
earlier part of the decade. On the moors to the north-west, and
including Rivington Pike (1192 ft.), is another public park, and there
are various smaller pleasure grounds. A large number of cotton mills
furnish the chief source of industry; printing, dyeing and bleaching of
cotton and calico, spinning and weaving machine making, iron and steel
works, and collieries in the neighbourhood, are also important. The
speciality, however, is fine spinning, a process assisted by the damp
climate. The parliamentary borough, created in 1832 and returning two
members, falls within the Westhoughton division of the county. Before
1838, when Bolton was incorporated, the town was governed by a
borough-reeve and two constables appointed at the annual court-leet. The
county borough was created in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor,
24 aldermen and 72 councillors.
The earliest form of the name is Bodleton or Botheltun, and the most
important of the later forms are Bodeltown, Botheltun-le-Moors,
Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-Moors,
Bolton-le-Moors. The manor was granted by William I. to Roger de
Poictou, and passed through the families of Ferrers and Pilkington to
the Harringtons of Hornby Castle, who lost it with their other estates
for their adherence to Richard III. In 1485 Henry VII. granted it to the
first earl of Derby. The manor is now held by different lords, but the
earls of Derby still have a fourth part. The manor of Little Bolton
seems to have been, at least from Henry III.'s reign, distinct from that
of Great Bolton, and was held till the 17th century by the Botheltons or
Boltons.
From early days Bolton was famous for its woollen manufactures. In
Richard I.'s reign an aulneger, whose duty it was to measure and stamp
all bundles of woollen goods, was appointed, and it is clear, therefore,
that the place was already a centre of the woollen cloth trade. In 1337
the industry received an impulse from the settlement of a party of
Flemish clothiers, and extended so greatly that when it was found
necessary in 1566 to appoint by act of parliament deputies to assist the
aulnegers, Bolton is named as one of the places where these deputies
were to be employed. Leland in his _Itinerary_ (1558) recorded the fact
that Bolton made cottons, which were in reality woollen goods. Real
cotton goods were not made in Lancashire till 1641, when Bolton is named
as the chief seat of the manufacture of fustians, vermilions and
dimities. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the settlement of
some French refugees further stimulated this industry. It was here that
velvets were first made about 1756, by Jeremiah Clarke, and muslins and
cotton quiltings in 1763. The cotton trade received an astonishing
impetus from the inventions of Sir Richard Arkwright (1770), and Samuel
Crompton (1780), both of whom were born in the parish. Soon after the
introduction of machinery, spinning factories were erected, and the
first built in Bolton is said to have been set up in 1780. The number
rapidly increased, and in 1851 there were 66 cotton mills with 860,000
throstle spindles at work. The cognate industry of bleaching has been
carried on since early in the 18th century, and large ironworks grew up
in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1791 a canal was constructed
from Manchester to Bolton, and by an act of parliament (1792) Bolton
Moor was enclosed.
During the Civil War Bolton sided with the parliament, and in February
1643 and March 1644 the royalist forces assaulted the town, but were on
both occasions repulsed. On the 28th of May 1644, however, it was
attacked by Prince Rupert and Lord Derby, and stormed with great
slaughter. On the 15th of October 1651 Lord Derby, who had been taken
prisoner after the battle of Worcester, was brought here and executed
the same day.
Up to the beginning of the 19th century the market day was Monday, but
the customary Saturday market gradually superseded this old chartered
market. In 1251 William de Ferrers obtained from the crown a charter
for a weekly market and a yearly fair, but gradually this annual fair
was replaced by four others chiefly for horses and cattle. The New Year
and Whitsuntide Show fairs only arose during the 19th century.
BOLTON ABBEY, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 22 m.
N.W. from Leeds and 5-1/2 from Ilkley by the Midland railway. It takes
its name, inaccurately, from the great foundation of Bolton Priory, the
ruins of which are among the most exquisitely situated in England. They
stand near the right bank of the upper Wharfe, the valley of which is
beautifully wooded and closely enclosed by hills. The earliest part of
the church is of transitional Norman date; the nave, which is perfect,
is Early English and Decorated. The transepts and choir are ruined, and
the remains of domestic buildings are slight. The manor of Bolton Abbey
with the rest of the district of Craven was granted by William the
Conqueror to Robert de Romili, who evidently held it in 1086, although
there is no mention made of it in the Domesday survey. William de
Meschines and Cicely de Romili, his wife, heiress of Robert, founded and
endowed a priory at Embsay or Emmesay, near Skipton, in 1120, but it was
moved here in 1151 by their daughter, Alice de Romili, wife of William
FitzDuncan, who gave the manor to the monks in exchange for other lands.
After the dissolution of the monasteries the manor was sold in 1542 to
Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, whose descendants, the dukes of
Devonshire, now hold it.
See J.D. Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A., _History of the District of Craven_
(ed. Morant, 1878); Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_.
BOLZANO, BERNHARD (1781-1848), Austrian priest and philosopher, was born
at Prague on the 5th of October 1781. He distinguished himself at an
early age, and on his ordination to the priesthood (1805) was appointed
professor of the philosophy of religion in Prague University. His
lectures, in which he endeavoured to show that Catholic theology is in
complete harmony with reason, were received with eager interest by the
younger generation of thinkers. But his views met with much opposition;
and it was only through the protection of the archbishop, Prince
Salm-Salm, that he was enabled to retain his chair. In 1820 he was
accused of being connected with some of the students' revolutionary
societies, and was compelled to resign. Several doctrines extracted from
his works were condemned at Rome, and he was suspended from his priestly
functions, spending the rest of his life in literary work. He died at
Prague on the 18th of December 1848. The most important of his numerous
works are the _Wissenschaftslehre, oder Versuch einer neuen Darstellung
der Logik_, advocating a scientific method in the study of logic (4
vols., Sulzbach, 1837); the _Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft_ (4
vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic representation of all the dogmas
of Roman Catholic theology; and _Athanasia, oder Grunde fur die
Unsterblichkeit der Seele_ (2nd ed., Mainz, 1838). In philosophy he
followed Reinhard in ethics and the monadology of Leibnitz, though he
was also influenced by Kant.
See _Lebensbeschreibung des Dr Bolzano_ (an autobiography, 1836);
Wisshaupt, _Skizzen aus dem Leben Dr Bolzanos_ (1850); Palagy, _Kant
und Bolzano_ (Halle, 1902).
BOMA (properly _Mboma_), a port on the north bank of the river Congo
about 60 m. from its mouth, the administrative capital of Belgian Congo.
Pop. about 5000. It was one of the places at which the European traders
on the west coast of Africa established stations in the 16th and 17th
centuries. It became the entrepot for the commerce of the lower Congo
and a well-known mart for slaves. The trade was chiefly in the hands of
Dutch merchants, but British, French and Portuguese firms also had
factories there. No European power exercised sovereignty, though shadowy
claims were from time to time put forward by Portugal (see AFRICA, S 5).
In 1884 the natives of Boma granted a protectorate of their country to
the International Association of the Congo.
See H.M. Stanley, _The Congo and the Founding of its Free State_
(London, 1885).
BOMB, a term formerly used for an explosive shell (see AMMUNITION) fired
by artillery. The word is derived from the Gr. [Greek: bombos], a
hammering, buzzing noise, cf. "bombard" (q.v.). At the present day it is
most frequently used of a shattering or incendiary grenade, or of an
explosive vessel actuated by clockwork or trip mechanism, employed to
destroy life or property. In naval warfare, before the introduction of
the shell gun, explosive projectiles were carried principally by special
vessels known as bomb-vessels, bombards or, colloquially, bombs.
In geology, the name "bomb" is given to certain masses of lava which
have been hurled forth from a volcanic vent by explosive action. In
shape they are spheroidal, ellipsoidal or discoidal; in structure they
may be solid, hollow or more or less cavernous; whilst in size they vary
from that of a walnut to masses weighing several tons. It is generally
held that the form is partly due to rotation of the mass during its
aerial flight, and in some cases the bomb becomes twisted by a gyratory
movement. According, however, to Dr H.J. Johnston-Lavis, many of the
so-called bombs of Vesuvius are not projectiles, but merely globular
masses formed in a stream of lava; and in like manner Professor J.D.
Dana showed that what were regarded as bombs in Hawaii are in many cases
merely lava-balls that have not been hurled through the air. Certain
masses of pumice ejected from Vulcano have been called by Johnston-Lavis
"bread-crust bombs," since they present a coating of obsidian which has
been bent and cracked in a way suggestive of the crust of a roll. It is
probable that here the acid magma was expelled in a very viscous
condition, and the crust which formed on cooling was burst by the steam
from the occluded water. Some of the bombs thrown out during recent
eruptions of Etna consist of white granular quartz, encased in a black
scoriaceous crust, the quartz representing an altered sandstone. The
bombs of granular olivine, found in some of the tuffs in the Eifel, are
represented in most geological collections (see VOLCANO).
BOMBARD (derived through Med. Lat. and Fr. forms from Gr. [Greek:
bombein], to make a humming noise), a term applied in the middle ages to
a sort of cannon, used chiefly in sieges, and throwing heavy stone
balls; hence the later use as a verb (see BOMBARDMENT). The name, in
various forms, was also given to a medieval musical instrument
("bombard," "bumhart," "pumhart," "pommer"), the forerunner of the bass
oboe or schalmey. At the present day a small primitive oboe called
_bombarde_, with eight holes but no keys, is used among the Breton
peasants.
BOMBARDIER, originally an artilleryman in charge of a bombard; now a
non-commissioned officer in the artillery of the British army, ranking
below a corporal.
BOMBARDMENT, an attack by artillery fire directed against
fortifications, troops in position or towns and buildings. In its strict
sense the term is only applied to the bombardment of defenceless or
undefended objects, houses, public buildings, &c., the object of the
assailant being to dishearten his opponent, and specially to force the
civil population and authorities of a besieged place to persuade the
military commandant to capitulate before the actual defences of the
place have been reduced to impotence. It is, therefore, obvious that
mere bombardment can only achieve its object when the amount of
suffering inflicted upon non-combatants is sufficient to break down
their resolution, and when the commandant permits himself to be
influenced or coerced by the sufferers. A threat of bombardment will
sometimes induce a place to surrender, but instances of its fulfilment
being followed by success are rare; and, in general, with a determined
commandant, bombardments fail of their object. Further, an intentionally
terrific fire at a large target, unlike the slow, steady and minutely
accurate "artillery attacks "directed upon the fortifications, requires
the expenditure of large quantities of ammunition, and wears out the
guns of the attack. Bombardments are, however, frequently resorted to in
order to test the temper of the garrison and the civil population, a
notable instance being that of Strassburg in 1870. The term is often
loosely employed to describe artillery attacks upon forts or fortified
positions in preparation for assaults by infantry.
BOMBARDON, or BASS TUBA, the name given to the bass and contrabass of
the brass wind in military bands, called in the orchestra bass tuba.
The name of bombardon is unquestionably derived from _bombardone_, the
Italian for contrabass pommer (bombard), which, before the invention of
the fagotto, formed the bass of medieval orchestras; it is also used for
a bass reed stop of 16 ft. tone on the organ. The bombardon was the very
first bass wind instrument fitted with valves, and it was at first known
as the _corno basso_, _clavicor_ or _bass horn_ (not to be confounded
with the bass horn with keys, which on being perfected became the
ophicleide). The name was attached more to the position of the wind
instruments as bass than to the individual instrument. The original
corno basso was a brass instrument of narrow bore with the pistons set
horizontally. The valve-ophicleide in F of German make had a wider bore
and three vertical pistons, but it was only a "half instrument,"
measuring about 12 ft. A. Kalkbrenner, in his life of W. Wieprecht
(1882), states that in the Jager military bands of Prussia the corno
basso (keyed bass horn) was introduced as bass in 1829, and the
bombardon (or valve-ophicleide) in 1831; in the Guards these instruments
were superseded in 1835 by the bass tuba invented by Wieprecht and J.G.
Moritz.
The modern bombardon is made in two forms: the upright model, used in
stationary band music; and the circular model, known as the helicon,
worn round the body with the large bell resting on the left shoulder,
after the style of the Roman _cornu_ (see HORN), which is a more
convenient way of carrying this heavy instrument when marching. The
bombardon, and the euphonium, of which it is the bass, are the outcome
of the application of valves to the bugle family whereby the saxhorns
were also produced. The radical difference between the saxhorns and the
tubas (including the bombardon) is that the latter have a sufficiently
wide conical bore to allow of the production of fundamental sounds in a
rich, full quality of immense power. This difference, first recognized
in Germany and Austria, has given rise in those countries to the
classification of the brass wind as "half" and "whole" instruments
(_Halbe_ and _Ganze Instrumente_). When the brass wind instruments with
conical bore and cup-shaped mouthpiece first came into use, it was a
well-understood principle that the tube of each instrument must
theoretically be made twice as long as an organ pipe giving the same
note; for example, the French horn sounding the 8 ft. C of an 8 ft.
organ pipe, must have a tube 16 ft. long; C then becomes the second
harmonic of the series for the 16 ft. tube, the first or fundamental
being unobtainable. After the introduction of pistons, instrument-makers
experimenting with the bugle, which has a conical bore of very wide
diameter in proportion to the length, found that baritone and bass
instruments constructed on the same principle gave out the fundamental
full and clear. A new era in the construction of brass wind instruments
was thus inaugurated, and now that the proportions of the bugle have
been adopted, the tubes of the tubas are made just half the length of
those of the older instruments, corresponding to the length of the organ
pipe of the same pitch, so that a euphonium sounding 8 ft. C no longer
needs to be 16 ft. long but only 8 ft. The older instruments, such as
the saxhorns, with narrow bore, have therefore been denominated "half
instruments," because only half the length of the instrument is of
practical utility, while the tubas with wide bore are styled "whole
instruments." [1] Bombardons are made in E flat and F of the 16 ft.
octave, corresponding to the orchestral bass tuba, double bass in
strings, and pedal clarinet and contrafagotto in the wood wind. The
bombardon in B flat or C, an octave lower than the euphonium,
corresponds to the contrabass tuba in the orchestra.
The bombardons possess a chromatic compass of 3-1/2 to 4 octaves. The
harmonic series consists of the harmonics from the 1st to the 8th.
[Illustration: BOMBARDON IN E FLAT.]
[Illustration: HARMONIC SERIES OF THE CONTRABASS BOMBARDON IN C.]
The lowest notes produced by the valves are very difficult to obtain,
for the lips seldom have sufficient power to set in vibration a column
of air of such immense length, at a rate of vibration slow enough to
synchronize with that of notes of such deep pitch.[2] Even when they
are played, the lowest valve notes can hardly be heard unless doubled
an octave higher by another bombardon.
Bombardons are generally treated as non-transposing instruments, the
music being written as sounded, except in France and Belgium, where
transposition is usual. The intervening notes are obtained by means of
pistons or valves, which, on being depressed, either admit the wind
into additional lengths of tubing to lower the pitch, or cut off a
length in order to raise it. Bombardons usually have three or four
pistons lowering the pitch of the instrument respectively 1, 1/2,
1-1/2 and 2-1/2 tones (in Belgium, 1, 1/2, 2 and 3 tones). The valve
system, disposal of the tubing and shape and position of the bell
differ considerably in the various models of well-known makers. In
Germany and Austria[3] what is known as the cylinder action is largely
used; for the piston or pump is substituted a four-way brass cock
operated by means of a key and a series of cranks.
In order to obtain a complete chromatic scale throughout the compass,
there must be, as on the slide-trombone, seven different positions or
lengths of tubing available, each having its harmonic series. These
different lengths are obtained on the bombardon by means of a
combination of pistons: the simultaneous use of Nos. 2 and 3 lowers
the pitch two tones; of Nos. 1, 2 and 3, three tones; of Nos. 1, 2, 3,
4, five and a half tones, &c. A combination of pistons, however, fails
to give the interval with an absolutely correct intonation, since the
length of tubing thrown open is not of the theoretical length required
to produce it. Many ingenious contrivances have been invented from
time to time to remedy this inherent defect of the valve system, such
as the six-valve independent system of Adolphe Sax; the Besson
_Registre_, giving eight independent positions; the Besson
compensating system _Transpositeur_; the Boosey automatic compensating
piston invented by D.J. Blaikley, and V. Mahillon's automatic
regulating pistons. More recently the Besson enharmonic valve system,
with six independent tuning slides and three pistons, and Rudall,
Carte & Company's new (Klussmann's patent) bore, conical throughout
the open tube and additional lengths, have produced instruments which
leave nothing to be desired as to intonation. (See VALVES and TUBA.)
(K. S.)