rather follow the opinion of Chrysander, who notices in this fusion of
three national styles a predominant tendency to the Italian, just as
Bach inclines most to the French style.
[359] One finds there, cycles of variations on Minuets, on Gavottes,
especially on Chaconnes and many other Italian forms. The Gigue of the
Sixth Suite (in G minor) comes from an air in _Almira_ (1705). One
notices also that the Eighth Suite in G major is in the French style
(particularly the Gavotte in rondo with five variations).
It is necessary to follow this second volume by the third, which
contains works of widely different periods: _Fantasia_, _Capriccio_,
_Preludio e Allegro_, _Sonata_, published at Amsterdam in 1732, and
dating from his youthful period (the Second Suite was inspired by an
_Allemande_ of Mattheson): _Lessons composed for the Princess Louisa_
(when aged twelve or thirteen years) about 1736; _Capriccio in G minor_
(about the same date); and _Sonata in C major_ in 1750.
Finally, there should be added to these volumes, various clavier works
published in Vol. XLVIII of the Complete Edition under the title:
_Klaviermusik und Cembalo Bearbeitungen_. There is also a selection of
the best arrangements of symphonies and airs from the operas of Handel
by Babell (about 1713 or 1714).
[360] Mattheson in 1722 quoted the Fugue in E minor as quite a recent
work.
[361] Handel himself told his friend Bernard Granville so, when he made
him a present of Krieger's work: _Anmuthige Clavier-Uebung_, published
in 1699.
[362] The Fugue in A minor was used for the Chorus, _He smote all the
firstborn in Egypt_, in _Israel in Egypt_, and the Fugue in G minor. The
Chorus, _They loathed to drink at the river_. Another (the 4th) served
for the Overture to the _Passion after Brockes_.
[363] The indications: _ad libitum_, or _cembalo_, found time after time
in his scores, marked the places reserved for the improvisation.
Despite Handel's great physical power, his touch was extraordinarily
smooth and equal. Burney tells us that when he played, his fingers were
"so curved and compact, that no motion, and scarcely the fingers
themselves, could be discovered" (_Commemoration of Handel_, p. 35). M.
Seiffert believes that "his technique, which realised all Rameau's
principles, certainly necessitated the use of the thumb in the modern
style," and that "one can trace a relationship between Handel's arrival
in England and the adoption of the Italian fingering which soon became
fully established there."
[364] A fourth was published by Arnold in 1797; but part of the works
which it contains are not original. Handel had nothing to do with the
publication of the Second Set.
Vol. XXVIII of the Complete Edition contains the Six Concertos of the
First Set, Op. 4 (1738) and the Six of the Third Set, Op. 7 (1760). Vol.
XLVIII comprises the concertos of the Second Set (1740), an experiment
at a Concerto for two organs and orchestra, and two Concertos from the
Fourth Set (1797).
Many of the Concertos are dated. Most of them were written between 1735
and 1751; and several for special occasions; the sixth of the First Set
for an _entr'acte_ to _Alexander's Feast_; the fourth of the First Set,
a little before _Alcina_; the third of the Third Set for the Foundling
Hospital. The Concerto in B minor (No. 3) was always associated in the
mind of the English public with _Esther_; for the minuet was called the
"Minuet from Esther."
[365] May 8, 1735. It was the year when Handel wrote and performed his
first Concertos of the First Set.
[366] Hawkins wrote further: "Music was less fashionable than it is now,
many of both sexes were ingenuous enough to confess that they wanted
this sense, by saying, 'I have no ear for music.' Persons such as these,
who, had they been left to themselves, would have interrupted the
hearing of others by their talking, were by the performance of Handel
not only charmed into silence, but were generally the loudest in their
acclamations. This, though it could not be said to be genuine applause,
was a much stronger proof of the power of harmony, than the like effect
on an audience composed only of judges and rational admirers of his art"
(_General History of Music_, p. 912).
[367] In the Tenth Concerto there are two violoncellos and two bassoons.
The same in the Concerto for two Organs. In the long Concerto in F major
(Vol. XLVIII) we find two horns.
[368] Sometimes the name is found marked there. See the Eighth Concerto
in Vol. XXVIII and the Concerto in F major in Vol. XLVIII.
[369] Vol. XLVIII, page 51.
[370] Mr. Streatfeild was, I believe, the first to notice an autograph
MS. of the Fourth Organ Concerto to which is attached a Hallelujah
Chorus built on a theme from the concerto itself. This MS., which is
found at the British Museum, dates from 1735, and appears to have been
used for the revival in 1737 of the _Trionfo del Tempo_ to which the
Concerto serves for conclusion.
[371] Scriabin also.--_Translator._
[372] _Six Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass for the
Harpsichord._ Published in Vol. XXVII.
[373] Volume XLVIII, page 112.
[374] Volume XLVIII, page 130.
[375] Volume XXVII.
[376] _VII Sonatas a 2 violons, 2 hautbois, ou 2 flutes traversieres et
basse continue, composees par G. F. Handel, Second ouvrage._
[377] Later on, Walsh made arrangements of favourite airs from Handel's
Operas and Oratorios as "Sonatas" for flute, violin and harpsichord. Six
Vols.
[378] In eleven sonatas out of sixteen. One sonata (the third) is in
three movements. Three are in five movements (the first, the fifth and
the seventh). One is in seven movements (the ninth).
[379] In the first Sonata, the final _Presto_ in common time uses the
theme of the _Andante_ in 3-4, which forms the second movement. In the
second Sonata, the final _Presto_ in common time is built on the subject
of the _Andante_ in 3-4, slightly modified.
[380] The fifth Sonata is in five movements--_larghetto_, _allegro_
(3-8), _adagio_, _allegro_ (4-4), _allegro_ (12-8).
[381] From five to seven movements.
[382] A Gavotte concludes the first, second, and third trios. A Minuet
ends the fourth, sixth, and seventh. A Bourree finishes the fifth. There
are also found two Musettes and a March in the second Trio, a Sarabande,
an Allemande and a Rondo in the third; a Passacaille and a Gigue in the
fourth.
[383] It was the aesthetic of the period. Thus M. Mennicke writes:
"Neutrality of orchestral colour characterises the time of Bach and
Handel. The instrumentation corresponds to the registration of an
Organ." The Symphonic orchestra is essentially built up on the strings.
The wind instruments serve principally as _ripieno_. When they used the
wood-wind _obbligato_, it went on throughout the movement and did not
merely add a touch of colour here and there.
[384] One finds in the middle of the _Trionfo del Tempo_ an instrumental
Sonata for 2 Oboes, 2 Violins, Viola, Cello, Basso, and Organ. In the
Solo of the Magdalene in the _Resurrection_, Handel uses two flutes, two
violins (muted), _viola da gamba_ and cello; the cello is occupied with
a pedal-note of thirty-nine bars at the opening, and then joins the
clavecin. In the middle of the air, the _viola da gamba_ and the flutes
play by themselves.
[385] In _Radamisto_ (1720) Tiridate's air: _Alzo al colo_, and final
chorus. In _Giulio Cesare_, 4 horns.
I do not suppose that Handel was the first to use the clarionets in an
orchestra, as this appears very doubtful. One sees on a copy of
_Tamerlano_ by Schmidt: _clar. e clarini_ (in place of the _cornetti_ in
the autograph manuscript). But it is feasible that just as with the
"_clarinettes_" used by Rameau in the _Acanthe et Cephise_, the high
trumpets are intended. Mr. Streatfeild mentions also a concerto for two
"clarinets" and _corno di caccia_, the MS. being in the Fitzwilliam
Museum at Cambridge.
[386] _Alcina_, _Semele_, _L'Allegro_, _Alexander's Feast_, the little
_Ode to St. Cecilia_, etc. Usually Handel imparts to the cello either an
amorous desire or an elegiac consolation.
[387] Thus, in the famous scene which opens the second Act of
_Alexander's Feast_ (second part of the air in G minor), evoking the
host of the dead who have wandered at night from their graves, there are
no violins, no brass; just 3 bassoons, 2 violas, cello, bassi and organ.
[388] In Saul, the scene of the Sorcerer, apparition of the spirit of
Samuel.
[389] The _violette marine_ (little violas very soft) in _Orlando_
(1733).
[390] The monster instruments used for the colossal performances at
Westminster. The double bassoon by Stainsby made in 1727 for the
coronation celebrations. Handel borrowed from the Captain of Artillery
some huge drums preserved at the Tower of London, for _Saul_ and for the
_Dettingen Te Deum_. Moreover, like Berlioz, he was not afraid of using
firearms in the orchestra. Mrs. Elizabeth Carter wrote: "Handel has
literally introduced firearms into _Judas Maccabaeus_; and they have a
good effect" (_Carter Correspondence_, p. 134), and Sheridan, in a
humorous sketch (Jupiter) represents an author who directs a pistol-shot
to be fired behind the scenes, as saying, "See, I borrowed this from
Handel."
[391] For the scene of Cleopatra's apparition on the Parnassus, at the
opening of Act II of _Giulio Cesare_, Handel has two orchestras, one on
the stage; Oboe, 2 Violins, Viola, Harp, Viola da gamba, Theorbo,
Bassoons, Cellos; the other, in front. The first air of Cleopatra in
_Alexander Balus_ is accompanied by 2 Flutes, 2 Violins, Viola, 2
Cellos, Harp, Mandoline, Basses, Bassoon and Organ.
[392] Fritz Volbach: _Die Praxis der Haendel-Auffuehrung_, 1899.
[393] In addition to two parts for Flutes, two for Oboes, two for
Bassoons, Violas, Cellos and Basses, Cembalo, Theorbo, Harp and Organ;
in all, fifteen orchestral parts to accompany a single voice of
_Esther_.
[394] For the Angel's Song.
[395] In _Saul_, "_viola II per duoi violoncelli ripieni_." (See
Volbach, _ibid._)
[396] Study from this point of view the progress from the very simple
instrumentation of _Alexander's Feast_, where at first two Oboes are
used with the strings, then appear successively two Bassoons (air No.
6), two Horns (air No. 9), two Trumpets and Drums (Part II), and, for
conclusion, with the heavenly apparition of St. Cecilia, two Flutes.
[397] Dr. Hermann Abert has found the first indication: _crescendo il
forte_ in Jommelli's _Artaserse_, performed at Rome in 1749. In the
eighteenth century the Abbe Vogler and Schubart already had attributed
the invention of the _Crescendo_ to Jommelli.
[398] See Lucien Kamiensky: _Mannheim und Italien_ (_Sammelbaende der
I.M.G._, January-March, 1909).
[399] M. Volbach has noticed in the overture to the _Choice of
Hercules_, second movement: _piano_, _mezzo forte_, _un poco piu forte_,
_forte_, _mezzo piano_, all in fourteen bars. In the chorus in _Acis and
Galatea_, "Mourn, all ye muses," one reads _forte_, _piano_, _pp._--The
introduction of _Zadock the Priest_ shows a colossal _crescendo_; the
introductory movement to the final chorus in _Deborah_, a very broad
_diminuendo_.
[400] H. Riemann: _Zur Herkunft der dynamischen Schwellzeichen_ (I.M.G.,
February, 1909).
[401] Carle Mennicke notices the same sign for _decrescendo_ ((>) on a
long note in the Overture to Rameau's _Acanthe et Cephise_ (1751).
[402] Geminiani says of the _forte_ and the _piano_: "They are
absolutely necessary to give expression to the melody; for all good
music being the imitation of a fine discourse, these two ornaments have
for their aim the varied inflections of the speaking voice." Telemann
writes: "Song is the foundation of music, in every way. What the
instruments play ought to be exactly after the principles of expression
in singing."
And M. Volbach shows that these principles governed music then in
Germany with all kinds of musicians, even with the trompettist
Altenburg, whose _School for the Trumpet_ was based on the principle
that instrumental performance ought to be similar to vocal rendering.
[403] Max Seiffert: _Die Verzierung der Sologesaenge in Haendels Messias_
(_Sammelbaende der I.M.G._, July-September, 1907).
[404] Fritz Volbach reckons for the _Concerto Grosso_, 8 first violins,
8 seconds, 6 violas, 4 to 6 cellos, 4 basses--and for the _Ripienists_,
6 first violins, 6 seconds, 4 violas, 3 or 4 celli, and 3 basses.
These numbers are much greater than that of Handel's own performances.
The programmes of a performance of the _Messiah_ at the Foundling
Hospital, May 3, 1759, a little after Handel's death, give only 56
executants, of which 33 were instrumentalists and 23 singers. The
orchestra was divided into 12 violins, 3 violas, 3 cellos, 4 oboes, 4
bassoons, 2 trumpets, 2 horns and drums (see _Musical Times_, May,
1902).
[405] "_Leichtigkeit der Bewegung und Beweglichkeit des Ausdrucks_," as
Volbach tells us (suppleness of time and fluidity of expression); these
are the essential qualities which alone will revive the true rendering
of Handel's works.
[406] _12 Grand Concertos_ for stringed instruments and clavier (Vol.
XXX of the Complete Edition), written from September 29 to October 20,
1739, between the little _Ode to St. Cecilia_ and _L'Allegro_. They
appeared in April, 1740. Another volume, of which we will speak later,
is known under the name of _Oboe Concertos_, and contains six _Concerti
Grossi_ (Vol. XXI of the Complete Edition). Max Seiffert has published a
well-edited practical edition of these concertos (Breitkopf).
[407] The _Concertino_ consists of a trio for two violins and bass
_soli_, with _Cembalo Obbligato_. The Germans introduced wood-wind into
the _concertino_, combining thus a violin, an oboe, a bassoon. The
Italians remained faithful, generally speaking, to the stringed
instruments alone.
[408] The _Concerti Grossi_, Op. 6, of Corelli, published in 1712,
represent his lifelong practice. About 1682, George Muffat, visiting
Rome, sought to make acquaintance there with the _Concerti Grossi_ of
Corelli, who already wrote them for instrumental masses of considerable
size. Burney speaks of a concert of 150 string instruments conducted by
Corelli at the Palace of Christine of Sweden in 1680 (see Arnold
Schering's excellent little book: _Geschichte des Instrumentalkonzerts_,
1905, Breitkopf).
[409] Geminiani caused three volumes of Corelli's Concertos to be
published: Op. 2 (1732), Op. 3 (1735), Op. 7 (1748).
[410] Arnold Schering has noted the relationship between a subject of
Geminiani and one in Handel's _Concerto Grosso_, No. 4.
[411] Volume XXI of the Complete Edition.
[412] About 1682, Muffat published at Salzburg his _Armonico tributo_,
Chamber Sonatas, where he mingled the style of the Lullian Trio with the
style of the Italian _Concertino_. And in 1701, at Passau, he published
some _Concerti Grossi_ in the Italian manner after the example of
Corelli.
[413] _Concerti Grossi_, Amsterdam, 1721.
[414] Antonio Vivaldi of Venice (1680-1743), choirmaster of the Ospedale
della Pieta from 1714, began to be known in Germany between 1710 and
1720. The arrangements of his _Concerti Grossi_, which J. S. Bach made,
date from the time when Bach was at Weimar, that is between 1708 and
1714.
[415] Locatelli and Vivaldi came under the influence of the Italian
Opera. Vivaldi himself wrote thirty-eight operas. One of the _Concerti_
of Locatalli (Op. 7, 1741) was named _Il pianto d'Arianna_. In the
_Cimento dell'Armonia_ of Vivaldi four Concertos describe the four
seasons, a fifth paints _La Tempesta_, a sixth _Il Piacere_ (Pleasure).
In Vivaldi's Op. 10 a Concerto represents _La Notte_ (Night), another
_Il Cardellino_ (The Goldfinch). And Arnold Schering notices Vivaldi's
influence in Germany on a Granpuer at Darmstadt, and on Jos. Gregorius
Werner in Bohemia.
[416] See the following dates: September 29, 1739, Concerto I in G
major; October 4, Concerto II in F major; October 6, Concerto III in E
minor; October 8, Concerto IV in A minor; October 12, Concerto VII in B
flat major; October 15, Concerto VI in G minor; October 18, Concerto
VIII in C minor; October 20, Concerto XII in B minor; October 22,
Concerto X in D minor; October 30, Concerto XI in A major (Vol. XXX of
Complete Edition).
[417] One sees French influences particularly in the Tenth Concerto (in
D minor), which has an Overture (_Grave_ in 4-4 time and Fugue in 6-8).
The whole movement preserves an abstract and irregular character. The
last of the six movements--an _Allegro Moderato_, with Variations (very
pretty)--resembles a tune for a musical box.
[418] See even the Third Concerto in E minor, so vivacious, with its
_Larghetto_ 3-2, melancholy and serene, its _Andante_ 12-8 Fugue with an
elaborate theme of twirling designs which gives the impression of the
fancies of a capricious and gloomy soul, its _Allegro_ in 4-4, with a
humour a little grotesque--its picturesque Polonaise on a pedal-bass,
and its final _allegro ma non troppo_ of which the rhythm and unexpected
modulations make one think of certain dances in the later quartets of
Beethoven.
[419] The Fifth Concerto in D major may be styled the Concerto to St.
Cecilia; for three out of the six movements (the two first and the
beautiful final minuet) are found again in the Overture to the little
_Ode to St. Cecilia_.
[420] Arnold Schering believes that the idea of this Musette was given
to Handel by a _ritournelle_ from Leonardo Leo's _S. Elena il Calvaroa_.
[421] The two last _allegri_ conclude the work a trifle brusquely. The
order of the movements with Handel is often very surprising. It is as
though he followed the caprice of the moment.
[422] We cannot continue here the analysis of the other volumes of
Orchestral Concertos. I satisfy myself with merely enumerating them: The
_6 Concerti grossi con due violini e violoncello di concertino obligati
e due altri violini viola e basso di concerto grosso, op. 3_, known
under the name of Oboe Concertos (notwithstanding that the oboe does not
play a very prominent _role_), were published in 1734, and seemed to
have been performed at the Wedding of the Prince of Orange with the
Princess Anne in 1733. But, as we are told, their composition was
previous to this; for not only do we find in the third and the fifth the
reproduction of fugues from the Clavier Pieces, but the fourth served in
1716 as the second overture to _Amadigi_, and the first movement of the
fifth was played in 1722 in the opera _Ottone_. The form of these
Concertos, even less set than with the preceding _Concerti Grossi_,
varies from two to five movements, and their orchestration comprises,
besides the strings, two oboes, to which are occasionally added two
flutes, two bassoons, the organ and the clavecin. It is only exceptional
that the oboe plays a solo part; more often it has to satisfy itself by
reinforcing the violins.
To this volume we must add a number of other concertos, which appeared
at different times, and are brought together in Volume XXI of the
Complete Works; especially the celebrated Concerto of _Alexander's
Feast_, written in January, 1736, of which the style has the same
massive breadth as the oratorio itself. And four little concertos, two
of which are interesting by being youthful works, from 1703 to 1710,
according to Chrysander.
[423] Handel's Overtures were so much appreciated that the publisher
Walsh issued a volume of them for the clavier(65 Overtures). A good
specimen of these transcriptions is found in Volume XLVIII of the
Complete Edition.
[424] Both movements are rudimentary.
[425] This device is often used by Handel to make the transition between
the orchestra and the voice.
[426] Scheibe, who was, with Mattheson, the greatest of German musical
critics in Handel's time, states that the overture ought in its two
first movements "to mark the chief character of the work"; and in the
third movement "to prepare for the first scene of the piece" (_Krit.
Musikus_, 1745). Scheibe himself composed in 1738 some _Sinfonie_ "which
expressed to some extent the contents of the works" (_Polyeuctes,
Mithridates_).
[427] _Andante_, _larghetto_, _allegro_ (fugue).
[428] Only whereas a modern composer would not have omitted the
opportunity of exposing his programme in an organic manner (by
presenting turn by turn the two rival themes, then by bringing them into
conflict, and finally terminating with the triumph of Israel's theme),
Handel contents himself in exposing the two subjects without seeking to
establish any further sequence. If he finishes his overture with the
theme of Baal, it is because it is a gigue movement, and because the
gigue serves well there for concluding; and because Israel's song being
an _adagio_ is better placed as the second movement. It is such
architectural considerations which guide him rather than dramatic ones.
It is the same with nearly all the symphonies of the eighteenth century.
In the same manner even Beethoven in his _Eroica_ symphony allows his
hero to die and be buried in the second movement, and then celebrates
his acts and his triumphs in the third and fourth movements.
[429] Amongst the other overtures, which have the character of
introduction to the work proper, I will mention the Overture to
_Athalie_, which is in perfect accordance with the tragedy;--that of
_Acis and Galatea_, which is a Pastoral Symphony evoking the Pagan life
of nature;--that of the _Occasional Oratorio_, a warlike overture with
two marches, trumpet calls, and a Prayer of distress. There is also the
outline of a programme in the Overture to _Judas Maccabaeus_, of which
the first movement is related to the Funeral Scene which opens the first
act, and of which the second movement (Fugue) is connected with one of
the warlike choruses of Act I.
The Overture of _Riccardo I_ (1727), in two movements, contains a
tempest in music painted in a powerful and poetic manner, which opens
the first act after the manner of the Tempest in _Iphigenie en Tauride_,
and on the last rumblings of which the dialogue between the heroes
commences.
Finally one finds occasionally in the course of the works some other
_Sinfonie_ which have a dramatic character. The most striking is that
which opens the third act of the _Choice of Hercules_. It depicts turn
by turn the fury of Hercules and the sad force of Destiny which weighs
down on his soul.
[430] Volume XLVIII of the Complete Works.
[431] The work was an immediate success. A first Edition very incorrect
and incomplete was published in London about 1720, by Walsh.
Arrangements for harpsichord with variations by Geminiani were also
published. Both the Water Music and the Firework Music are published in
Volume XLVII of the Complete Edition.
[432] One may add to these monumental pieces the _Sinfonie diverse_ (pp.
140-143 of Vol. XLVIII) and the Concerto in F major in the form of an
Overture and Suite (pp. 68-100, _ibid._), but particularly the _3
Concerti fuer grosses Orchester_ and the _2 Concerti a due cori_ of Vol.
XLVII. The _Concerti fuer grosses Orchester_ have been, so to speak, the
sketch books for the Water Music and for the Firework Music. The first
Concerto dates from about 1715, and furnished two movements for the
Water Music. It is written for two horns, two oboes, bassoon, two
violins, violas and bass. The second Concerto in F major (for four
horns, two oboes, bassoons, two violins, violas, cellos, basses and
organ); and the third Concerto in D major (for two trumpets, four horns,
drums, two oboes, bassoons, two violins, violas, cellos, organ) contains
already nearly all the Firework Music with a less important orchestra,
but with the Organ in addition.
The two Concertos for two horns (_Concerti a due cori_) were made from
the important choruses of the Oratorios transcribed for double
orchestra--ten orchestral parts for the first group, twelve for the
second (four horns, eight oboes, bassoons, etc.). Thus the appearance of
God in _Esther_: "Jehovah crowned in glory bright," and the connected
chorus: "He comes to end our woes." There are there colossal dialogues
between the two orchestras.