[1] Following in a translation of the title-page of the other
edition of Morga's work, which shows that a second edition of the
_Sucesos_ was published in the same year as was the first. A reduced
facsimile of this title-page--from the facsimile reproduction in
the Zaragoza edition (Madrid, 1887)--forms the frontispiece to the
present volume. It reads thus: "Events in the Philipinas Islands:
addressed to Don Christoval Gomez de Sandoval y Rojas, duke de Cea,
by Doctor Antonio de Morga, alcalde of criminal causes in the royal
Audiencia of Nueva España, and consultor for the Holy Office of the
Inquisition. At Mexico in the Indias, in the year 1609." In the lower
left-hand corner of the engraved title appears the engraver's name:
"Samuel Estradanus, of Antwerp, made this."
[2] The month is omitted in the text.--_Stanley_.
[3] Fray Diego Bermeo, a native of Toledo, became a Franciscan
friar; and in 1580 went to Mexico, and three years later to the
Philippines. After spending many years as a missionary in Luzón and
Mindoro, he was elected provincial of his order in the islands (in
1599, and again in 1608). Going to Japan as commissary provincial--in
1603, according to Morga, but 1604 as given by Huerta (_Estado_,
p. 446)--he was obliged by severe illness to return to Manila; he
died there on December 12, 1609.
[4] Luis Sotelo, belonging to an illustrious family of Sevilla,
made his profession as a Franciscan in 1594. Joining the Philippine
mission, he reached the islands in 1600; and he spent the next two
years in ministering to the Japanese near Manila, and in the study of
their language. In 1600 he went to Japan, where he zealously engaged
in missionary labors. Ten years later, he was sentenced to death for
preaching the Christian religion; but was freed from this danger by
Mazamune, king of Boxu, who sent the Franciscan as his ambassador to
Rome and Madrid. Returning from this mission, Sotelo arrived in the
Philippines in 1618, and four years later resumed his missionary
labors in Japan. In 1622 he was again imprisoned for preaching,
and was confined at Omura for two years, during which time he wrote
several works, in both the Spanish and Japanese languages. Sotelo was
finally burned at the stake in Omura, August 25, 1624. See Huerta's
_Estado_, pp. 392-394.
[5] The present towns of San Nicolás, San Fernando, etc., lying
between Binondo and the sea.--_Rizal_.
[6] This remark of Morga can be applied to many other insurrections
that occurred later--not only of Chinese, but also of natives--and
probably even to many others which, in the course of time, will be
contrived.--_Rizal_.
[7] These devices, of which certain persons always avail themselves
to cause a country to rebel, are the most efficacious to bring such
movements to a head. "If thou wishest thy neighbor's dog to become mad,
publish that it is mad," says an old refrain.--_Rizal_.
[8] This is the famous Eng-Kang of the histories of
Filipinas.--_Rizal_.
[9] The Rizal edition of Morga omits the last part of this sentence,
the original of which is _"entre vnos esteros y cienagas, lugar
escondido."_
[10] "The Chinese killed father Fray Bernardo de Santo Catalina, agent
of the holy office, of the order of St. Dominic ... They attacked
Quiapo, and after killing about twenty people, set fire to it. Among
these they burned alive a woman of rank, and a boy."--_Rizal_. This
citation is made from Leonardo de Argensola's _Conquistas de las
Molucas_ (Madrid, 1609), a synopsis of which will follow Morga's work.
[11] We are unaware of the exact location of this settlement of
Laguio. It is probably the present village of Kiapo, which agrees
with the text and is mentioned by Argensola. Nevertheless, from the
description of this settlement given by Morga (_post_, chapter viii)
and Chirino, it can be inferred that Laguio was located on the present
site of the suburb of La Concepción. In fact, there is even a street
called Laguio between Malate and La Ermita.--_Rizal_.
[12] "Fine helmets were found broken in with clubs... About thirty
also escaped (among whom was Father Farfan), who were enabled to do so
because of being in the rear, and lightly armed" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
[13] Argensola says that the Chinese killed many peaceful merchants in
the parián, while others hanged themselves of their own accord. Among
these Argensola mentions General Hontay and the rich Chican--according
to the relation of Fray Juan Pobre, because the latter had refused
to place the famous Eng-Kang at the head of the movement.--_Rizal_.
[14] "And they tried to persuade the natives to unite with them;
but the latter refused, and on the contrary killed as many of the
Sangleys as they caught" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
[15] Argensola says that "four thousand Pampangos, armed in the
custom of their country, with bows and arrows, half-pikes, shields,
and long broad daggers," were sent by the alcalde of Pampanga to the
relief of Manila, which now needed soldiers.--_Rizal_.
[16] In this struggle many cruelties were committed and many quiet
and friendly Chinese killed. Don Pedro de Acuña, who could not
prevent or stifle this terrible insurrection in its beginnings, also
contributed to the horrible butcheries that ensued. "Accordingly
many Spaniards and natives went to hunt the disbanded Sangleys,
at Don Pedro's order." Hernando de Avalos, alcalde of La Pampanga,
seized more than 400 pacific Sangleys, "and leading them to an estuary,
manacled two and two, delivered them to certain Japanese, who killed
them. Father Fray Diego de Guevara of the order of St. Augustine, prior
of Manila, who made this relation, preached to the Sangleys first,
but only five abandoned their idolatry." ... Would he not have done
better to preach to Alcalde Avalos, and to remind him that he was a
man? The Spanish historians say that the Japanese and Filipinos showed
themselves cruel in the killing of the Chinese. It is quite probable,
considering the rancor and hate with which they were regarded. But
their commanders contributed to it also by their example. It is said
that more than 23,000 Chinese were killed. "Some assert that the number
of Sangleys killed was greater, but in order that the illegality
committed in allowing so many to enter the country contrary to the
royal prohibitions might not be known, the officials covered up or
diminished the number of those who perished" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
[17] The coming of the Spaniards to the Filipinas, and their
government, together with the immigration of the Chinese, killed the
industry and agriculture of the country. The terrible competition
of the Chinese with any individual of another race is well known,
for which reason the United States and Australia refuse to admit
them. The indolence, then, of the inhabitants of the Filipinas, is
derived from the lack of foresight of the government. Argensola says
the same thing, and could not have copied Morga, since their works
were published in the same year, in countries very distant from one
another, and the two contain wide differences.--_Rizal_.
The Chinese question has always been of great importance in the
Philippines. The dislike of the Filipino for the Chinese seemed
instinctive and was deep-rooted. The subject of the Chinese immigration
to the islands has served for special legislation on many occasions
in Spain, but they have nevertheless persisted in their trading and
occupations therein. See Stanley's edition of Morga, appendix II,
pp. 363-368; and _Los Chinos en Filipinos_ (Manila, 1886).
[18] This should be six hundred and four.--_Rizal_.
[19] Nueva España.--_Rizal_.
[20] This archbishop seems to have been a principal cause of the
disturbance and massacre of the Chinese, by taking a leading part in
exciting suspicion against them.--_Stanley_.
[21] The Arab travelers of the ninth century mention that eunuchs
were employed in China, especially for the collection of the revenue,
and that they were called _thoucam_.--_Stanley_.
[22] "In earlier times a barrier, which ran from Osaka to the
border of Yamato and Omi, separated the thirty-three western from
the thirty-three eastern provinces. The former were collectively
entitled Kuwansei (pronounce Kánsé), _i.e._, westward of the Gate; the
latter Kuwantô (pronounce Kántô), _i.e._, eastward of the Gate. Later,
however, when under the Tokugawa régime the passes leading to the plain
in which Yedo, the new capital of Shôgune, grew up were carefully
guarded; by the Gate (Kuwan) was understood the great guard on the
Hakone Pass, and Kuwantô or Kuwantô-Hashiu, the eight provinces east of
it: Sagami, Musashi, Kôtsuke, Shimotsuke, Hitachi, Shimosa, Katsusa,
and Awa." Thus defined by Rein, in his _Japan_, p. II, Cf. Griffis,
_Mikado's Empire_, p. 68, note.
[23] A flat-bottomed boat, capable of carrying heavy loads.
[24] Pedro Alvares de Abreu.--_Rizal_.
[25] According to Argensola, who gives a succinct relation of this
expedition, the number engaged in it were as follows: Spaniards and
their officers, 1,423; Pampangos and Tagáls (without their chiefs),
344; _idem_, for maritime and military service, 620; rowers,
649; Indian chiefs, 5; total 3,041. But he adds that all those
of the fleet, exclusive of the general's household and followers,
numbered 3,095. Probably the 54 lacking in the above number were the
Portuguese under command of Abreu and Camelo, although Argensola
does not mention Portuguese soldiers.... The names of the Indian
chiefs attending the expedition at their own cost were: Don Guillermo
(Palaot), master-of-camp; and Captains Don Francisco Palaot, Don Juan
Lit, Don Luis Lont, and Don Agustin Lont. These must have behaved
exceedingly well, for after the assault on Ternate, Argensola says:
"Not a person of consideration among the Spaniards or the Indians
remained unwounded."--_Rizal_.
[26] Said Dini Baraka ja.--_Rizal_.
[27] Combés (_Mindanao_, Retana's ed., cols. 73, 74) describes the
bagacay as a small, slender reed, hardened in fire and sharp-pointed;
it is hurled by a Moro at an enemy with unerring skill, and sometimes
five are discharged in one volley. He narrates surprising instances of
the efficacy of this weapon, and says that "there is none more cruel,
at close range."
[28] Stanley translates this "flat-boats." Retana and Pastells
(Combés's _Mindanao_, col. 787) derive this word from Chinese _chun_,
"a boat," and regard the _joanga_ (_juanga_) as a small junk.
[29] "The soldiers, having entered the city, gave themselves
universally to violence and pillage. Don Pedro had issued a
proclamation conceding that all of the enemy captured within those
four days, should be slaves" (Argensola). During the sack, which
Don Pedro was unable to restrain, neither children nor young girls
were spared. One girl was killed because two soldiers disputed for
her.--_Rizal_.
[30] "The prince's name was Sulamp Gariolano. This step was contrary
to the advice of Queen Celicaya" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
[31] Sangajy, a Malay title (Marsden).--_Stanley_.
[32] The Jesuit Father Luis Fernández, Gallinato, and Esquivel made
negotiations with the king for this exile, and Father Colin attributes
its good outcome to the cleverness of the former. What was then
believed to be prudent resulted afterward as an impolitic measure,
and bore very fatal consequences; for it aroused the hostility of all
the Molucas, even that of their allies, and made the Spanish name
as odious as was the Portuguese. The priest Hernando de los Rios,
Bokemeyer, and other historians, moreover, accuse Don Pedro de Acuña
of bad faith in this; but, strictly judged, we believe that they do
so without foundation. Don Pedro in his passport assured the lives of
the king and prince, but not their liberty. Doubtless a trifle more
generosity would have made the conqueror greater, and the odium of
the Spanish name less, while it would have assured Spanish domination
of that archipelago. The unfortunate king never returned to his own
country. Hernando de los Rios says that during Don Pedro de Acuña's
life he was well treated, but that during the administration of Don
Juan de Silva "I have seen him in a poor lodging where all the rain
fell on him, and they were starving him to death." He is described by
Argensola as of "robust proportions, and his limbs are well formed. His
neck and much of his breast are bare. His flesh is of a cloudy color,
rather black than gray. The features of his face are like those of an
European. His eyes are large and full, and he seems to dart sparks
from them. His large eyelashes, his thick bristling beard, and his
mustaches add to his fierceness. He always wears his campilan, dagger,
and kris, both with hilts in the form of gilded serpents' heads." This
description was taken from a picture sent to Spain.--_Rizal_.
[33] Other disturbances occurred also, because of Don Pedro's enemies
having spread the news that the expedition had been destroyed, and
most of those making it killed. "This report, having come to the ears
of the Indians, was so harmful that they began to mutiny, especially
in the provinces of Camarines and Pintados. The friars who instructed
them could already do, nothing with them, for they asked why, since
the inhabitants of the Malucos were victorious, should they be subject
to the Spaniards, who did not defend them from the Moros. They said
that the Moros would plunder them daily with the help of Ternate,
and that it would be worse henceforth" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
La Concepción states (_Hist. de Philipinas_, iv, p. 103) that these
Japanese were settled in Dilao; and that the immediate cause of their
mutiny was the killing of a Japanese by a Spaniard, in a quarrel.
[34] The authors of this poisoning were then known in Manila, and
according to Argensola were those envious of the governor. "But
although they were known as such, so that the suspicion of the crowd
makes them the authors of the poisoning we shall repress their names
... for all are now dead" (Argensola).--_Rizal_.
Cf. La Concepción (_Hist. de Philipinas_, iv, pp. 105, 106); he
ascribes the report of Acuña's poisoning to the physicians, who sought
thus to shield their own ignorance of his disease.
[35] These were the results of having taken the king and his chiefs,
who had entrusted themselves to Don Pedro de Acuña, prisoners to
Manila, the king of Tidore, the ally of España, had already found
means to break the alliance. The governors appointed by the captive
king refused to have anything to do with the Spaniards. Fear was
rampant in all parts, and the spirit of vengeance was aroused. "When
his vassals saw the ill-treatment that the Spaniards inflicted on
their king, they hated us so much that they acquired an equal liking
for our enemies. (Her. de los Rios)." Don Pedro lacked the chief
characteristic of Legazpi.--_Rizal_.
[36] This relation forms an appendix to Theodore de Bry's _Ninth
part of America_ (Frankfort, 1601), and was printed by Matthew Becker
(Frankfort, 1602). The copper plates are different from those of the
Dutch edition of the relation.--_Stanley_.
The plates representing Oliver van Noordt's fleet, presented in
the preceding volume, are taken from tome xvi of Theodore de Bry's
_Peregrinationes_ (first ed.), by courtesy of the Boston Public
Library. The title-page of the relation reads in part: "Description
dv penible voyage faict entovr de l'univers ou globe terrestre, par
Sr. Olivier dv Nort d'Avtrecht, ... Le tout translaté du Flamand en
Franchois, ... Imprimé a Amsterdame. Ches Cornille Claessz fur l'Eau
au Livre a Escrire, l'An 1602." This relation was reprinted in 1610,
and numerous editions have appeared since.
[37] One of the Canary Islands.
[38] This anchor was given him by a Japanese captain, in Manila Bay,
on December 3, 1600.--_Stanley_.
[39] What we now call Java used to be called Java major, and the
island of Bali was Java minor.--_Stanley_.
[Note: Inasmuch as Morga enters somewhat largely into the ancient
customs of the Tagáls and other Filipino peoples in the present
chapter, and as some of Rizal's notes indicative of the ancient culture
of those peoples are incorporated in notes that follow, we deem it
advisable to invite attention to Lord Stanley's remarks in the preface
to his translation of Morga (p. vii), and Pardo de Tavera's comment
in his _Biblioteca Filipina_ (Washington, 1903), p. 276. Stanley says:
"The inhabitants of the Philippines previous to the Spanish settlement
were not like the inhabitants of the great Indian Peninsula, people
with a civilization as that of their conquerors. Excepting that they
possessed the art of writing, and an alphabet of their own, they do
not appear to have differed in any way from the Dayaks of Borneo as
described by Mr. Boyle in his recent book of adventures amongst that
people. Indeed there is almost a coincidence of verbal expressions in
the descriptions he and De Morga give of the social customs, habits,
and superstitions of the two peoples they are describing; though many
of these coincidences are such as are incidental to life in similar
circumstances, there are enough to lead one to suppose a community of
origin of the inhabitants of Borneo and Luzon." Pardo de Tavera says
after quoting the first part of the above: "Lord Stanley's opinion is
dispassionate and not at all at variance with historical truth." The
same author says also that Blumentritt's prologue and Rizal's notes
in the latter's edition of Morga have so aroused the indignation of
the Spaniards that several have even attacked Morga.]
[40] More exactly from 25° 40' north latitude to 12° south latitude,
if we are to include Formosa in the group, which is inhabited likewise
by the same race.--_Rizal_.
[41] We confess our ignorance with respect to the origin of this
belief of Morga, which, as one can observe, was not his belief in
the beginning of the first chapter. Already from the time of Diodorus
Siculus (first century B. C.), Europe received information of these
islands by one Iamboule, a Greek, who went to them (to Sumatra at
least), and who wrote afterward the relation of his voyage. He gave
therein detailed information of the number of the islands, of their
inhabitants, of their writing, navigation, etc. Ptolemy mentions
three islands in his geography, which are called Sindæ in the Latin
text. They are inhabited by the aginnatai. Mercator interprets those
islands as Celebes, Gilolo, and Amboina. Ptolemy also mentions the
island agajou daimonoc (Borneo), five baroussai (Mindanao, Leite,
Sebu, etc.), three sabade'ibai (the Java group--iabadiou) and ten
masniolai where a large loadstone was found. Colin surmises that
these are the Manilas.--_Rizal_.
Colin (_Labor Evangelica_, Madrid, 1663) discusses the discovery and
naming of the Philippines. He quotes Ptolemy's passage that speaks
of islands called the Maniolas, whence many suppose came the name
Manilas, sometimes given to the islands. But as pointed out in a
letter dated March 14, 1904, by James A. LeRoy, Spanish writers have
wasted more time on the question than it merits. Mr. LeRoy probably
conjectures rightly that many old Chinese and Japanese documents will
be found to contain matter relating to the Philippines prior to the
Spanish conquest.
[42] It is very difficult now to determine exactly which is this island
of Tendaya, called Isla Filipina for some years. According to Father
Urdaneta's relations, this island was far to the east of the group,
past the meridian of Maluco. Mercator locates it in Panay, and Colin
in Leyte, between Abuyog and Cabalían--contrary to the opinion of
others, who locate it in Ibabao, or south of Samar. But according to
other documents of that period, there is no island by that name, but
a chief called Tendaya, lord of a village situated in that district;
and, as the Spaniards did not understand the Indians well at that time,
many contradictions thus arose in the relations of that period. We
see that, in Legazpi's expedition, while the Spaniards talked of
islands, the Indians talked of a man, etc. After looking for Tandaya
for ten days they had to continue without finding it "and we passed
on without seeing Tandaya or Abuyo." It appears, nevertheless, that
the Spaniards continued to give this name to the southwestern part
of Samar, calling the southeastern part Ibabao or Zibabao and the
northern part of the same island Samar.--_Rizal_.
[43] Sugbú, in the dialect of the country.--_Rizal_.
[44] Morga considers the rainy season as winter, and the rest of
the year as summer. However this is not very exact, for at Manila,
in December, January, and February, the thermometer is lower than
in the months of August and September. Consequently, in its seasons
it is like those of España and those of all the rest of the northern
hemisphere.--_Rizal_.
[45] The ancient traditions made Sumatra the original home of the
Filipino Indians. These traditions, as well as the mythology and
genealogies mentioned by the ancient historians, were entirely lost,
thanks to the zeal of the religious in rooting out every national pagan
or idolatrous record. With respect to the ethnology of the Filipinas,
see Professor Blumentritt's very interesting work, _Versuch einer
Etnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, Justus Perthes, 1882).--_Rizal_.
[46] This passage contradicts the opinion referred to in Boyle's
_Adventures among the Dyaks of Borneo_, respecting the ignorance of
the Dyaks in the use of the bow, which seems to imply that other South
Sea islanders are supposed to share this ignorance. These aboriginal
savages of Manila resemble the Pakatans of Borneo in their mode of
life.--_Stanley_.
[47] We do not know the origin of this word, which does not seem to
be derived from _China_. If we may make a conjecture, we will say
that perhaps a poor phonetic transcription has made _chinina_ from
the word _tininã_ (from _tinã_) which in Tagál signifies _teñido_
["dyed stuff"], the name of this article of clothing, generally of but
one color throughout. The chiefs wore these garments of a red color,
which made, according to Colin, "of fine gauze from India."--_Rizal_.
[48] Bahag "a richly dyed cloth, generally edged with gold" among
the chiefs.--_Rizal_.
[49] "They wrapped it in different ways, now in the Moro style,
like a turban without the top part, now twisted and turned in the
manner of the crown of a hat. Those who esteemed themselves valiant
let the ends of the cloth, elaborately embroidered, fall down the
back to the buttocks. In the color of the cloth, they showed their
chieftaincy, and the device of their undertakings and prowess. No
one was allowed to use the red potong until he had killed at least
one man. And in order to wear them edged with certain edgings,
which were regarded as a crown, they must have killed seven men"
(Colin). Even now any Indian is seen to wear the _balindang_ in the
manner of the _putong_. _Putong_ signifies in Tagál, "to crown" or
"to wrap anything around the head."--_Rizal_.
[50] This is the reading of the original (_cera hilada_). It seems
more probable that this should read "spun silk," and that Morga's
amanuensis misunderstood _seda_ ("silk") as _cera_ ("wax"), or else
it is a misprint.
[51] "They also have strings of bits of ivory" (Colin).--_Rizal_.
[52] "The last complement of the gala dress was, in the manner of our
sashes, a richly dyed shawl crossed at the shoulder and fastened under
the arm" (even today the men wear the _lambong_ or mourning garment
in this manner) "which was very usual with them. The Bisayans, in
place of this, wore robes or loose garments, well made and collarless,
reaching to the instep, and embroidered in colors. All their costume,
in fact, was in the Moorish manner, and was truly elegant and rich;
and even today they consider it so" (Colin).--_Rizal_.
[53] This manner of headdress, and the long robe of the Visayans,
have an analogy with the Japanese coiffure and kimono.--_Rizal_.
[54] Barõ.--_Rizal_.
[55] A tree (_Entada purseta_) which grows in most of the provinces
of the Philippines. It contains a sort of filament, from which is
extracted a soapy foam, which is much used for washing clothes. This
foam is also used to precipitate the gold in the sand of rivers. Rizal
says the most common use is that described above.
[56] This custon still exists.--_Rizal_.
[57] This custom exists also among the married women of Japan, as a
sign of their chastity. It is now falling into disuse.--_Rizal_.
[58] The Filipinos were careful not to bathe at the hour of the siesta,
after eating, during the first two days of a cold, when they have
the herpes, and some women during the period of menstruation.--_Rizal_.
[59] This work, although not laborious, is generally performed
now by the men, while the women do only the actual cleaning of the
rice.--_Rizal_.
[60] This custom is still to be seen in some parts.--_Rizal_.
[61] A name given it by the Spaniards. Its Tagál name is
_kanin_.--_Rizal_.
[62] The fish mentioned by Morga is not tainted, but is the
_bagoong_.--_Rizal_.
[63] A term applied to certain plants (_Atmaranthus_, _Celosia_,
etc.) of which the leaves are boiled and eaten.
[64] From the Tagál _tubã_, meaning sap or juice.--_Rizal_.
[65] The Filipinos have reformed in this respect, due perhaps to the
wine-monopoly. Colin says that those intoxicated by this wine were
seldom disagreeable or dangerous, but rather more witty and sprightly;
nor did they show any ill effects from drinking it.--_Rizal_.
[66] This weapon has been lost, and even its name is gone. A proof
of the decline into which the present Filipinos have fallen is the
comparison of the weapons that they manufacture now, with those
described to us by the historians. The hilts of the _talibones_ now
are not of gold or ivory, nor are their scabbards of horn, nor are
they admirably wrought.--_Rizal_.
_Balarao_, dagger, is a Vissayan word.--_Stanley_.
[67] The only other people who now practice head-hunting are the
Mentenegrins.--_Stanley_.
[68] A Tagál word meaning oar.--_Stanley_.
[69] A common device among barbarous or semi-civilized peoples,
and even among boatmen in general. These songs often contain many
interesting and important bits of history, as well as of legendary
lore.
[70] _Karang_, signifying awnings.--_Rizal_ and _Stanley_.
[71] The Filipinos, like the inhabitants of the Marianas--who are no
less skilful and dexterous in navigation--far from progressing, have
retrograded; since, although boats are now built in the islands,
we might assert that they are all after European models. The
boats that held one hundred rowers to a side and thirty soldiers
have disappeared. The country that once, with primitive methods,
built ships of about 2,000 toneladas, today [1890] has to go to
foreign ports, as Hong-Kong, to give the gold wrenched from the poor,
in exchange for unserviceable cruisers. The rivers are blocked up,
and navigation in the interior of the islands is perishing, thanks to
the obstacles created by a timid and mistrusting system of government;
and there scarcely remains in the memory anything but the name of all
that naval architecture. It has vanished, without modern improvements
having come to replace it in such proportion as, during the past
centuries, has occurred in adjacent countries....--_Rizal_.
[72] It seems that some species of trees disappeared or became
very scarce because of the excessive ship-building that took place
later. One of them is the _betis_.--_Rizal_.
Blanco states (_Flora_, ed. 1845, p. 281) that the betis (_Azaola
betis_) was common in Pampanga and other regions.
Delgado describes the various species of trees in the Philippines
in the first six treatises of the first part of the fourth book
of _Historia general de Filipinas_ (Manila, 1892). He mentions by
name more than seventy trees grown on the level plains and near the
shores; more than forty fruit-trees; more than twenty-five species
grown in the mountains; sixteen that actually grow in the water; and
many kinds of palms. See also _Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands_
(Washington, 1902), pp. 85-95, and Buzeta and Bravo's _Diccionario_
(Madrid, 1850), i, pp. 29-36.
[73] _Sanctor_ is called _santol_ (_Sandoricum indicum_--Cavanilles),
in Delgado (_ut supra_, note 71). The tree resembles a walnut-tree. Its
leaves are rounded and as large as the palm of the hand, and are
dark green in color. Excellent preserves are made from the fruit,
which was also eaten raw by the Indians. The leaves of the tree
have medicinal properties and were used as poultices. _Mabolo_
(_Diospyros discolor_--Willd.) signifies in Tagál a thing or
fruit enclosed in a soft covering. The tree is not very high. The
leaves are large, and incline to a red color when old. The fruit
is red and as large as a medium-sized quince, and has several large
stones. The inside of the fruit is white, and is sweet and firm, and
fragrant, but not very digestible. The wood resembles ebony, is very
lustrous, and is esteemed for its solidity and hardness. The _nanca_
[_nangka_, _nangca_; translated by Stanley, jack-fruit] (_Artocarpus
integrifolia_--Willd.), was taken to the Philippines from India,
where it was called _yaca_. The tree is large and wide-spreading,
and has long narrow leaves. It bears fruit not only on the branches,
but on the trunk and roots. The fruit is gathered when ripe, at
which time it exhales an aromatic odor. On opening it a yellowish
or whitish meat is found, which is not edible. But in this are found
certain yellow stones, with a little kernel inside resembling a large
bean; this is sweet, like the date, but has a much stronger odor. It
is indigestible, and when eaten should be well masticated. The shells
are used in cooking and resemble chestnuts. The wood is yellow, solid,
and especially useful in making certain musical instruments. Buzeta
and Bravo (_Diccionario_, i, p. 35) say that there are more than
fifty-seven species of bananas in the Philippines.
[74] Pilê (_Canarium commune_--Linn.). Delgado (_ut supra_) says that
this was one of the most notable and useful fruits of the islands. It
was generally confined to mountainous regions and grew wild. The
natives used the fruit and extracted a white pitch from the tree. The
fruit has a strong, hard shell. The fruit itself resembles an almond,
both in shape and taste, although it is larger. The tree is very high,
straight, and wide-spreading. Its leaves are larger than those of
the almond-tree.
[75] Delgado (_ut supra_) describes the tree (_Cedrela
toona_--Roxb.) called _calanta_ in Tagál, and _lanipga_ in
Visayan. The tree is fragrant and has wood of a reddish color. It
was used for making the hulls of vessels, because of its strength and
lightness. The same author describes also the _asana_ (_Pterocarpus
indicus_--Willd.) or as it is called in the Visayas, _naga_ or
_narra_--as an aromatic tree, of which there are two varieties, male
and female. The wood of the male tree is pinkish, while that of the
female tree is inclined to white. They both grow to a great size and
are used for work requiring large timber. The wood has good durable
qualities and is very impervious to water, for which reason it was
largely used as supports for the houses. Water in which pieces of the
wood were placed, or the water that stood in vessels made of this wood,
had a medicinal value in dropsy and other diseases. In the provinces
of Albay and Camarines the natives made curiously-shaped drinking
vessels from this wood.
[76] So many cattle were raised that Father Gaspar de San Agustin, when
speaking of Dumangas, says: "In this convent we have a large ranch for
the larger cattle, of so many cows that they have at times numbered
more than thirty, thousand ... and likewise this ranch contains many
fine horses."--_Rizal_.
[77] To the flesh of this fowl, called in Tagál _ulikbâ_, are
attributed medicinal virtues.--_Rizal_.
[78] These animals now [1890] exist in the islands, but are held in
small esteem.--_Rizal_.
[79] See chapter on the mammals of the islands, in _Report_ of
U. S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 307-312. At its end is the
statement that but one species of monkey is known, and one other is
reported, to exist in the Philippines; and that "the various other
species of monkey which have been assigned to the Philippines by
different authors are myths pure and simple."
[80] _Camalote_, for _gamalote_, a plant like maize, with a leaf a
yard long and an inch wide. This plant grows to a height of two yards
and a half, and when green serves for food for horses (Caballero's
_Dictionary_, Madrid, 1856).--_Stanley_.
At that time the name for _zacate_ (hay).--_Rizal_.
[81] In Japanese _fimbari_, larks (Medhurst's _Japanese
Vocabulary_).--_Stanley_.
[82] _Pogos_, from the Tagál pugô.--_Rizal_.
Delgado (_ut supra_) describes the pogos as certain small gray birds,
very similar to the sparrows in Spain. They are very greedy, and if
undisturbed would totally destroy the rice-fields. Their scientific
name is _Excalfactoria chinensis_ (Linn.).
[83] Stanley conjectures that this word is a misprint for _maynelas_,
a diminutive of _maina_, a talking bird. Delgado (_ut supra_) describes
a bird called _maya_ (_Munia jagori_--Cab.; _Ploceus baya_--Blyth.;
and _Ploceus hypoxantha_--Tand.), which resembles the pogo, being
smaller and of a cinnamon color, which pipes and has an agreeable song.
[84] Stanley translates this as "wild ducks." Delgado (_ut supra_)
describes a bird called _lapay_ (_Dendrocygna vagans_--Eyton.),
as similar to the duck in body, but with larger feet, which always
lives in the water, and whose flesh is edible.
[85] For descriptions of the birds in the Philippines, see Delgado
(_ut supra_) book v, part i, 1st treatise, pp. 813-853; _Report_ of
U.S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 312-316; and _Gazetteer of
the Philippine Islands_ (Washington, 1902), pp. 170, 171. There are
more than five hundred and ninety species of birds in the islands, of
which three hundred and twenty-five are peculiar to the archipelago,
and largely land birds. There are thirty-five varieties of doves and
pigeons, all edible.
[86] There are now domestic rabbits, and plenty of peacocks.--_Rizal_.
[87] Doubtless the python, which is often domesticated in the
Philippines. See _Vol_. XII, p. 259, note 73.
[88] La Gironiére (_Twenty Years in the Philippines_--trans. from
French, London, 1853) describes an interesting fight with a huge
crocodile near his settlement of Jala-Jala. The natives begged for
the flesh in order to dry it and use it as a specific against asthma,
as they believed that any asthmatic person who lived on the flesh for
a certain time would be infallibly cured. Another native wished the
fat as an antidote for rheumatic pain. The head of this huge reptile
was presented to an American, who in turn presented it to the Boston
Museum. Unfortunately La Gironiére's picturesque descriptions must
often be taken with a grain of salt. For some information regarding
the reptiles of the islands see _Report_ of U.S. Philippine Commission,
1900, iii, pp. 317-319.
[89] Unless we are mistaken, there is a fish in the Filipinas called
_Pámpano_.--_Rizal_.
[90] For catalogue and scientific description of the mollusks of
the Philippines, see the work of Joaquín González Hidalgo--now
(1904) in course of publication by the Real Academia de Ciencias of
Madrid--_Estudios preliminares sobre la fauna malacológica de las
Islas Filipinas._
[91] The Río Grande.--_Rizal_.
[92] No fish is known answering to this description.--_Stanley_.
[93] The island of Talim.--_Rizal_.
[94] Retana thinks (Zúñiga, ii, p. 545*) that this device was
introduced among the Filipinos by the Borneans.
[95] A species of fishing-net. Stanley's conjecture is wrong.
[96] _Esparavel_ is a round fishing-net, which is jerked along by
the fisher through rivers and shallow places. _Barredera_ is a net
of which the meshes are closer and tighter than those of common nets,
so that the smallest fish may not escape it.
[97] Cf. methods of fishing of North American Indians, _Jesuit
Relations_, vi, pp. 309-311, liv, pp. 131, 306-307.
[98] A species of fish in the Mediterranean, about three pulgadas
[inches] long. Its color is silver, lightly specked with black.
[99] The fish now called _lawlaw_ is the dry, salted sardine. The
author evidently alludes to the _tawilis_ of Batangas, or to the
_dilis_, which is still smaller, and is used as a staple by the
natives.--_Rizal_.
For information regarding the fishes of the Philippines, see Delgado
(_ut supra_), book v, part iv, pp. 909-943; _Gazetteer of the
Philippine Islands_ (_ut supra_), pp. 171-172; and (with description
of methods of fishing) _Report_ of U. S. Philippine Commission, 1900,
iii, pp. 319-324.
[100] Pahõ. A species of very small mango from one and one-half
to five centimeters in its longer diameter. It has a soft pit, and
exhales a strong pitchy odor.--_Rizal_.
[101] A Spanish word signifying a cryptogamous plant; perhaps referring
to some species of mushroom.
[102] In Tagál this is kasubhã. It comes from the Sanskrit _kasumbha_,
or Malay _kasumba_ (Pardo de Tavera's _El Sanscrito en la lengua
tagalog_).--_Rizal_.
This plant is the safflower or bastard saffron (_Certhamus
tinctorius_); its flowers are used in making a red dye.
[103] Not a tree, but a climber. The plants are cultivated by
training them about some canes planted in the middle of certain
little channels which serve to convey irrigation to the plant twice
each day. A plantation of betel--or ikmó, as the Tagáls call it--much
resembles a German hop-garden.--_Rizal_.
[104] This fruit is not that of the betel or _buyo_, but of the _bonga_
(Tagál _buñga_), or areca palm.--_Rizal_.
[105] Not quicklime, but well slaked lime.--_Rizal_.
Rizal misprints _un poco de cal viva_ for _vn poluc de cal viua_.
[106] The original word is _marcada_. Rizal is probably correct in
regarding it as a misprint for _mascada_, chewed.
[107] It is not clear who call these caskets by that name. I imagine
it to be the Spanish name, properly spelt _buxeta_. The king of
Calicut's betel box is called _buxen_ in the Barcelona MS. of the
Malabar coasts.--_Stanley_.
[108] See _Vol_. IV, p. 222, note 31; also Delgado (_ut supra_),
pp. 667-669. Delgado says that _bonga_ signifies fruit.
[109] Tagál, _tukõ_.--_Rizal_.
[110] This word in the original is _visitandolas_; Rizal makes
it _irritandolas_ (shaking or irritating them), but there are not
sufficient grounds for the change.
[111] The Indians, upon seeing that wealth excited the rapacity of
the encomenderos and soldiers, abandoned the working of the mines,
and the religious historians assert that they counseled them to a
similar action in order to free them from annoyances. Nevertheless,
according to Colin (who was "informed by well-disposed natives")
more than 100,000 pesos of gold annually, conservatively stated,
was taken from the mines during his time, after eighty years of
abandonment. According to "a manuscript of a grave person who had
lived long in these islands" the first tribute of the two provinces
of Ilocos and Pangasinan alone amounted to 109,500 pesos. A single
encomendero, in 1587, sent 3,000 taheles of gold in the "Santa Ana,"
which was captured by Cavendish.--_Rizal_.
[112] This was prohibited later.--_Rizal_.
[113] See _Vol_. XIV, pp. 301-304.
According to Hernando de los Rios the province of Pangasinan was said
to contain a quantity of gold, and that Guido de Labazaris sent some
soldiers to search for it; but they returned in a sickly state and
suppressed all knowledge of the mines in order not to be sent back
there. The Dominican monks also suppressed all knowledge of the mines
on account of the tyranny of which gold had been the cause in the
West Indies.--_Stanley_.
[114] Pearl-fishing is still carried on along the coasts of Mindanao
and Palawan, and in the Sulu archipelago. In the latter region pearls
are very abundant and often valuable; the fisheries there are under
the control of the sultan of Sulu, who rents them, appropriating for
himself the largest pearls.
[115] Probably the cowry (_Cypræa moneta_). Crawfurd states
(_Dict. Ind. Islands_, p. 117) that in the Asiatic archipelago this
shell is found only on the shores of the Sulu group, and that it
"seems never to have been used for money among the Indian Islanders
as it has immemorially been by the Hindus."
[116] Jagor, _Travels in the Philippines_ (Eng. trans., London, 1875),
devotes a portion of his chapter xv to these jars. He mentions the
great prices paid by the Japanese for these vessels. On p. 164, occurs
a translation of the above paragraph, but it has been mistranslated
in two places. Stanley cites the similar jars found among the Dyaks
of Borneo--the best called _gusih_--which were valued at from $1,500
to $3,000, while the second grade were sold for $400. That they are
very ancient is proved by one found among other remains of probably the
copper age. From the fact that they have been found in Cambodia, Siam,
Cochinchina, and the Philippines, Rizal conjectures that the peoples
of these countries may have had a common center of civilization at
one time.
[117] "Not many years ago," says Colin (1663), "a large piece [of
ambergris] was found in the island of Joló, that weighed more than
eight arrobas, of the best kind, namely, the gray."--_Rizal_.
[118] This industry must now be forgotten, for it is never heard
of.--_Rizal_.
[119] Perhaps Morga alludes to the _sinamay_, which was woven from
abaká, or filament of the plant _Musa textilis_. The abaká is taken
from the trunk and not the leaf.--_Rizal_.
[120] This name seems to be Malay, _Babu-utan_, wild swine.--_Stanley_.
[121] The men of these islands were excellent carpenters and
ship-builders. "They make many very light vessels, which they take
through the vicinity for sale in a very curious manner. They build
a large vessel, undecked, without iron nail or any fastening. Then,
according to the measure of its hull, they make another vessel that
fits into it. Within that they put a second and a third. Thus a
large biroco contains ten or twelve vessels, called biroco, virey,
barangay, and binitan." These natives were "tattooed, and were
excellent rowers and sailors; and although they are upset often,
they never drown." The women are very masculine. "They do not
drink from the rivers, although the water is very clear, because it
gives them nausea.... The women's costumes are chaste and pretty,
for they wear petticoats in the Bisayan manner, of fine medriñaque,
and _lamboncillos_, which resemble close-fitting sayuelos [_i.e._,
woolen shifts worn by certain classes of religious]. They wear long
robes of the same fine medriñaque. They gather the hair, which is
neatly combed, into a knot, on top of the head, and place a rose in
it. On their forehead they wear a band of very fine wrought gold,
two fingers wide. It is very neatly worked and on the side encircling
the head it is covered with colored taffeta. In each ear they wear
three gold earrings, one in the place where Spanish women wear them,
and two higher up. On their feet they wear certain coverings of thin
brass, which sound when they walk." (The citations herein are from
Colin.) These islands have also retrograded.--_Rizal_.
[122] Cavite derives its name from the Tagál word _cavit_, a creek,
or bend, or hook, for such is its form.--_Stanley_.
[123] This province had decreased so greatly in population and
agriculture, a half century later, that Gaspar de San Agustin said:
"Now it no longer has the population of the past, because of the
insurrection of that province, when Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara
was governor of these islands, and because of the incessant cutting
of the timber for the building of his Majesty's ships, which prevents
them from cultivating their extremely fertile plain." Later, when
speaking of Guagua or Wawà, he says: "This town was formerly very
wealthy because of its many chiefs, and because of the abundant
harvests gathered in its spacious plains, which are now submerged by
the water of the sea."--_Rizal_.
[124] Now the port of Sorsogón.--_Rizal_.
[125] Now the port of Mariveles (?).--_Rizal_.
[126] Subik (?).--_Rizal_.
[127] Mindoro is at present [1890] so depopulated that the minister of
the Colonies, in order to remedy this result of Spanish colonization,
wishes to send there the worst desperadoes of the peninsula, to see
if great criminals will make good colonists and farmers. All things
considered, given the condition of those who go, it is indubitable
that the race that succeeds must know how to defend itself and live,
so that the island may not be depopulated again.--_Rizal_.
[128] Samar. This proves contrary to the opinion of Colin, who places
Tendaya in Leite.--_Rizal_.
[129] Southeastern part of Samar.--_Rizal_.
[130] Colin says, however, that they did tattoo the chins and
about the eyes [_barbas y cejas_]. The same author states also that
the tattooing was done little by little and not all at once. "The
children were not tattooed, but the women tattooed one hand and
part of the other. In this island of Manila the Ilocos also tattooed
themselves, although not so much as did the Visayans." The Negritos,
Igorrotes, and other independent tribes of the Filipinas still tattoo
themselves. The Christians have forgotten the practice. The Filipinas
used only the black color, thus differing from the Japanese, who
employ different colors, as red and blue, and carry the art to a
rare perfection. In other islands of the Pacific, the women tattoo
themselves almost as much as the men. Dr. Wilhelm Joest's _Tätowiren
Narbenzeichnen und Körperbemahlen_ (Berlin, 1887) treats the matter
very succinctly.--_Rizal_.
[131] This is a confused statement, after what just precedes it and
according to the evidence of Father Chirino (see _Vol_. XII, chapter
vii). Morga must mean that they wore no cloak or covering when they
went outside the house, as did the Tagáls (both men and women), who
used a kind of cape.--_Rizal_. [This is the sense in which Stanley
understood and translated this passage.]
[132] _Gûbat_, grove, field, in Tagál. _Mangubat_ [so printed in
the text of Rizal's edition] signifies in Tagál "to go hunting,
or to the wood," or even "to fight."--_Rizal_.
[133] "At the arrival of the Spaniards at this island (Panay)" says
San Agustín, "it was said to have more than 50,000 families. But
they decreased greatly ... and at present it has about 14,000
tributarios--6,000 apportioned to the crown, and 8,000 to individual
encomenderos." They had many gold-mines, and obtained gold by
washing the sand in the Panay River; "but instigated by the outrages
received from the alcaldes-mayor," says the same historian, "they
have ceased to dig it, preferring to live in poverty than to endure
such troubles."--_Rizal_.
[134] This entire paragraph is omitted in the Rizal edition. In the
original it is as follows:
_La Lengua de todos, los Pintados y Bicayas, es vna mesma, por do se
entienden, hablando y escriuiendo, en letras y caratores que tienen
particulares, que semejan á los Arabigos, y su comun escribir entre
los naturales, es en hojas de arboles, y en cañas, sobre la corteza;
que en todas las islas ay muchas, de disforme grueso los cañutos,
y el pie es vn arbol muy grueso y maciço_.
[135] This difference is no greater than that between the Spanish,
Portuguese, and Italian.--_Rizal_.
[136] See Chirino (_Relacion de las islas Filipinas_) _Vol_. XII,
chapters xv-xvii. His remarks, those of Morga, and those of other
historians argue a considerable amount of culture among the Filipino
peoples prior to the Spanish conquest. A variety of opinions have been
expressed as to the direction of the writing. Chirino, San Antonio,
Zúñiga, and Le Gentil, say that it was vertical, beginning at the
top. Colin, Ezguerra, and Marche assert that it was vertical but in
the opposite direction. Colin says that the horizontal form was adopted
after the arrival of the Spaniards. Mas declares that it was horizontal
and from left to right, basing his arguments upon certain documents
in the Augustinian archives in Manila. The eminent Filipino scholar,
Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera has treated the subject in a work entitled
"_Contribucion para el estudio de los antiguos alfabetos filipinos_"
(Losana, 1884). See Rizal's notes on p. 291 of his edition of Morga.
[137] This portion of this sentence is omitted in Stanley.
[138] Báhay is "house" in Tagál; _pamamáhay_ is that which is in the
interior and the house. _Bahandin_ may be a misprint for _bahayín_,
an obsolete derivative.--_Rizal_.
[139] Cf. this and following sections with Loarca's relation, _Vol_. V,
of this series; and with Plasencia's account, _Vol_. VII, pp. 173-196.
[140] Timawá.--_Rizal_.
[141] The condition of these slaves was not always a melancholy
one. Argensola says that they ate at the same table with their masters,
and married into their families. The histories fail to record the
assassination for motives of vengeance of any master or chief by
the natives, as they do of encomenderos. After the conquest the evil
deepened. The Spaniards made slaves without these pretexts, and without
those enslaved being Indians of their jurisdiction--going moreover,
to take them away from their own villages and islands. Fernando de los
Rios Coronel, in his memorial to the king (Madrid, 1621) pp. 24-25,
speaks in scathing terms of the cruelties inflicted on the natives
in the construction of ships during the governorship of Juan de
Silva. A letter from Felipe II to Bishop Domingo de Salazar shows
the awful tyranny exercised by the encomenderos upon the natives,
whose condition was worse than that of slaves.--_Rizal_.
[142] For remarks on the customs formerly observed by the natives of
Pampanga in their suits, see appendix to this volume.
[143] This fundamental agreement of laws, and this general uniformity,
prove that the mutual relations of the islands were widespread, and the
bonds of friendship more frequent than were wars and quarrels. There
may have existed a confederation, since we know from the first
Spaniards that the chief of Manila was commander-in-chief of the
sultan of Borneo. In addition, documents of the twelfth century that
exist testify the same thing.--_Rizal_.
[144] This word must be _sagigilid_ in its Tagál form. The root _gílid_
signifies in Tagál, "margin," "strand," or "shore." The reduplication
of the first syllable, if tonic, signifies active future action. If
not tonic and the suffix _an_ be added, it denotes the place where
the action of the verb is frequently executed. The preposition _sa_
indicates place, time, reference. The atonic reduplication may also
signify plurality, in which case the singular noun would be _sagílid_,
_i.e._, "at the margin," or "the last"--that is, the slave. Timawá
signifies now in Tagál, "in peace, in quietness, tranquil, free,"
etc. _Maginoo_, from the root _ginoo_, "dignity," is now the title of
the chiefs; and the chief's reunion is styled _kaginoóhan_. Colin says,
nevertheless, that the Chiefs used the title _gat_ or _lakan_, and the
women _dayang_. The title of _mama_ applied now to men, corresponds
to "uncle," "Señor," "Monsieur," "Mr.," etc.; and the title _al_
of women to the feminine titles corresponding to these.--_Rizal_.
[145] _Namamahay_ (from _bahay_, "house"), "he who lives in his own
house." This class of slaves, if they may be so called, exists even
yet. They are called _kasamá_ (because of being now the laborers of a
capitalist or farmer), _bataan_ ("servant," or "domestic"), _kampon,
tao_, etc.
[146] This class of slavery still exists [1890] in many districts,
especially in the province of Batangas; but it must be admitted that
their condition is quite different from that of the slave in Greece or
Rome, or that of the negro, and even of those made slaves formerly by
the Spaniards. Thanks to their social condition and to their number in
that time, the Spanish domination met very little resistance, while
the Filipino chiefs easily lost their independence and liberty. The
people, accustomed to the yoke, did not defend the chiefs from
the invader, nor attempt to struggle for liberties that they never
enjoyed. For the people, it was only a change of masters. The nobles,
accustomed to tyrannize by force, had to accept the foreign tyranny,
when it showed itself stronger than their own. Not encountering love
or elevated feelings in the enslaved mass, they found themselves
without force or power.--_Rizal_.
[147] _Inasawa_, or more correctly _asawa_ (consort).--_Rizal_.
[148] This dowry, if one may call it so, represented to the parents
an indemnity for the care and vigilance that they had exercised in
their daughter's education. The Filipina woman, never being a burden
to any one (either to her parents or to her husband), but quite the
contrary, represents a value, whose loss to the possessor must be
substituted.... The Tagál wife is free, and treated with consideration;
she trades and contracts, almost always with the approbation of her
husband, who consults her in all his acts. She takes care of the money,
and educates the children, half of whom belong to her...--_Rizal_.
[149] _Bigay-káya_, "to give what one can," "a voluntary offering,
a present of good will" ... This _bigay-káya_ devolved entire
to the married couple, according to Colin, if the son-in-law was
obedient to his parents-in-law; if not, it was divided among all the
heirs. "Besides the dowry, the chiefs used to give certain gifts to
the parents and relatives, and even to the slaves, which were great
or less according to the rank of the one married." (Colin).--_Rizal_.
[150] This good custom still exists, ... although it is gradually
passing away.--_Rizal_.
[151] Such is the law throughout most parts of Asia; in Siam the
woman becomes free without having children. It is only in America that
fathers could and did sell their own children into slavery.--_Stanley_.
[152] This condition of affairs and the collection of usury is true
still [1890]. Morga's words prove true not only of the Indian, but also
of the mestizos, the Spaniards, and even of various religious. So far
has it gone that the government itself not only permits it, but also
exacts the capital and even the person to pay the debts of others, as
happens with the _cabeza de barangay_ [head of a barangay].--_Rizal_.
[153] The _tam-tam_ and the _pum-piang_ are still used.--_Rizal_.
[154] The early Filipinos had a great horror of theft, and even the
most anti-Filipino historian could not accuse them of being a thievish
race. Today, however, they have lost their horror of that crime. One
of the old Filipino methods of investigating theft was as follows:
"If the crime was proved, but not the criminal, if more than one was
suspected ... each suspect was first obliged to place a bundle of
cloth, leaves, or whatever he wished on a pile, in which the thing
stolen might be hidden. Upon the completion of this investigation
if the stolen property was found in the pile, the suit ceased." The
Filipinos also practiced customs very similar to the "judgments of
God" of the middle ages, such as putting suspected persons, by pairs,
under the water and adjudging guilty him who first emerged.--_Rizal_.
[155] The Filipino today prefers a beating to scoldings or
insults.--_Rizal_.
[156] From _bago_, new, and _tao_, man: he who has become a
man.--_Rizal_.
[157] In speaking of a similar custom in Australia, Eyre (_Central
Australia_, i, p. 213), says: "This extraordinary and inexplicable
custom must have a great tendency to prevent the rapid increase of the
population."--_Stanley_. [Stanley does not translate this paragraph
of the text.]
[158] It appears that the natives called _anito_ a tutelary genius,
either of the family, or extraneous to it. Now, with their new
religious ideas, the Tagáls apply the term _anito_ to any superstition,
false worship, idol, etc.--_Rizal_.
[159] Others besides Morga mention oratories in caves, where the idols
were kept, and where aromatics were burned in small brasiers. Chirino
found small temples in Taitay adjoining the principal houses. [See
_Vol_. XII. of this series, chapter xxi.] It appears that temples were
never dedicated to _bathala maykapal_, nor was sacrifice ever offered
him. The temples dedicated to the _anito_ were called ulañgo.--_Rizal_.
[160] San Agustín says that hell was called _solad_, and paradise,
_kalualhatian_ (a name still in existence), and in poetical language,
_ulugan_. The blest abodes of the inhabitants of Panay were in the
mountain of Madias.--_Rizal_.
[161] Cf. the "wake" of the Celtic and Gaelic peasants. Cf. also the
North-American Indian burial ceremonies, and reverence paid to the
dead, in _Jesuit Relations_, i, p. 215; ii, pp. 21, 149; viii, p. 21;
x, pp. 169, 247, 283-285, 293; xiii, 259; xxi, 199; xxiii, 31; lxv,
141; etc.
In the Filipino burials, there were mourners who composed panegyrics
in honor of the dead, like those made today. "To the sound of this
sad music the corpse was washed, and perfumed with storax, gum-resin,
or other perfumes made from tree gums, which are found in all these
woods. Then the corpse was shrouded, being wrapped in more or less
cloth according to the rank of the deceased. The bodies of the more
wealthy were anointed and embalmed in the manner of the Hebrews,
with aromatic liquors, which preserved them from decay.... The
burial-place of the poor was in pits dug in the ground under their
own houses. After the bodies of the rich and powerful were kept and
bewailed for three days, they were placed in a chest or coffin of
incorruptible wood, adorned with rich jewels, and with small sheets
of gold in the mouth and over the eyes. The coffin was all in one
piece, and the lid was so adjusted that no air could enter. Because
of these precautions the bodies have been found after many years,
still uncorrupted. These coffins were deposited in one of three
places, according to the inclination and arrangement of the deceased,
either on top of the house among the treasures ... or underneath it,
but raised from the ground; or in the ground itself, in an open hole
surrounded with a small railing ... nearby they were wont to place
another box filled with the best clothes of the deceased; and at
meal-time they set various articles of food there in dishes. Beside
the men were laid their weapons, and beside the women their looms or
other implements of work" (Colin).--_Rizal_.
[162] _Kasis._ This is another instance of the misapplication of this
Arabic term, which means exclusively a Christian priest.--_Stanley_.
[163] This custom has not fallen into disuse among the Filipinos,
even among the Catholics.--_Rizal_.
Lieutenant Charles Norton Barney, of the medical department of the
U. S. Army, has an article in _Journal_ of the Association of Military
Surgeons for September, 1903, on "Circumcision and Flagellation
among the Filipinos." In regard to circumcision he states that it
"is a very ancient custom among the Philippine _indios_, and so
generalized that at least seventy or eighty per cent of males in the
Tagál country have undergone the operation." Those uncircumcised at
the age of puberty are taunted by their fellows, and such are called
"_suput_," a word formerly meaning "constricted" or "tight," but now
being extended to mean "one who cannot easily gain entrance in sexual
intercourse." The "operation has no religious significance," nor is
it done for cleanliness, "but from custom and disinclination to be
ridiculed," probably [as Morga proves] having been learned from the
Moros. The friars were unable to check the custom. Among the Tagáls
the operation is called "_tuli_," and the method of circumcising
is described at length. The author derives his information from a
mestizo and a full-blooded native. The custom is mentioned by Foreman.
[164] Appellation given to their ecclesiastical sages by Mahometans.
[165] See the king's decree granting this coat-of-arms, in _Vol_. IX,
pp. 211-215, with two representations of the coat-of-arms.
[166] Convents occupy almost one-third part of the walled
city.--_Rizal_.
[167] The walls did not even have any moats then; these were dug after
the English invasion of 1762. The walls were also rearranged at that
time, and perfected with the lapse of time and the needs that arose
in the city.--_Rizal_.
[168] Rizal misprints _al cabo del lienço_ as _al campo del lienzo_.
[169] Now [1890] the gates of the city are open all night, and in
certain periods, passage along the streets and through the walls is
allowed at all hours.--_Rizal_.
[170] This powder-mill has several times changed its site. It was
afterward near Maalat on the seashore, and then was moved to Nagtahá,
on the bank of the Pasig.--_Rizal_.
[171] Probably on the same site where the great Tagál cannon-foundry
had formerly stood, which was burned and destroyed by the Spaniards
at their first arrival in Manila. San Agustin declares the Tagál
foundry to have been as large as that at Málaga.--_Rizal_.
[172] The Rizal edition omits the words, _muy grande y autorizada,
capilla aparte, camara del sello real_.
[173] The treasury building. The governor's palace was destroyed
in 1863.--_Rizal_.
[174] The Audiencia and cabildo buildings were also destroyed, but
the latter has been rebuilt.--_Rizal_.
[175] The Rizal edition misprints _sacristan_ as _sacristías_.
[176] This is the largest convent in Manila.--_Rizal_.
[177] Among the Jesuits, that part of a college where the pensioners
or boarders live and receive their instruction.
[178] This college of San José was founded in 1601, although the royal
decree for it had been conceded in 1585. The number of collegiates to
enter was thirteen, among whom was a nephew of Francisco Tello and
a son of Dr. Morga. From its inception Latin was taught there. In
a suit with the College of Santo Tomás, the Jesuits obtained a
favorable decision; and it was recognized as the older institution,
and given the preference in public acts. The historians say that at
its inauguration the students wore bonnets covered with diamonds and
pearls. At present [1890] this college, after having moved from house
to house, has become a school of pharmacy attached to Santo Tomás,
and directed by the Dominican rector.--_Rizal_.
[179] After many varying fortunes, this institution has wholly
disappeared.--_Rizal_.
[180] The Confraternity of Mercy [_Hermandad de la Misericordia_]
was founded in 1594, by an ecclesiastic named Juan Fernández de
León.--_Rizal_.
[181] San Juan de Dios [St. John of God].--_Rizal_.
[182] Better, Maalat. The Spaniards pronounced this later
Malate. There lived the chief Tagáls after they were deprived of
their houses in Manila, among whom were the families of Raja Matanda
and Raja Soliman. San Augustín says that even in his day many of the
ancient nobility dwelt there, and that they where very urbane and
cultured. "The Men hold various positions in Manila, and certain
occupations in some of the local public functions. The women make
excellent lace, in which they are so skilfull that the Dutch women
cannot surpass them." This is still true of the women.--_Rizal_.
[183] Now the town of Paco.--_Rizal_.
[184] _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. ii, tit. xv, ley xi, defines
the district of the Audiencia and states certain perogatives of the
governor and auditors as follows: "In the city of Manila, in the
island of Luzon, capital of the Felipinas, shall reside our royal
Audiencia and Chancillería, with a president who shall be governor and
captain-general, four auditors, who shall also be alcaldes of criminal
cases, one fiscal, one alguacil-mayor, one lieutenant of the grand
chancillor, and the other ministers and officials necessary. It shall
have as its district the said island of Luzon, and all the rest of the
Filipinas, the archipelago of China and its mainland as yet discovered
and to be discovered. We order the governor and captain-general of
the said islands and provinces and president of the royal Audiencia
in them, to hold personal charge in peace and war of the superior
government of all the district of the said Audiencia, and to make the
provisions and concessions in our royal name, which in accordance with
the laws of this _Recopilación_ and of these kingdoms of Castilla,
and with the instructions and powers that he shall get from us, he
should and can make. In things and matters of importance that arise in
the government, the said president governor shall discuss them with
the auditors of the said Audiencia, so that they, after consulting,
may give him their opinion. He, after hearing them, shall take what
course is most advisable to the service of God and to ours, and the
peace and quiet of that province and community." Felipe II, Aranjuez,
May 5, 1583; Toledo, May 25, 1596, in ordinance of the Audiencia;
Felipe IV in this _Recopilación._
[185] The original is _canongias, raciones, y medias raciones_,
which literally refers to the office or prebend instead of the
individual. We retain the above terms as expressing the persons who
held these prebends.
[186] Literaly, the original translates "in the islands of Sebu,
Cagayan, and Camerines."
[187] This is so changed now [1890] and the employees so increased in
number, that the annual expenses amount to more than 2,000,000 pesos,
while the intendant's salary is 12,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[188] This city has disapeared from the map and from the earth. An
inconsiderable town named Lal-ló occupies its site. It is still
[1890], however, named as the appointment of the bishopric of Bigan,
the actual residence of the bishop.--_Rizal_.
[189] An attempt was made to supply the lack of prebends in the
cathedral cities of the Philippines by the following law: "Inasmuch as
the bishops of the churches of Nueva Cáceres, Nueva Segovia, and of the
Name of Jesus of the Filipinas Islands should have men to assist them
in the pontifical acts, and the bishops should have all the propriety
possible in their churches, and divine worship more reverence; and
inasmuch as there are no tithes with which a few prebendaries can be
sustained in the churches: therefore our governor of those islands
shall appoint to each of the said churches two ecclesiastics of good
life and example, who shall aid and assist the bishop in the pontifical
acts, and in all else relating to divine worship. He shall assign
them a certain modest sum for their support from our royal treasury,
so that with that they may for the present serve the churches, until
there be more opportunity for endowing them with prebendaries and
providing other necessary things." Felipe III, San Lorenzo, October 5,
1606. _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. i, tit. vi, ley xviii.
[190] The Rizal edition omits a considerable portion of this
paragraph. The omission is as follows: _para guarda del puerto, y
defensa de la ciudad, con bastante guarnicion de soldados de paga, a
orden del alcalde mayor, capitan a guerra de la prouincia que reside
en la ciudad. Sera la poblazon, de dozientos vezinos Españoles,
con casas de madera, tiene Cabildo, de dos alcaldes ordinarios,
ocho rejidores, alguazil mayor y sus oficiales_.
[191] Now [1890] of slight importance. Of its former grandeur there
remain only 1,000 inhabitants, with a parochial house, a justice's
house, a prison, and a primary school.--_Rizal_.
[192] Vigan or Bigan.--_Rizal_.
[193] Legazpi also had two secular priests, Juan de Vivero and Juan
de Villanueva, who had part in the first conversions.--_Rizal_.
[194] The Jesuits preceded the Dominicans seven years as missionaries
to the Filipinas. The first Jesuits came over with Domingo de Salazar,
the first bishop, and his Dominican associate.--_Rizal_.
[195] _Visita_: here meaning a district which has no resident
missionary, but is visited by religious from some mission station,
on which the visita is therefore dependent.
[196] Cf. with the musical ability of the Filipinos that displayed by
the North American Indians, as described in _The Jesuit Relations_,
vols. vi, p. 183; xviii, p. 161; xxiii, p. 213; xxvii, p. 117; xxxi,
p. 219; xxxviii, pp. 259, 263; etc.
[197] Chirino (chapter vii) mentions the apportionment, by the king, of
distinct districts to the different orders. The Augustinian authorities
in Mexico granted permission to those of their order going to the
Philippines to establish themselves wherever they wished in the islands
(see _Vol_. II, pp. 161-168), and the latter exercised the omnimodo
[i.e., entire] ecclesiastical authority, as conceded by the popes,
until the arrival of the Franciscans in 1577. Papal concessions
probably marked out the districts as apportioned by the king.
[198] Morga refers, with his characteristic prudence, to the great
question of diocesan visits, which commenced with Fray Domingo
de Salazar, and which could not be ended until 1775, in the time
of Anda--thanks to the energy of the latter and the courage of
Archbishop Don Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa y Rufina, when after
great disturbances they succeeded in subjecting the regular curas to
the inspection of the bishops. Morga, however, shows that he did not
approve the claims of the religious to independence, but does not
dare to state so distinctly.--_Rizal_.
[199] The Augustinians received also one-fourth part of the tribute
from the villages while they were building churches; and 200 pesos
fuertes [_i.e._, ten-real pieces] and 200 cavans [the cavan equals
25 gantas, or 137 Spanish libras] of cleaned rice for four religious
who heard confessions during Lent. Fifty cavans of cleaned rice per
person seems to us too much. It results that each friar consumes 12
1/2 libras of rice or 27 chupas [the chupa is 1/8 ganta or 3 litros]
daily, thirteen times as much as any Indian.--_Rizal_.
[200] _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. vi, tit. vii, ley xvi, contains the
following in regard to the native chiefs: "It is not right that the
Indian chiefs of Filipinas be in a worse condition after conversion;
rather should they have such treatment that would gain their affection
and keep them loyal, so that with the spiritual blessings that God
has communicated to them by calling them to His true knowledge,
the temporal blessings may be joined, and they may live contentedly
and comfortably. Therefore, we order the governors of those islands
to show them good treatment and entrust them, in our name, with the
government of the Indians, of whom they were formerly the lords. In
all else the governors shall see that the chiefs are benefited justly,
and the Indians shall pay them something as a recognition, as they did
during the period of their paganism, provided it be without prejudice
to the tributes that are to be paid us, or prejudicial to that which
pertains to their encomenderos." Felipe II, Madrid, June 11, 1594.
[201] The _gobernadorcillo_ ["little or petty governor"].
[202] _Bilangõ_ signifies today in Tagál "the act of imprisoning,"
and _bilanguan_ "the prison."--_Rizal_.
[203] For good expositions of local government in modern times, see
Bowring, _Visit to the Philippine Isles_ (London, 1859), pp. 87-93; and
Montero y Vidal, _Archipiélago Filipino_ (Madrid, 1886), pp. 162-168.
[204] These are now [1890] made in Spanish.--_Rizal_.
[205] Names of petty officers: the former the name of an
officer in oriental countries; the second signifying one who
commands. Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera (_Costumbres de los Tagalos_,
Madrid, 1892, p. 10, note 1) says the word dato is now unused by
the Tagáls. _Datu_ or _datuls_ primitively signified "grandfather,"
or "head of the family," which was equivalent to the head of the
barangay. This name is used in Mindanao and Joló to designate certain
chiefs.
[206] A later law in _Recopilación de leyes_ (lib. vi, tit. viii, ley
xi) regulates the encomienda--giving power as follows: "The governor
and captain-general of Filipinas shall apportion the encomiendas,
in accordance with the regulations to worthy persons, without having
other respect than to the service of God our Lord, and our service,
the welfare of the public cause, and the remuneration of the most
deserving. Within sixty days, reckoned from the time that he shall
have heard of the vacancy, he shall be obliged to apportion them. If
he does not do so, the right to apportion them shall devolve upon
and pertain to our royal Audiencia of those islands, and we order
the Audiencia to apportion them, paying heed to the laws, within six
days, and to avail itself of the edicts and diligences issued by the
governor without other new ones. In case the governor shall not have
issued edicts and diligences, the Audiencia shall issue them and make
the provision within twenty days." Felipe III, Madrid, June 4, 1620.
[207] The rapidity with which many of these encomenderos amassed
great wealth in a few years is known, and that they left colossal
fortunes at their death. Some were not satisfied with the tributes
and with what they demanded, but made false measures, and balances
that weighed twice as much as was indicated. They often exacted the
tributes in certain products only, and appraised the same at what
value they wished.--_Rizal_.
[208] A law in _Recopilación de leyes_ (lib. vi, tit. v, ley lxv)
cites the above provision and confirms it anew: "In order to provide
instruction for certain villages of the Filipinas Islands, which did
not enjoy it, or if they had it, it was not sufficient, it was resolved
to increase the tribute, which was formerly eight reals, or its value,
per peso, to the proportion of ten Castilian reals apiece. It was
ordered that the increased amount be placed in our royal treasury,
and one-half real of it be applied to paying the obligations which had
to be met in regard to the tithes, while the one and one-half reals
would remain to pay those soldiers there and for other purposes;
in consideration of the fact that the funds necessary to send out
religious, who are employed in the preaching of the holy gospel,
are supplied from our royal treasury, and that the encomenderos were
obliged to pay for the ordinary instruction from the eight reals,
and the part of the building of churches that fell to their share,
while the Indians had the choice of paying all the tribute in money
or in products, or in both. Thus was it enacted and voted. We order
no innovation to be made in this regard, in consideration of the
welfare and conservation of those provinces and their natives, and
so that the choice of paying in money shall not occasion any lack of
products and cause sterility." Felipe II, San Lorenzo, August 1589;
Felipe III, Zamora, February 16, 1602.
[209] The following law regulates supervision of the accounts of this
fund: "Inasmuch as, when any encomienda of the Filipinas Islands
happens to be without instruction, the fourth part of the tribute
collected by the encomendero is deposited in a box with three keys,
in order that it may be converted into benefices for the Indians;
and as it is advisable that that ordinance be executed sensibly and
properly, and that we should know the amount of it and how it is
apportioned: therefore, we order our presidents, the governors of the
Filipinas Islands, that whenever they deem it advisable to examine
the account, they shall appoint for that purpose one of the officials
of our royal treasury of those islands--the one most suitable for
it--who shall examine them. The fiscal of our royal Audiencia shall
investigate them before they are finished; and shall ask and see that
they are executed with the care that the matter requires in regard
to their items, charges, articles, and balances, and whatever else
is advisable. He shall advise our president and governor of it all,
so that he may assist him in what may be necessary, and advise us of
the result." Felipe III, Madrid, June 4, 1620, in _Recopilación de
leyes_, lib. i, tit. xiii, ley xiv.
[210] The bull here referred to was issued by Gregory XIV, and dated
April 18, 1591. The seventh section reads as follows: "Finally,
since, as we have learned, our very dear son in Christ, Philip,
Catholic King of the Spains, on account of the many deceits wont to
be practised therein, has forbidden any Spaniard in the aforesaid
Philippine Islands to dare to take, or have, or hold any slaves,
or servants, even by right of just and unjust war, or of purchase,
or by whatsoever other title, or pretext; although some, despite the
edict, or mandate, of King Philip himself, still keep the same slaves
in their power: therefore in order that, as is befitting to reason
and equity, the Indians themselves may freely and safely without
any fear of bondage come and go to their Christian doctrinas, and to
their own homes and possessions, we order and command all and singular
the persons living in the same islands, of whatsoever state, degree,
condition, order, and rank they may be, in virtue of holy obedience and
under pain of excommunication, on the publication of these presents,
in accordance with the edict, or mandate of the said King Philip,
to release wholly free, without deceit and guile, whatsoever Indian
slaves and servants they may have, or hold; nor ever for the future
in any manner to take or keep captives, or servants."--[Translated
from the original by _Rev. T. C. Middleton_, O.S.A.]
[211] This [1890] has disappeared from legislation, although the
personal services for España are still continued, and are fifteen
days.--_Rizal_.
[212] _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. vi, tit. xii, ley xii, treating of
personal services, reads as follows: "The religious and the ministers
of the instruction, and the alcaldes-mayor of the Filipinas Islands
have a weekly repartimiento of Indians which they call _tanores_, so
that the Indians may serve them without pay; and besides the villages
contribute to them the fish necessary to them on Fridays, which is
against reason and justice. We order the governor and captain-general,
the Audiencia, and any other of our justices, to stop and not allow
this personal service and contribution, so that the villages shall
in no manner perform it, and we declare the villages free from any
obligation that they have or may have." This law is dated Madrid,
March 17, 1608.
[213] Taal was one of the villages where the most rigging was made
for the royal ships.--_Rizal_.
[214] This word _reales_ is omitted in the Rizal edition.
[215] A comparatively early law (_Recopilación de leyes_, lib. vi,
tit. i, ley xv), prohibits the forcible removal of the natives for
expeditions of conquest from one island to another. It is as follows:
"We order that the Indians in the Filipinas Islands be not taken
from one island to another forcibly in order to make incursions, and
against their will, unless it be under very necessary circumstances,
and paying them for their work and trouble. They shall be well treated
and receive no injury." Felipe II, Madrid, November 7, 1574.
[216] In Java also the Dutch restrict Europeans from roaming about
the country; this is a good regulation for the protection of the
inhabitants.--_Stanley_.
[217] Stanley praises these regulations; Rizal deplores them, as
keeping the men in authority out of touch with the people.
[218] _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. iv, tit. x, ley vii, has the
following law, dated Madrid, March 17, 1608: "The governor and
captain-general of Filipinas shall for the present appoint the
magistracy [_regimiento_] of the city of Manila, choosing persons
who shall prove to be suitable for the office and zealous for the
service of God our Lord, and for ours; and he shall not remove them
without our special order."
[219] Many royal decrees related to playing cards. The monopoly
ceased to exist perhaps before the government monopoly on betel was
initiated.--_Rizal_ (in part).
[220] In 1890 he received 12,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[221] The prebend, in Spanish cathedrals, superior to a canonry.
The following laws (xvi and xvii, respectively) as to the appointments
of vacant prebends, are found in _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. i,
tit. vi.
"Because of the great distance from these kingdoms to the Filipinas
Islands and the inconvenience that might result from the prebends
falling vacant without any provision being made until we present those
who shall take them, we order the governor and captain-general of the
said islands that, when dignidades, canonries, and other prebends in
the metropolitan church become vacant, he shall present other persons
of the sufficiency and characteristics required, so that they may
serve in place of their predecessors, until we provide persons for
them. They shall receive the stipend that their predecessors shall have
received. The governor shall observe the rules made by the laws of this
titulo in his presentations." Felipe II, Guadalupe, March 26, 1580.
"We order our governors of the Filipinas Islands, and charge the
archbishops of Manila, that when any prebends of that church become
vacant, they send us three nominations for each one, instead of one
only, with very minute advice of their sufficiency, learning, degrees,
and all other qualities that are found in those proposed, so that
after examination, we may appoint the one most suitable." Felipe III,
Lerma, June 28, 1608.
[222] In 1890 the Filipinas were paying 36,670 pesos annually for
one dean, four dignitarios, five canons, four racioneros, four
medio-racioneros, and other inferior helpers, including the choir,
a total of twenty-six individuals; 3,330 pesos annually is to be
added for sacristans, singers, and orchestra.--_Rizal_.
[223] Their salary amounted to from 750 to 1,000 pesos. Now [1890]
the salary of each bishop is 6,000 pesos, with two father assistants
at 100 to 150 pesos per month.--_Rizal_.
[224] Thus in original, but it is carelessly worded; for the Society
of Jesus is not one of the mendicant orders.
[225] All of the orders held property and had regular means of revenue,
later; while the Dominicans held enormous property in both the islands
and at Hong Kong.--_Rizal_.
[226] The following law is from _Recopilación de leyes_ (lib. iii,
tit. x, ley xiv): "The governor and captain-general of the Filipinas
Islands shall be careful to reward the soldiers who shall have
served us there, and their sons, with the posts and emoluments at
his disposal, in accordance with the ordinances, and [he shall do it]
with all fairness, so that they may have some remuneration. He shall
keep in toto the laws relating to this." Felipe III, Lerma, July 23,
1605; Madrid, December 19, 1618.
[227] _Consejeles_: men sent to service by order of a municipal
council.
[228] The pay of various of the above officers and men in 1890 was as
follows: Filipino infantrymen, 4 pesos per month; Spanish artillerymen,
13-15 pesos, plus some céntimos, per month; Filipino artillerymen,
4 pesos, plus some céntimos, per month; captains, 1,500-1,800 pesos
per year; alféreces, 975-1,050 pesos per year; first sergeants,
European, 318-360 pesos per year--native, 180 pesos per year;
second sergeants, European, 248.06-307.50 pesos per year--native,
156 pesos per year; first corporals, European, 189.56-202 pesos per
year--native, 84 pesos per year; second corporals, European, 174-192
pesos per year--native corporals, 72 pesos per year; the _segundo cabo_
[lieutenant-commander], 12,000 pesos per year; sargento-mayor _de
plaza_ (now lieutenant-colonel), 225 pesos per month; vice-admiral
[_contra-almirante, general de galeras_], 16,392 pesos per year;
frigate and ship captains, 2,700-5,760 pesos per year, according to
their duties and grades.--_Rizal_.
The following laws from _Recopilación de leyes_ regulate the
pay of the soldiers and some of the officers, and impose certain
restrictions on the soldiers, and provide for certain appointments:
"Each soldier established in the Filipinas Islands shall be paid
eight pesos per month, each captain, fifty, each alférez, twenty,
and each sergeant, ten. The governor and captain-general of the said
islands shall give all the men of the companies thirty ducados to each
company of additional pay, as is done in other districts, providing
the additional pay of each one does not exceed ten pesos per year. We
order that all be well paid. When the governor shall provide any of
the captains, officers, or soldiers with an encomienda, or other post,
he shall not allow him to draw pay. While they draw pay they shall
not be allowed to trade or traffic, so that that occupation may not
divert or distract them from their proper exercise and employment
of war. For the same reason, no pay shall be granted to any soldier
who serves any other person, whomsoever he be." Felipe II, Añover,
August 9, 1589, clause 34 of his instructions; Felipe III, Ventosilla,
November 4, 1606; lib. iii, tit. x, ley xiii.
"We order that when the post of general of artillery of the Filipinas
Islands becomes vacant, either by the death or promotion of its
occupant, or for any other cause, the governor and captain-general
shall not fill it without first notifying us and without our special
order for it. We permit him to appoint a captain of artillery and a
sargento-mayor, and he may assign each of them thirty pesos' pay. We
approve the increase of two pesos in the pay of the musketeers. It
is our will that the pay of the governor's captain of the guard be
increased five pesos, in addition to his fifteen pesos, and that
a like sum be granted to the commandants of forts when they have a
captain of infantry." Felipe II, clause of letter, Madrid, June 11,
1594; Felipe IV, Madrid, January 30, 1631; lib. iii, tit. v, ley iii.
[229] A definite law, as is shown in _Recopilación de leyes_,
lib. iii. tit. iv, ley xiii, charged the viceroys of Nueva España
to send help to the Philippines. The law is as follows: "We charge
and order the viceroys of Nueva España to aid the governor and
captain-general of Filipinas on all occasions that arise, with very
special care, promptness, and diligence, with whatever the latter
shall request; and with the men, arms, ammunition, and money, that he
deems necessary for the conservation of those islands, salaries [the
original is _sueldos_, perhaps a misprint for _suelos_, signifying
'provinces' or 'districts'], presidios, and whatever else is under
his charge." Felipe III, Aranjuez, May 25, 1607.
The two following laws impose certain restrictions on the
reënforcements sent to the Philippines from Nueva España:
"One of the captains who shall raise men in Nueva España as
reënforcements for the Filipinas Islands, shall act as their agent
to the port of Acapulco. There he shall deliver them to the general,
or commander of the ships about to sail; but no captain shall take
passage or go to the islands with the men of his company." Felipe III,
Zamora, February 16, 1602; lib. iii, tit. iv, ley xvi.
"Among the men sent by the viceroy, who shall go as a reënforcement
from Nueva España to Filipinas, he shall not allow, under any
circumstances, or admit, any mestizos or mulattoes, because of
the annoyances that have been experienced from them." Felipe III,
Valladolid, August 30, 1608; lib. iii, tit. iv, ley xv.
[230] See _ante_, note 227, the citation of the law from _Recopilación
de leyes_, lib. iii, tit. x, ley xiii.
[231] See _Vol_. XII ("Various documents relating to commerce"),
pp. 57-75.
Bañuelos y Carrillo, in his relation to the king, says: "That the
inhabitants of the Manilas should be allowed to export as many
boat-loads as possible of the country's produce--such as wax, gold,
perfumes, ivory, and cotton cloth [_lampotes_]--which they must buy
from the natives of the country, who would thus be hindered from
selling them to the Dutch. In this way we would make those peoples
friendly, and supply Nueva España with their merchandise; and the
money taken to Manila would not leave that city.... Your Majesty
should consider that one and one-half millions in gold go to China
annually." This commerce was advantageous to the Celestial empire
alone and to certain individuals of Manila. It was fatal to España,
and harmful to the islands, whose industry was gradually perishing
like that of the metropolis.--_Rizal_.
[232] See in _Vol_. VIII, pp. 316-318, a royal decree enforcing these
prohibitions under severe penalties.
[233] Coarse stuff made of goat's hair, or a glossy silk stuff;
probably the latter is intended in the text. _Gorvoran_ or _gorgoran_
is a sort of silk grogram.
[234] This fabric is now called Piña. It is made from threads
stripped from fibers of the leaf of that plant or fruit, and which
are never longer than half a yard. It cannot be woven at all times,
as extreme heat or humidity affects the fiber. The machinery employed
is of wood, unmixed with any metal, and of rude construction. This
fabric is stronger than any other of equal fineness, and its color is
unaffected by time or washing. The pieces are generally only 1 1/2 feet
wide: the price varies from 1.s. 4d. to 2s. 6d. per yard. Piña of a
yard wide is from six reals to a dollar (of eight reals) a yard. All
the joinings of the threads are of knots made by the fingers. It is
fabricated solely by native Indians in many parts of the Philippines,
but especially in Ilo-Ilo. The use of this stuff is extensive, and
the value is estimated at 500,000 dollars or £120,000; the value of
the annual export of it to Europe for dresses, handkerchiefs, collars,
scarfs, and wristbands, which are beautifully embroidered at Manila,
is estimated at 20,000 dollars annually. (Mr. Consul Farren, January
21, 1851).--_Stanley_.
In order to obtain the fiber of this plant, the fruit is first cut,
so that the leaf may become as long and broad as possible. When
the leaves are well developed they are torn off, and scraped with a
sharp instrument to separate the fleshy part and leave the fiber;
this is washed, dried in the sun, combed out, and classed in four
grades according to its fineness. The cloth has a peculiar softness
and delicacy; and it is said that that made formerly (one or two
centuries ago) was much finer than that made now.
[235] _Scorzonera_ is a genus of composite plants, of numerous
species; the leaves or roots of many are used as vegetables or
salads. _S. tuberosa_ and other Eastern species have edible roots.
[236] Delgado (_ut supra_) says that this fruit (_Diospyros kaki_,
Linn.) was brought by the Chinese traders, and called _Xi-cu_
in their language, whence is derived the word _chiquey_. It is a
beautiful scarlet fruit, although there is another species of a
yellow color. Both are sweet and pleasant to the taste. Some of the
yellow variety were grown in the Visayas, but Delgado says the tree
is not indigenous to the islands. The fruit is shaped like an acorn
but is about as large as a lemon. The peel is soft and the interior
like honey, and it contains several seeds. The tree is wide-spreading
but not very tall. The leaves are small and almost round. _D. kaki_
is the Chinese or Japanese persimmon; _D. virginiana_ is the American
persimmon. From other species is obtained the valuable wood called
ebony.
[237] This must be the cloth and not the porcelain of Kaga, which
even today is so highly esteemed.--_Rizal_.
[238] With very slight differences, this custom and ceremony is
continued to the present [1890].--_Rizal_.
[239] "A three per cent duty was imposed in the Filipinas on
merchandise, for the payment of the troops. We order that part of the
law to be observed, but that pertaining to the other things paid from
those duties to be repealed." Añover, August 9, 1589. (Ley xxii.)
"We ordain that the Chinese, Japanese, Siamese, Borneans, and all other
foreigners, who go to the ports of the Filipinas Islands, pay no duty
on food, supplies, and materials that they take to those islands,
and that this law be kept in the form in w, hich it may have been
introduced, and not otherwise." Añover, August 9, 1589. (Ley xxiv.)
"On the Chinese merchandise and that from other countries, shipped to
Nueva España by way of Filipinas, an impost ad valorem tax of ten per
cent shall be collected, based on their value in the ports and regions
where the goods shall be discharged. This tax shall be imposed mildly
according to the rule, and shall be a tax additional to that usually
paid on departure both from the said Filipinas Islands and from the
provinces of Nueva España, to any other places where they may and
shall be taken." El Pardo, November 1, 1591. (Ley xxi.)
"We order that the duty of three per cent collected in the Filipinas
Islands on the merchandise taken thither by the Chinese be increased by
another three per cent." El Pardo, November 20, 1606. (Ley xxiii.) The
above laws are from _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. viii, tit. xv.
[240] The agave (_Agave americana_; the _maguey_ of Mexico) is found in
the Philippines, and is called _pita_, but Delgado and Blanco think
that it was not indigenous there. Its fibers were used in former
times for making the native textile called _nipis_, manufactured
in the Visayas. As used in the text, _pita_ means, apparently, some
braid or other ornament of agave fibers.
[241] The ducado of Castilla was worth slightly more than two
pesos.--_Rizal_.
[242] These imposts and fetters, which the products of the country
did not escape, are still [1890] in force, so that foreign markets
must be sought, since the markets of the mother-country offer no
greater advantages. According to a document of 1640, this commerce
netted the government 350,000 pesos annually.--_Rizal_.
[243] The salary is now [1890] 40,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[244] _Recopilación de leyes_ (lib. iv, tit. i, ley v) outlines the
governor's and Audiencia's power in regard to conquests by private
individuals, as follows: "We grant permission to the governor and
president of the Filipinas Islands and its Audiencia to make contracts
for new explorations and conquests [_pacificaciones_] with persons,
who are willing to covenant to do it at their own expense and not at
that of our royal treasury; and to give them the titles of captains
and masters-of-camp, but not those of adelantados [_i.e._, governors]
and marshals. Those contracts and agreements such men may execute, with
the concurrence of the Audiencia, until we approve them, provided that
they observe the laws enacted for war, conquest, and exploration, so
straitly, that for any negligence, the terms of their contract will be
observed, and those who exceed the contract shall incur the penalties
imposed; also provided the parties shall receive our confirmation
within a brief period assigned by the governor." Felipe II, Guadalupe,
April 1, 1580; Toledo, May 25, 1596, a clause of instructions.
[245] There are eight auditors now [1890], and their salary
has increased to 4,700 pesos, while that of the fiscal is 5,500
pesos.--_Rizal_.
[246] _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. v, tit. xv, ley xxviii, contains
the following on suits arising from residencias, dated Lerma, June
23, 1608: "Suits brought during the residencia against governors,
captains-general, presidents, auditors, and fiscals of our Audiencia
of Manila, and against any other officials, both civil and criminal,
shall pass in appeal and be concluded in that Audiencia, if they do
not exceed one thousand pesos of the current money."
[247] The tributes of the Indians in the Filipinas amount to more
than 4,000,000 pesos now [1890]; and from the Chinese are derived
225,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[248] Now since there is no exploitation of gold mines, and since
the Indians have no jewels that would justify this tenth or fifth,
the Spaniards substitute for this the imposts upon property, which
amount to 105,400 pesos, and that upon industry, which amounts to
1,433,200 pesos. In 1640, the revenue from the above source [fifths or
tenths] had decreased so greatly, that only 750 pesos were collected
annually.--_Rizal_.
[249] Import duties now [1890] amount to 1,700,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[250] Export duties now [1890] amount to 285,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.
[251] According to Hernando de los Rios, the Filipinas Islands could
have been self-sustaining from the beginning from their own products,
had it not been for the expeditions and adventurous conquests in the
Moluccas, Camboja, etc.... In the governorship of Don Juan de Silva,
the treasury owed, for the war in the Moluccas, more than 2,000,000
pesos to the Indians, besides what it must have owed to the inhabitants
of Manila.--_Rizal_.
[252] This excellent custom has entirely perished.--_Rizal_.
"The president of our royal Audiencia of Filipinas and one auditor
of that body, shall, at the beginning of each year, examine the
accounts of our royal officials, and shall finish their examination
within the two months of January and February. On finishing their
examination they shall send a copy of them to our council for the
reason contained in the following law. Should the examination not be
finished in the said time, our officials shall receive no salary. The
auditor who shall assist in examining the accounts shall receive as
a compensation the twenty-five thousand maravedis that are ordained;
but he shall receive that amount only in that year that he shall send
the said accounts concluded to our council." Ordinance 97, Toledo,
May 15, 1596. (Ley ix.)
"For the accounts of our royal treasury, which must be furnished in
the usual form by our officials of the Filipinas Islands annually,
during the administration of their duties, the officials shall
deliver for inventory all the books and orders pertaining to those
accounts, and all that shall be requested from them and that shall
be necessary. They shall continue the course of their administration
[of their duties] with new and similar books. These accounts shall be
concluded before the governor of those islands, and the auditor whom
the Audiencia and the fiscal of that body may appoint. In case of the
finding of any doubts and remarks it is our will that the auditor and
governor resolve and determine them, so that they may be concluded and
finished. And inasmuch as the factor and overseer must give account of
certain things in kind and products of great weight and tediousness,
we order that that account be examined every three years, and that
the concluding and settling of the doubts and remarks shall be made
in the form declared. And we order that when the said accounts of
the said islands are completed and the net balances struck, they
shall be sent to our Council of the Indias, so that the accountants
of its accounts may revise and make additions to them according to
the manner of the accountancy." Valladolid, January 25, 1605. (Ley x.)
The above two laws are taken from _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. viii,
tit. xxix.
[253] The Chinese engaged in agriculture and fishing now [1890]
are very few.--_Rizal_.
[254] The Rizal edition misprints _fuerça è premio_ as _fuerza
á premio._
[255] The custom of shaving the head, now prevalent among the Chinese,
was imposed upon them by their Tartar conquerors.
[256] A kind of stocking called _tabi_.--_Rizal_.
[257] The following law was issued at Segovia July 4, 1609, and
appears in _Recopilación de leyes_, lib. iii, tit. iv, ley xviii:
"The governor and captain-general of the Filipinas Islands shall
ever strive to maintain friendly relations, peace, and quiet, with
the emperor of Japon. He shall avail himself, for that purpose, of
the most prudent and advisable means, as long as conditions permit;
and he shall not risk the reputation of our arms and state in those
seas and among oriental nations."
[258] This port (established before 1540) was in Colima, Mexico,
near the present Manzanillo. It was plundered and burned by the
English adventurer Thomas Candish, on August 24-25, 1587.
[259] Thus named because seamen and voyagers noticed especially
the lateen sails of the light vessels used by the natives of the
Marianas.--_Rizal_.
[260] A marine fish (_Sparus auratus_), thus named because it has
spots of golden-yellow color.
[261] A chart of the Indian Ocean, by L. S. de la Rochette
(pub. London, 1803, by W. Faden, geographer to the king) shows three
volcanoes in about 25° north latitude, and but a few degrees north
of the Ladrones. One of them is called "La Desconocida, or Third
Volcano," and the following is added: "The Manilla ships always try
to make this Volcano."
[262] A group of islands called Shidsi To, lying in 34° 20'.--_Rizal_.
[263] "Thirty-eight degrees" is probably an error for "twenty-eight
degrees," and these islands [the first ones mentioned in the above
sentence] would be the Mounin-Sima Islands, lying between 26° 35'
and 27° 45'; and Lot's Wife in 29° 51', and Crespo, in 32° 46',
which [latter] are supposed by the _Univers Pittoresque_ to be the
Roca de Oro [rock of gold] and the Roca de Plata of the ancient
maps.--_Stanley_.
For these latter islands, see _Vol_. XIV, p. 272, note 45.
[264] A fungous substance that grows in the sea, and contains signs
of life.
[265] Probably the dogfish, a species of shark.
[266] Most of these places can be identified on the old maps of
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and most of the names
are retained today. The island of Cedros is shown on a map of 1556
(Ramusio: _Vniversale della parte del mondo nvovamente ritrovata_). The
island of Cenizas is shown, on the old maps, in about 32°, and Cedros
in about 29°. The Marias or Tres Marias Islands are Maria Madre,
Maria Magdalena, and Maria Cleofas. Cape Corrientes is south of
La Valle de Banderas and Chametla. Socatul is called Socatula and
Zocatula. An English map of 1626, engraved by Abraham Goos, shows
the town of Ciguatlan, north of Aquapulco, which may be the same as
Morga's Ciguatanejo. Los Motines cannot be identified.
[267] Acosta in his _History of the Indies_ (Hakluyt Soc. edition,
London, 1880) says of the courses between the Philippines and New
Spain: "The like discourse is of the Navigation made into the South
sea, going from New Spaine or Peru to the Philippines or China, and
returning from the Philippines or China to New Spaine, the which is
easie, for that they saile alwaies from East to West neere the line,
where they finde the Easterly windes to blow in their poope. In the
yeere 1584, there went a shippe from Callao in Lima to the Philippines,
which sailed 2000 and 700 leagues without sight of land, and the
first it discovered was the Iland of Lusson, where they tooke port,
having performed their voiage in two moneths, without want of winde or
any torment, and their course was almost continually vnder the line;
... The returne is like vnto the voiage from the Indies vnto Spaine,
for those which returne from the Philippines or China to Mexico,
to the end they may recover the Westerne windes, they mount a great
height, vntill they come right against the Ilands of Iappon, and,
discovering the Caliphornes, they returne by the coast of New Spaine
to the port of Acapulco."
[268] Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola was born in 1566 of a family
of Italian origin, being the second son. Taking orders, he became
rector of Villahermosa in 1588, and chaplain to Maria of Austria,
the queen, in 1598. After the latter's death he was commissioned by
the Conde de Lemos, president of the Council of the Indias, to write
a history of the conquest of the Moluccas. He later spent some time in
the kingdom of Naples, and about 1618 was made historian of Aragón. He
died at Zaragoza in 1631. In addition to the present history, which
is noted for its excellent literary style, he wrote _Primera parte
de los anales de Aragón_ (Zaragoza, 1630) the continuation of the
_Anales of Zurita_. He was also a poet, whose poems are remarkable for
their purity of style and loftiness of sentiment; they are published,
with those of his elder brother, under the title _Rimas de Lupercio
i del doctor Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola_ (Zaragoza, 1634). One
of the chief poems is an ode in honor of the church after the battle
of Lepanto.
[269] The original book contains numerous side notes indicative of
the subject matter of the text. We omit such notes in our translated
extracts.
[270] The above places are identified as follows: Cafa is the
modern Kaffa or Theodosia, a Russian seaport on the Black Sea;
Trapisonda is either the city or district of Trebizond or Tarabozan
(called by the Turks Tarabesoon, and formerly Traplezus); Barcito
(misprint for Bareito?), Lepo, and Damasco, are Beirut, Aleppo,
and Damascus respectively.
[271] Argensola defines this title, which he also spells _sangaje_,
as equivalent to "count" or "duke," and says that it may be derived
from _senchaq,_ a Turkish word meaning "captain."
[272] Argensola gives a description of the clove in book ii, pp. 52-54
of his work.
[273] The Dutch.
[274] _Cañafístulo_: referring to the drug known as senna, which is
obtained from the leaves of several species of _Cassia_. According
to Retana (Zúñiga's _Estadismo_, ii, p. 454*) the Bisayan name for
this plant is _ibabao_ (the ancient name of Samar Island).
[275] "Eagle" (Latin, _aguila_) is here a corruption of the Malay
name _agila_, referring to the fragrant, resinous wood of a tree
(_Aguilaria agallocha_) used for many centuries by Asiatic peoples,
especially the Chinese, for incense; it is also called "Kalambak"
and "aloes-wood." Calambuco is another species of this genus, its
wood little fragrant, but used in cabinet work (_Century Dictionary_).
[276] True wealth and prosperity of the republic of Venice were
largely due to its preëminence in the Oriental trade, carried on by
the overland route through Asia, in caravans. By the discovery of
the Cape of Good Hope the Portuguese opened the sea-route to India,
by which the products of the East were carried to Europe more cheaply
and in greater abundance; and the decline of Venetian prestige and
wealth rapidly followed (in the sixteenth century).
[277] This probably refers to Giovanni Pietro Maffei, a noted
Jesuit scholar and writer, and the book mentioned is his _Historiarum
Indicarum Libri xvi_ (Fiorenze, 1588). Maffei was born at Bergame about
1536, according to Moreri, but in 1533 according to Sommervogel. In
1563 he accepted the chair of rhetoric at Genoa, where he also acted
as secretary of the republic of Genoa. August 26, 1565 (Sommervogel)
he entered the Jesuit novitiate. He occupied a high place in the
order until his death at Tivoli, October 20, 1603. Besides the book
mentioned above, he wrote also a life of St. Ignatius Loyola, and a
history of the pontificate of Gregory XIII, the latter of which was
never published. His temper was irascible and his personality not
very pleasing. He strove always to maintain a pure Latin style in
his Latin writings.
[278] Argensola, like Morga, confuses the naming of the Philippine
archipelago.
[279] The aquatic plant commonly known as "cat-tail flag" or reed
(_Typha latifolía_).
[280] A measure, one-third vara in length.
[281] Small armed vessels like rafts.
[282] This was Father Antonio Marta, a Neapolitan, and superior of
the Jesuit missions in the Malucas; with him was associated Antonio
Pereira, so prominent in the expedition of Hurtado de Mendoza. See
La Concepcion's account of Marta's services at this time (_Hist. de
Philipinas_, ii, pp. 197-204). Marta is not mentioned by Sommervogel.
[283] See Dasmariñas's version of this proceeding, in _Vol_. VIII,
pp. 239, 294; he there states that the Indians thus taken were to be
freed at the end of three years' service. Cf. _Vol_. X, p. 214.
[284] See letters sent by Dasmariñas and his son Luis to the king of
Camboja, as a result of this embassy, in Vol. IX, pp. 76-78 and 86,
87; and accounts of the Spanish expeditions to that country under Luis
Dasmariñas, in Vol. IX, pp. 161-180, and X, pp. 216, 217, 226-240--also
in Morga's _Sucesos_, chaps. V, VI (in Vol. XV of this series).
[285] Punta Azufre is on the southern coast of Batangas, Luzón; at
a little distance is Punta Cazador--at the extreme southern point of
Calúmpan peninsula--probably the Caça of the text.
[286] _Bastardo_: the large sail which is hoisted on> a galley when
there is little wind.
[287] Cf. La Concepcion's account of Dasmariñas's expedition, in
_Hist. de Philipinas_, ii, pp. 194-212.
[288] See accounts of this and later expeditions to conquer Mindanao,
in _Vol_. IX, pp. 181-188, 281-298; and X, pp. 53-75, 214, 215,
219-226.
[289] A small piece of ordnance.
[290] One of the early appellations of the strait between the northwest
point of Samar and the southeast point of Luzón, now known as San
Bernardino Strait. As it was the regular outlet for the vessels plying
between the Philippines and Nueva España, this strait was also called
Paso de Acapulco ("the Acapulco passage"). By some authorities the
meridian of San Bernardino was used as the standard, or "meridian
of departure." See San Antonio's _Chronicas_, part i, 55 (cited by
Retana in Zúñiga's _Estadismo_, ii, p. 156*; see also p. 409*).
[291] This is an error or misprint for "Morga."
[292] See Morga's account of this, where it appears that these were
not English, but native Moro boats.
[293] The governor's letter is given by Argensola partly in synopsis,
and partly in direct quotation. The latter we enclose in quotation
marks. Sec in _Vol_. XIV (pp. 44-50) this letter, translated from
the MS. preserved in the Sevilla archives; that is apparently at
least a duplicate of the original letter to the Chinese official,
and one of the despatches sent to Spain by Acuña.
[294] This Dutch commander, was Steven van der Hagen, and this his
second voyage to East Indian waters. See _Vol_. XV, appendix B.
[295] A Portuguese pound, containing sixteen ounces.
[296] _Anfión_: a name given to opium in the East Indies.
[297] In the text, _funcas_; apparently a misprint for _fustas_
or for _juncos_.
[298] A word derived from _garra_ (of Old High German origin),
signifying "the foot of a bird" or "the paw of a beast;" _i.e._, the
anchor metaphorically "claws" the bottom of the water where it rests,
struggling to retain its hold against the force of the wind. See
Echegaray's _Diccionario general etimológico_ (Madrid, 1887-89).