The earliest records of the Bohemian or Czech language are very ancient,
though the so-called MSS. of Zelena Hora (Gruneberg) and Kralodvur
(Koniginhof) are almost certainly forgeries of the early part of the
19th century. The earliest genuine documents of the Bohemian language
comprise several hymns and legends; of the latter the legend of St
Catherine and that of St Dorothy have the greatest value. Several
ancient epic fragments have also been preserved, such as the
_Alexandreis_ and _Tandarias a Floribella_. These and other early
Bohemian writings have been printed since the revival of Bohemian
literature in the 19th century. Of considerable historical value is the
rhymed chronicle generally though wrongly known as the chronicle of
Dalimil. The author, who probably lived during the reign of King John
(1310-1346), records the events of Bohemian history from the earliest
period to the reign of King Henry of Carinthia, the immediate
predecessor of John. A strong feeling of racial antipathy to the
Germans pervades the chronicle.
Old Czech literature.
It is undoubtedly to be attributed to the high intellectual level which
Bohemia attained in the 14th century that at that period we already find
writers on religious and philosophical subjects who used the national
language. Of these the most important is Thomas of Stitny (c.
1331-1401). Of his works, which contain many ideas similar to those of
his contemporary Wycliffe, those entitled _O obecnych vecech
Krestanskych_ (on general Christian matters) and _Besedni reci_ (in a
rough translation "learned entertainments") have most value. Stitny and
some of his contemporaries whose Bohemian writings have perished are
known as the forerunners of Huss. Huss, like many of his contemporaries
in Bohemia, wrote both in Bohemian and in Latin. Of the Bohemian
writings of Huss, who contributed greatly to the development of his
native language, the most important is his _Vyklad viry, desatera Boziho
prikazani, a patere_ (exposition of the creed, the ten commandments and
the Lord's Prayer) written in 1412. Of his numerous other Bohemian works
we may mention the _Postilla_ (collection of sermons), the treatises _O
poznani cesty prave k spaseni_ (the true road to salvation) and _O
svatokupectvi_ (on simony), and a large collection of letters; those
written in prison are very touching.
The years that followed the death of Huss formed in Bohemia a period of
incessant theological strife. The anti-Roman or Hussite movement was
largely a democratic one, and it is therefore natural that the national
language rather than Latin should have been used in the writings that
belong to this period. Unfortunately in consequence of the systematic
destruction of all Bohemian writings which took place through the agency
of the Jesuits, after the battle of the White Hill (1620), a large part
of this controversial literature has perished. Thus the writings of the
members of the extreme Hussite party, the so-called Taborites, have been
entirely destroyed. Of the writings of the more moderate Hussites, known
as the Calixtines or Utraquists, some have been preserved. Such are the
books entitled _Of the Great Torment of the Holy Church_ and the _Lives
of the Priests of Tabor_, written in a sense violently hostile to that
community. A Bohemian work by Archbishop John of Rokycan has also been
preserved; it is entitled _Postilla_ and is similar though inferior to
the work of Huss that bears the same name.
A quite independent religious writer who belongs to the period of the
Hussite wars is Peter Chelcicky (born in the last years of the 14th
century, died 1460), who may be called the Tolstoy of the 15th. His
dominant ideas were horror of bloodshed and the determination to accept
unresistingly all, even unjust, decrees of the worldly authorities.
Though a strenuous enemy of the Church of Rome, Chelcicky joined none of
the Hussite parties. His masterpiece is the _Sit viry_ (the net of
faith). Among his other works his _Postilla_ and polemical writings in
the form of letters to Archbishop John of Rokycan and Bishop Nicolas of
Pelhrimov deserve mention.
The Hussite period is rather poor in historical works written in the
language of the country. We should, however, mention some chroniclers
who were contemporaries and sometimes eye-witnesses of the events of the
Hussite wars. Their writings have been collected and published by
Frantisek Palacky under the title of _Stare ceske letopisy_.
In the 16th century when Bohemia was in a state of comparative
tranquillity, the native literature was largely developed. Besides the
writers of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, we meet at this
period with three historians of merit. Of these far the best-known is
Wenceslas Hajek of Libocan. The year of his birth is uncertain, but we
read of him as a priest in 1524; he died in 1553. His great work
_Kronika ceska_ was dedicated to the emperor Ferdinand I., king of
Bohemia, and appeared under the auspices of government officials. It has
therefore a strong dynastic and Romanist tendency, and its circulation
was permitted even at the time when most Bohemian books were prohibited
and many totally destroyed. Hajek's book was translated into several
languages and frequently quoted. We find such second-hand quotations
even in the works of many writers who had probably never heard of Hajek.
His book is, however, inaccurate and grossly partial. Very little known
on the other hand are the works of Bartos, surnamed "pisar" (the
writer), as he was for many years employed as secretary by the city of
Prague, and those of Sixt of Ottersdorf. The work of Bartos (or
Bartholomew) entitled the _Chronicle of Prague_ has great historical
value. He describes the troubles that befell Prague and Bohemia
generally during the reign of the weak and absentee sovereign King
Louis. The year of the birth of Bartos is uncertain, but it is known
that he died in 1539. The somewhat later work of Sixt of Ottersdorf
(1500-1583) deals with a short but very important episode in the history
of Bohemia. It is entitled _Memorials of the Troubled Years 1546 and
1547_. The book describes the unsuccessful rising of the Bohemians
against Ferdinand I. of Austria. Sixt took a considerable part in this
movement, a fact that greatly enhances the value of his book.
Though the life of Chelcicky, who has already been mentioned, was an
isolated one, he is undoubtedly the indirect founder of the community of
the "Bohemian Brethren," who greatly influenced Bohemian literature.
Almost all their historical and theological works were written in the
national language, which through their influence became far more refined
and polished. Before referring to some of the writings of members of the
community we should mention the famed translation of the Scriptures
known as the _Bible of Kralice_. It was the joint work of several
divines of the brotherhood, and was first printed at Kralice in Moravia
in 1593. Brother Gregory, surnamed the patriarch of the brotherhood, has
left a large number of writings dealing mainly with theological matters.
Most important are the _Letters to Archbishop Rokycan_ and the book _On
good and evil priests_. After the death of Brother Gregory in 1480
discord broke out in the community, and it resulted in very great
literary activity. Brothers Lucas, Blahoslav and Jaffet, as well as
Augusta, a bishop of the community, have left us numerous controversial
works. Very interesting is the account of the captivity of Bishop
Augusta, written by his companion the young priest Jan Bilek. We have
evidence that numerous historical works written by members of the
brotherhood existed, but most of them perished in the 17th century when
nearly all anti-Roman books written in Bohemia were destroyed. Thus only
fragments of Blahoslav's _History of the Unity_ (i.e. the brotherhood)
have been preserved. One of the historians of the brotherhood, Wenceslas
Brezan, wrote a _History of the House of Rosenberg_, of which only the
biographies of William and Peter of Rosenberg have been preserved. The
greatest writer of the brotherhood is John Amos Komensky or Comenius
(1592-1670). Of his many works written in his native language the most
important is his _Labyrinth of the World_, an allegorical tale which is
perhaps the most famous work written in Bohemian.[4] Many of the
numerous devotional and educational writings of Comenius,--his works
number 142,--are also written in his native tongue.
The year 1620, which witnessed the downfall of Bohemian independence,
also marks the beginning of a period of decline of the national tongue,
which indeed later, in the 18th century, was almost extinct as a written
language. Yet we must notice besides Comenius two other writers, both
historians, whose works belong to a date later than 1620. Of these one
was an adherent of the nationalist, the other of the imperialist party.
Paul Skala ze Zhore (1582-c. 1640) was an official in the service of the
"winter king" Frederick of the Palatinate. He for a time followed his
sovereign into exile, and spent the last years of his life at Freiberg
in Saxony. It was at this period of his life, after his political
activity had ceased, that he wrote his historical works. His first work
was a short book which is a mere series of chronological tables.
Somewhat later he undertook a vast work entitled _Histoire cirkevni_
(history of the church). In spite of its title the book, which consists
of ten enormous MS. volumes, deals as much with political as with
ecclesiastical matters. The most valuable part, that dealing with events
of 1602 to 1623, of which Skala writes as a contemporary and often as an
eye-witness, has been edited and published by Prof. Tieftrunk. A
contemporary and a political opponent of Skala was William Count Slavata
(1572-1652). He was a faithful servant of the house of Habsburg, and one
of the government officials who were thrown from the windows of the
Hradcany palace in 1618, at the beginning of the Bohemian uprising. In
1637 Slavata published his _Pamety_ (memoirs) which deal exclusively
with the events of the years 1618 and 1619, in which he had played so
great a part. During the leisure of the last years of his long life
Slavata composed a vast work entitled _Historicke Spisovani_ (historical
works). It consists of fourteen large MS. volumes, two of which contain
the previously-written memoirs. These two volumes have recently been
edited and published by Dr Jos. Jirecek.
19th-century revival.
After the deaths of Skala, Slavata and Comenius, no works of any
importance were written in the Bohemian language for a considerable
period, and the new Austrian government endeavoured in every way to
discourage the use of that language. A change took place when the
romantic movement started at the beginning of the 19th century. The
early revival of the Bohemian language was very modest, and at first
almost exclusively translations from foreign languages were published.
The first writer who again drew attention to the then almost forgotten
Bohemian language was Joseph Dobrovsky (1753-1829). His works, which
include a grammar of the Bohemian language and a history of Bohemian
literature, were mostly written in German or Latin, and his only
Bohemian works are some essays which he contributed to the early numbers
of the _Casopis Musea Kralovstvi Ceskeho_ (Journal of the Bohemian
Museum) and a collection of letters.
It is, however, to four men belonging to a time somewhat subsequent to
that of Dobrovsky that the revival of the language and literature of
Bohemia is mainly due. They are Jungmann, Kolar, Safarik and Palacky.
Joseph Jungmann (1773-1847) published early in life numerous Bohemian
translations of German and English writers. His most important works are
his _Dejepes literatury ceska_ (history of Bohemian literature), and his
monumental German and Bohemian dictionary, which largely contributed to
the development of the Bohemian language. John Kolar (1793-1852) was the
greatest poet of the Bohemian revival, and it is only in quite recent
days that Bohemian poetry has risen to a higher level. Kolar's principal
poem is the _Slavy dcera_ (daughter of Slavia), a personification of the
Slavic race. Its principal importance at the present time consists
rather in the part it played in the revival of Bohemian literature than
in its artistic value. Kolar's other works are mostly philological
studies. Paul Joseph Safarik (1795-1861) was a very fruitful writer. His
_Starozitnosti Slovanske_ (Slavic antiquities), an attempt to record the
then almost unknown history and literature of the early Slavs, has still
considerable value. Francis Palacky (1798-1876) is undoubtedly the
greatest of Bohemian historians. Among his many works his history of
Bohemia from the earliest period to the year 1526 is the most important.
Other Bohemian writers whose work belongs mainly to the earlier part of
the 19th century are the poets Francis Ladislav Celakovsky, author of
the _Ruze stolistova_ (the hundred-leaved rose), Erben, Macha, Tyl, to
mention but a few of the most famous writers. The talented writer Karel
Havlicek, the founder of Bohemian journalism, deserves special notice.
During the latter part of the 19th century, and particularly after the
foundation of the national university in 1882, Bohemian literature has
developed to an extent that few perhaps foresaw. Of older writers Bozena
Nemceva, whose _Babicka_ has been translated into many languages, and
Benes Trebizky, author of many historical novels, should be named. John
Neruda (1834-1891) was a very fruitful and talented writer both of
poetry and of prose. Perhaps the most valuable of his many works is his
philosophical epic entitled _Kosmicke basne_ (cosmic poems). Julius
Zeyer (1841-1901) also wrote much both in prose and in verse. His epic
poem entitled _Vysehrad_, which celebrates the ancient glory of the
acropolis of Prague, has great value, and of his many novels _Jan Maria
Plojhar_ has had the greatest success. Of later Bohemian poets the best
are Adolf Heyduk, Svatopluk Cech and Jaroslav Vrchlicky (b. 1853). Of
Svatopluk Cech's many poems, which are all inspired by national
enthusiasm, _Vaclav z Michalovic, Lesetinsky Kovar_ (the smith of
Lesetin) and _Basne otroka_ (the songs of a slave) are the most notable.
While Vrchlicky (pseudonym of Emil Frida) has no less strong patriotic
feelings, he has been more catholic in the choice of the subjects of his
many works, both in poetry and in prose. Of his many collections of
lyric poems _Rok na jihu_ (a year in the south), _Poute k Eldoradu_
(pilgrimages to Eldorado) and _Sonety Samotare_ (sonnets of a recluse)
have particular value. Vrchlicky is also a very brilliant dramatist.
Bohemian novelists have become very numerous. Mention should be made of
Alois Jirasek, also a distinguished dramatic author; Jacob Arbes, whose
_Romanetta_ have great merit; and Vaclav Hladik, whose _Evzen Voldan_ is
a very striking representation of the life of modern Prague. Like so
many Bohemian authors, Hladik also is a copious dramatic author.
Bohemia has been very fruitful in historic writers. Wenceslas Tomek
(1818-1905) left many historical works, of which his _Dejepis miesta
Prahy_ (history of the town of Prague) is the most important. Jaroslav
Goll (b. 1846) is the author of many historical works, especially on the
community of the Bohemian Brethren. Professor Joseph Kalousek has
written much on the early history of Bohemia, and is also the author of
a very valuable study of the ancient constitution (_Statni pravo_) of
Bohemia. Dr Anton Rezek is the author of important historical studies,
many of which appeared in the Journal of the Bohemian Museum and in the
_Cesky Casopis Historicky_ (Bohemian Historical Review), which he
founded in 1895 jointly with Professor Jaroslav Goll. More recently Dr
Vaclav Flajshans has published some excellent studies on the life and
writings of John Huss, and Professors Pic and Niederle have published
learned archaeological studies on the earliest period of Bohemian
history.
See Count Lutzow, _A History of Bohemian Literature_ (London, 1899);
W.R. Morfill, _Slavonic Literature_ (1883); A.N. Pypin and V.D.
Spasovic, _History of Slavonic Literature_ (written in Russian,
translated into German by Trangott Pech, _Gesch. der slav.
Literaturen_, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884). There are modern histories
of Bohemian literature written in the national language by Dr Karel
Tieftrunk, Dr Vaclav Flajshans and Mr Jaroslav Vlaek. (L.)