The Town Council of Edinburgh in 1583 appointed Robert Rollock to take

charge of the youth in the new institution, who had been acting as a

regent of philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. In October the

magistrates issued a proclamation requesting those that desired to be

taught in the college to present themselves before one of the bailies,

and enrol their names. A considerable number appeared, and with them

Rollock began the first year of the course. Many of them, however,

were too deficient in the Latin language for entering on the subjects

contemplated in the college. He recommended Duncan Narne as one of

the regents of philosophy, and proposed that Narne should take those

that were deficient in Latin, and prepare them for a new Bajan class

the next session, when those under his own charge would be in the

second year of their course. This plan was followed, so during the

first session of the college, which lasted from October, 1853, till the

end of August, 1584, there were only two classes and two instructors.

During the second session there was no more, but the two regents

proceeded with their classes.

In the winter of 1586 Rollock was appointed Principal of the college;

he continued, however, to teach his class to the end of the course.

When the fourth session was opened, the teaching staff consisted of

the Principal and two regents, each having one class. In August 1587,

the first graduation took place, Principal Rollock conferred the degree

of Master of Arts on the students of the fourth year, educated by

himself――the number who graduated was forty-seven. After this Rollock

resigned the post of regent, and was appointed teacher or professor of

divinity, an office which continued to be attached to the Principalship

of the college till 1620. In 1589 a fourth regent of philosophy was

appointed, and in 1597 Mr. John Ray was elected regent of humanity. The

college now had six instructors――a professor of divinity, four regents

of philosophy, and a regent of humanity. At this strength the teaching

staff of the institution remained for many years.¹

¹ _Burgh Records of Edinburgh_; Crawfurd’s _History of the

University of Edinburgh_, pages 30‒31; Dalziel’s _History

of the University of Edinburgh_, chapter 1.

Rollock in his method of exposition followed Ramus, and no man knew

how to make a better use of this famous philosopher’s dialectics

than the first professor of the college of Edinburgh. The writings

of Ramus, however, though adopted by Andrew Melville and some of the

other regents in the Universities, did not supersede the authority of

Aristotle, whose writings were for long the texts of the philosophical

teaching imparted by the regents in Scotland. Rollock, according to

all accounts, was a very successful teacher, an exceedingly industrious

man, and did much to ensure the success, and to raise the character of

the new institution. He was cut off in the midst of his arduous work in

the forty-third year of his age, in 1598. After his death, the greatest

respect was shown to his memory, his body was followed to the grave

by a vast concourse of the people, lamenting him with the deepest

manifestations of grief. His old pupils and literary friends composed

upwards of forty Latin elegies in his praise; and the magistrates of

Edinburgh did not forget to provide for his widow and daughter.¹

¹ Charteris’s _Narrative of the life and death of Rollock_;

_Select Works of Rollock_, Volume I., pages 65‒72, 86‒87;

Crawfurd’s _History of the University of Edinburgh_, pages

44‒45.

The salaries of the Principal and the regents of the college of

Edinburgh were comparatively small, and not at all calculated to

attract a man of great talents and ambition. In 1594 the four regents

of philosophy had each one hundred pounds Scots, that is £8 6 shillings

8 pence sterling per annum; even in 1620 the Principal had only

five hundred pounds yearly, or £41 14 shillings 4 pence sterling;

in consequence of the smallness of their salaries the regents seldom

remained long, and vacancies were always occurring.¹

¹ Dalziel’s _History of the University of Edinburgh_.

From the opening of the college of Edinburgh to the end of the

sixteenth century, the number of students who graduated in the faculty

of arts was about three hundred and twenty-two; the average attendance

including the four classes, probably did not exceed one hundred and

fifty. The number of students attending St. Andrews in the latter half

of the century was about two hundred;¹ and the number of students at

the other two Universities was at least, somewhat less than the average

at St. Andrews.

¹ Crawfurd’s _History of the University of Edinburgh_;

_Catalogue of the Graduates of the University of Edinburgh_,

1858.

Before leaving this subject, it seems desirable to give some account of

the kind of literature and science which was taught in the college of

Edinburgh. As it was founded after the Reformation, it may be assumed

so far to represent the views of the Protestants, touching learning,

literature, and science; this may also enable us to understand the cast

of the national mind, when we obtain a glimpse of one of the moulds

which so long contributed to form it. As then conceived, the main aim

of a liberal education was to acquire a knowledge of the Latin language,

as without this it was impossible to read the works of Roman authors,

which with the writings of the ancient Greeks, were deemed the only

genuine standards of fine composition. Much of the students’ time was

occupied in hearing the regents read and explain Latin authors, in

translating Latin exercises themselves, and in translating Greek into

Latin, and Latin into Greek. When they became adepts at this kind of

work, and had learned the rules of formal logic, with the ethics of

Aristotle, they were supposed to have received a liberal education.

When the students returned to their work in the month of October, they

were employed in reading Latin and Greek, preparing for the ensuing

session: and about the first of November, when the classes were fully

assembled, the Principal in a meeting in the public hall, at nine in

the morning, prescribed to the Bajan class a piece of Scotch, which

being copied and read aloud, the students were separated, and under the

observation of the regents who attended by turns, they translated it

into Latin, then having copied their versions, and each subscribed his

own one with his name, and the name of the master, who had instructed

him in Latin, they delivered the versions to the attending regent

before twelve o’clock. At four in the afternoon they re-assembled in

the presence of the Principal and regents, and each being called by

name, read his Latin version aloud under the inspection of one of the

regents, and then returned the paper to be perused by the Principal

and the regents; if any one of them was so deficient in Latin as to be

unable to follow the instruction given in the class, they were advised

to return to the study of that language. The next day, a Latin theme

was prescribed to the Semi class, to be translated into Greek, and

afterwards read and examined in the form above stated. A passage of

some Latin and Greek author was set to the third class to be analysed,

and this was disposed of in the same manner. At the opening of the

session, the Semi class was engaged for several days in repeating what

they had learned before; after this they were publicly examined by the

regents and the professor of humanity; they were examined on Ramus’

Dialectics and the compend of Ars Syllogistica, the Greek poets

and prose authors; and an account was taken of what had been taught

publicly, and also of what each student had acquired by his own energy

and industry. The third class was examined on philosophy and the

categories, some other parts of Aristotle’s logic, and on Ramus.

The Magistrand, or fourth year’s students, were examined on logic,

demonstration, on a few acromatical books, and on Aristotle’s ethics.

In the month of July, near the close of the session, the fourth class

gave up their names for trial in the public hall, preparatory to

receiving the degree of Master of Arts. This examination was nearly

similar to the preceding. The evening before the public disputation on

the thesis, they met in the presence of the Principal and the regents,

and subscribed the Confession of Faith. When the Principal found

that they had all received certificates, and that they had performed

the necessary exercises, he then took the report of the five regents

touching the behaviour and ability of every one, and according to

their merit enrolled their names, distinguishing them into ranks. The

disputation upon the thesis commenced in the morning, and concluded

in the evening about six o’clock, when the candidates were called in

by name according to their ranks, and the Principal briefly exhorted

them to follow a virtuous life, and then performed the ceremony of

graduation in the form still practised on such occasions.¹

¹ Crawfurd’s _History of the University of Edinburgh_;

Dalziel’s _History of the University of Edinburgh_, Volume

II., pages 46‒50. 1862. There is no complete list of the

philosophical theses which were printed before the day

fixed for the graduation of Master of Arts; the earliest

one that has been found is that for the year 1596. In

1599 and subsequent years the names of the candidates

and the presiding regent are affixed, with a dedication

to the provost and magistrates of Edinburgh, or to some

distinguished personage.

There was a steadily growing interest in national education, and the

educational institutions were increasing. In the year 1592 a college

was founded at Fraserburgh by Sir Alexander Fraser, of Philorth, the

lineal ancestor of Lord Saltoun. It did not succeed, however, although

its foundation was ratified by parliament, and sanctioned by the

General Assembly. The change of Church government, and the disturbing

influences thence arising, were against it; while the establishing

of Marischal College in the new town of Aberdeen in 1693, probably

interfered with the chance of success of the College of Fraserburgh.

As originally endowed, Marischal College had only a rector, a dean of

faculty, a Principal, three regents, and six bursars; but the number

of its professors and bursars gradually increased, and it became a very

useful educational institution.¹

¹ _Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland_, Volume IV., pages

35, 147, 148; _Book of the Universal Kirk_; _Records of

Marischal College_. These records have now been carefully

and ably edited by Mr. P. J. Anderson, M.A., LL.B., for

the New Spalding Club, Volume I., under the title of “Fasti

Academiæ Mariscallanæ Aberdonensis,” was issued in 1889,

and contains the original foundations of the Marischal

College and University, and notices of its later endowments;

while the second volume will give an account of the system

of education, including the names of teachers and of

students.

In forming an opinion on the educational system as it existed in the

latter part of the sixteenth century, it is necessary to remember the

limited range of the scientific knowledge of the period. As yet the

majority of learned teachers had no idea of the modern system of the

universe; they knew that the earth is a globe, but they thought it was

in the centre of the universe, and that all the heavenly bodies moved

round it every twenty-four hours. The idea that it was the earth that

moved they thought to be absurd; the earth stood still, they maintained,

like the everlasting hills. From this limited view of the universe,

there has sprung up a vast accumulation of childish and absurd notions:

the most learned men of the age thought that the planets were moved

by angels, and that the stars had a magic influence upon the affairs

of men. Thus they were ready to believe in visions, in prodigies, in

witchcraft, and in the power of the devil to fight pretty successfully

against God and mankind. Although a more correct conception and a wider

view of the universe had been expounded long before the end of the

sixteenth century, yet the mind of Europe had been so long held in

leading-strings that centuries were required for its emancipation.

An educational system which assumed that the ancients knew everything,

could not have been expected to show much favour to any new discoveries

in physical science. Hence the comparatively narrow course of education

which so long prevailed in the Scottish universities. This education,

however, produced logical habits of thought, which, associated

with many other influences, contributed to form a strongly marked

national character. The encouragement given to dogmatic instruction

in religion, from the humblest of the parish schools to the divinity

halls, powerfully conduced to mould that argumentative cast of mind, so

characteristic of the Scottish people. This dogmatic and logical system

of theology ran very much in one channel for two centuries after the

Reformation, before it was at all seriously challenged among the Scots:

as they were well contented with their Church and her doctrine, which

maintained its ground with wonderful completeness.

The deficiencies of the system in its early stages are seen in the

fact, that it was long after the Reformation ere either law or medicine,

reached the maturity of a faculty in any of the Scottish universities.

The languages and the literature of the Island itself were not deemed

worth the attention of the higher schools, till the present century.¹

There were no chairs for history before the eighteenth century; and

many other requisites, such as large libraries, were almost entirely

wanting in the Scottish universities at the end of the sixteenth

century. It is known that there was a collection of books in King’s

College at Aberdeen in the sixteenth century, but there is no

record touching the library or its management prior to 1634. There

were collections of books in the University of Glasgow before the

Reformation, but that event in a great measure dispersed them; yet

there was a small library in the college in 1578. From that date it has

gradually increased, and in the first quarter of the present century it

contained upwards of 30,000 volumes. The library of the University of

St. Andrews was never large. In the year 1580, Mr. Clement Little, one

of the Commissaries of Edinburgh, bequeathed his library for the use of

the citizens of the capital. It consisted of 268 volumes, which at that

time was considered a valuable collection. They were at first placed in

the lodgings of Mr. Lawson, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, who was

a warm promoter of the scheme for erecting a college in the city. And

in 1584 the Town Council ordered Mr. Little’s donation of books to be

removed to the college, and delivered to the care of Principal Rollock.

This was the foundation of the library of the University of Edinburgh,

which now contains over 158,000 volumes, and 700 manuscripts.

¹ Dr. Bain, in his work entitled _Education as a Science_,

devotes a long chapter to the discussion of teaching the

“mother tongue,” and handles the subject in an exhaustive

and interesting style. Chapter 9, pages 312‒358; 1879.

We have seen that music was cultivated and taught in the schools from

a very early period,¹ and there is evidence that singing was regularly

taught throughout the kingdom before the Reformation. In January, 1553,

the Town Council of Edinburgh resolved to grant a license to James

Lauder, the prebendary of their choir, to go to England and France,

and remain for a year, and learn better music, and more aptitude for

performing on musical instruments. In 1554 the Council ordered the

Dean of Guild to repair the song school in the churchyard, so that the

bairns may enter and attend it. The same year the magistrates engaged

Alexander Stevinson to sing in the choir every festival day, at the

masses of Our Lady and the Holy Blood, and ordered their treasurer to

pay him twenty merks for the year. To cheer the hearts of the national

legislators, four musicians were paid for playing during the sitting of

Parliament in 1555; while that year the musicians who played before the

image of St. Giles on his day, received forty shillings. In the year

1556, Jacques and his sons were paid for playing on All-hallow-een, and

all the time of the fair twice in the day through the town.²

¹ Mackintosh’s _History of Civilisation in Scotland_, Volume

I., pages 131, 245, 417, 468, _et seq._

² _Burgh Records of Edinburgh_, Volume II., pages 176, 192,

197, 219, 220, 336, 360.

The Reformation, however, was not favourable to the musical art. An Act

of Parliament was passed in 1579 stating that the teaching of the youth

in the art of music and singing had begun to be neglected. It affirmed

that the instruction of the children in music and singing had almost

decayed, and must decay altogether, if a timely remedy was not provided.

The provosts and councils of the burghs throughout the kingdom, and

the patrons and provosts of colleges, were enjoined to repair and “to

set-a-going the sang-schools,” and to appoint qualified masters to

instruct the young in the science of music.¹

¹ _Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland_, Volume III.

Although psalms were always sung, and sometimes hymns, in the Reformed

Church, the organs and all instrumental music were entirely discarded

from the public worship. From this and other influences the musical

faculty of the people was not so much encouraged and cultivated as

it might have been: in fact, in some of its forms music was directly

discouraged, while dancing was frowned upon, and sometimes denounced

as a sin.¹

¹ _Second Book of Discipline_, chapter 7; Melville’s _Diary_,

page 350.

There are numerous early editions of the metrical Psalms which were

adopted by the Reformed Church of Scotland. Touching the singing of the

Psalms in the sixteenth century, only the Church part, or the melody

of the tune, was given on the tenor cleff C, and not, as now, on the

treble cleff G, thus leaving the harmony to be supplied at discretion,

according to the skill of the different congregations. The music of

the Reformed Church at that time was what is called “plain song.”¹ The

importance justly ascribed to singing in public worship, seems to have

suggested this simple mode.

¹ “_The Scottish Metrical Psaltery_ of A.D. 1635, reprinted

from the original work; the additional matter and various

readings found in the editions of 1565, etc., being appended;

edited by the Rev. Neil Livingston,” 1864. “There is a

peculiarity in the mode of harmonising the Church tunes

in the sixteenth and early part of the following century

which require notice. The melody, or plain song, as it is

sometimes called, is given to the tenor voice, and not, as

in the generality of modern music, to the treble. This mode

of arrangement was derived from the Roman Church, where the

canto fermo, or plain song, is to this day sung by men’s

voices. It was, no doubt, intended that the congregation

should sing the tune (which from its pitch and compass would

suit any kind of voice), and that the accompanying parts

should be sung by a choir of voices.”――_Proceedings of the

Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, Volume VII., page 446.

During the sixteenth century architecture made no remarkable progress

in Scotland. The most notable peculiarity of the buildings of this

period was the adoption of several features of the French flamboyant

style, which had become mixed with other characteristics of native

origin. This peculiarity was frequently exhibited in the castellated

architecture of the period. The flowing tracery was retained till the

Reformation, but from that date church architecture has declined. A

pretty full account of the baronial and ecclesiastical architecture is

presented in Billing’s work, in four volumes, published in 1845‒52; and

in other works devoted to the subject.

The Regent Morton greatly embellished his palace of Dalkeith with

tapestry and very fine pieces of art. Later in the century, Duncan

Campbell of ♦Glenorchy employed artists to decorate his mansion at

Taymouth, and others of the nobles then began to show a somewhat better

taste in connection with the style, the interior decoration, and the

convenient arrangement of their castles and houses; and in some castles

the ceilings and roofs were ornamented with a variety of paintings, in

small divisions, containing emblematic figures. About the beginning of

the seventeenth century, the first Marquis of Huntly rebuilt portions,

and repaired the whole of the Castle of Strathbogie; the later portions

of the castle were elaborately and finely ornamented, both externally

and internally, and some of the chimney-pieces were highly ornamented,

one of which is preserved――a beautiful piece of sculpture in freestone.

♦ “Glenurchy” replaced with “Glenorchy”

Wood work, especially carving in oak, had attained a high degree of

perfection; but foreign artists have usually received the credit of

executing the best specimens of this description of work. A very fine

specimen of wood carving in oak is preserved in the chapel of King’s

College, Aberdeen, which presents a grand double row of oak canopied

stalls, with miserere seats and high open screen. The workmanship

is clean and delicate, and the traceried panels are beautifully

diversified and relieved by bold and elaborate treatment. The wood

carving of the stalls in the Cathedral of Dunblane is also fine, and

a few other specimens which have been preserved. The ceiling of the

audience-chamber of Queen Mary in the palace of Holyrood was executed

about 1558, and it is a good example of oak carving. Many admirable

specimens of the wood-workers’ art, such as cabinets, chests, and other

articles of household furniture, are preserved in public and in private

collections.

Touching the higher forms of art, painting and sculpture were as yet,

almost a blank in Scotland. The remarkable revival of art in Italy

in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had little effect in this

northern corner of Europe. Indeed, painting may be said to be an

importation among us; for, with a few exceptions, Scotland had no

painters till a recent period. It is not, however, to be supposed that

the Scots made no attempts at the figurative arts; only their efforts

in this department were so crude, comparatively, as to place them

nearly beyond criticism. No doubt a large quantity of decorations,

and frescoes, associated with the churches in Roman Catholic times,

disappeared at the Reformation. In the sixteenth century painters were

mentioned both before and after the Reformation, but probably few of

them were artists. A considerable number of portraits were painted in

Scotland in the sixteenth century. A few seem to have been painted in

the reign of James V., and a greater number in the latter part of the

century: and amongst those of the later time, were portraits of Esme

Stewart, Duke of Lennox; the Earl of Mar, Regent of Scotland; and his

brother, Sir Alexander Erskine of Gogar, by unknown artists. Arnold

Bronkhorst, a Fleming, appears to have attended the court of James

VI., and was employed as a painter. He received sixty-four pounds

for painting three portraits, viz., “a portrait of His Majesty from

the belt upward, a portrait of His Majesty full length; and another

portrait of Master George Buchanan,” and moreover a gift of one hundred

merks for his coming to this country. It seems that Ruthven, the

unfortunate and last Earl of Gowrie, showed a taste for art. It was not

any inaptitude of the mental characteristics of the Scots in relation

to art, but their social and material condition, which in the sixteenth

century rendered art so backward amongst them. As yet the art of the

professional painter can scarcely be said to have existed.

The Reformation in Scotland was at first unfavourable to the culture

of the fine arts. Calvin admitted painting and sculpture to be gifts of

God, which should be used purely and lawfully; but he was disposed to

limit the subjects of the artist and the sculptor. He objected to all

images in churches and places of worship.¹ Thus the change in the creed

of the nation had a retarding influence on the development of art in

Scotland for several generations.

¹ Institutes, Book I., Chapter 12. The relation of fine art

to Christianity is well discussed by Mr. Symonds in his

“Renaissance in Italy.” He said――“Looking back upon this

phase of painting, we are able to perceive that already the

adoption of art to Christian dogma entailed concessions on

both sides.... There was consequently a double compromise,

involving a double sacrifice of something precious. The

faith suffered by having its mysteries brought into the

light of day, incarnate in form, and humanised. Art suffered

by being forced to render intellectual abstractions to the

eye through figured symbols.

“As technical skill increased, and as beauty, the proper end

of art, became more rightly understood, the painters found

that their craft was worthy of being made an end in itself,

and that the actualities of life observed around them had

claims upon their genius no less weighty than dogmatic

mysteries. The subjects they had striven to realise with

all simplicity, now became the vehicles for the display of

sensuous beauty, science, and mundane pageantry. The human

body received separate and independent study, as a thing

in itself incomparably beautiful, commanding more powerful

emotions by its magic than aught that sways the soul. At the

same time the external world with all its wealth of animal

and vegetable life, together with all the works of human

ingenuity in costly and superb buildings, was seen to be in

every detail worthy of most patient imitation.” Volume III.,

pages 21‒23.

“On the very threshold of the matter I am bound to affirm my

conviction that the spiritual purists of all ages――the Jews,

the iconoclasts of Byzantium, Savonarola, and our Puritan

ancestors――were justified in their mistrust of plastic art.

The spirit of Christianity and the spirit of figurative

art are opposed, not because art is immoral, but because it

cannot free itself from sensuous associations. It is always

bringing us back to the dear earth, from which the faith

would sever us. It is always reminding us of the body which

piety bids us neglect. Painters and sculptors glorify that

which saints and ascetics have mortified.” _Ibid._, page 24,

_et seq._

CHAPTER XXIII.

_The Ultimate Problem of the Reformation._

IT was indicated in the Introduction that we must look to the human

mind itself for the origin of society and of civilisation; and in like

manner, we must look to it as the prime source of religion. Although

the origin of religion cannot be reached by historic research, still,

from what has been ascertained by psychological analysis and the

results obtained through prehistoric and scientific investigation, it

appears that religion arose at a very early stage of man’s career.

Probably the very earliest impulse of religious feeling sprang from

the primitive instinct of self-preservation. The sentiment evolved from

this instinct and the emotions associated with it run through the lower

and the higher religions of the world, in more or less developed forms.

Religion in the earlier stage of society seems to have been limited

to the family. Every father of a family acted as a priest, just as he

acted as a labourer in the field, and a soldier in war. Thought must

have preceded language, and the notion of an object mentally exists

in the mind, before it can be intelligibly expressed. Thus the idea

of power has to be realised, before applying it even to a natural

phenomenon; and therefore men must first have conceived their gods,

before they gave them names. When the gods were once conceived,

descriptive names were usually applied to them, which seem gradually

to have undergone modifications of form and meaning.

The elements of the human mind are connected with the great external

system of natural phenomena, and the external senses of the human

organism are the media through which the processes of sensation and

perception operate. The prime and distinctive characteristic of mind

is consciousness, that is, to be conscious of its own phenomena,

both in the perception of external objects, and its own inner mental

operations――thoughts, feelings, and emotions. The nature of an act of

consciousness may be indicated thus:――I am conscious that I know, I

am conscious that I feel, I am conscious that I desire; so on the

one hand, consciousness is the recognition by the mind of its own

acts and affections, which is the simple self-affirmation that

certain mental modifications are known by me; while on the other

hand, consciousness may be viewed as the primary datum of intelligence

itself. Thus consciousness in its simplicity involves three points:

1, a recognising subject, an Ego or self; 2, a modification,

state, affection or operation; 3, a recognition by the Ego of the

modification, or operation. Every mental phenomenon may be called a

fact of consciousness. Although it is usual and useful to distinguish

consciousness from the special faculties of mind, for purposes of

analysis and exposition, yet these special faculties are fundamentally

modifications of consciousness itself. In short, philosophy is simply

a systematic evolution of the contents of consciousness.

But viewed historically, the human mind in the early stages of the race

was in some measure influenced by the great cosmic forces of the solar

system. Such changes as day and night, summer and winter, the varying

phases of the moon, and the mystery of the vast cosmic movements, had

an influence on the mind of the human race for a long period. This

influence, however, was only relative, and it slowly diminished with

the advance of definite knowledge and experience. The influences of

a terrestrial character were considered in the second section of the

Introduction. Such influences viewed as bearing on man, are usually

called the environment, and their effects on the history of the human

mind have sometimes been grossly exaggerated. Environment has had an

influence on the thoughts and feelings of men, and in some quarters

of the globe it has been more felt than in others; yet, after all,

the power of environment on man is only relative in its action. For

it is the pre-eminent characteristic and function of man to rise above

his environment by the energy of his mind, and the application of

his knowledge and experience; and, in so far as the higher mental

operations of his mind are concerned, he can discard the influence of

external environment.

In the early stages of the race, the most striking phenomena of nature,

as the sun, fire, the moon, the loud crack of thunder, the tempest, and

many other objects, which caused amazement or fear in the human breast,

were deified, and, for a time, worshipped. The conception of gods seems

to have been primarily individual, and the conceived standards of the

gods harmonised with the very limited range of ideas and knowledge then

attained. But the continuance of a religion was not dependent on the

character of its gods in early ages. The relation between men and their

gods was then very simple, and the moral element scarcely appeared. In

the Vedic hymns of India, such phrases were addressed to the gods, as:

“If you give me this, I shall give you that,” or, “As you have given me

this, I shall give you that.” Sometimes a strain of expostulation with

the gods occurs, in which the sacred writer tells them that, “if he was

as rich as they are, he would not allow his worshippers to go begging.”

When sacrificial offerings began, they consisted of some kinds of

food which men themselves relished, such as milk, butter, and berries,

cooked in various ways; and of sacrificial animals, such as sheep,

goats, oxen, and horses. The brief indications of cosmic notions in

the Veda are extremely crude, for instance, the following:――“The right

and true was born from kindled heat, then the night was born and the

surging sea. From the surging sea the annual sun was born, He who

orders day and night, the Lord of all that sees. The Creator made sun

and moon in turn, the sky, the earth, and the air, and then the heaven.”

Another source of early religion sprang out of kinship, and ♦is

usually called ancestor-worship. This worship often co-existed in

the same communities with other religions; yet this co-existence――and

even association with other forms of religion――does not prove that

ancestor-worship was the earliest, or the original religion; ♠as it

seems to have been preceded by nature-worship. But the worship of

ancestors, or the spirits of the departed, arose at a comparatively

early stage of human progress, and became widely prevalent. It

explicitly implied a belief in the future existence of the human

soul, which gave it an elevation over many of the other early forms

of religion.

♦ duplicate word “is” removed

♠ duplicate word “as” removed

Brahmanism never reached a high ethical standard, and socially it

issued in the institution of caste. The pantheistic conception which

finds God in all things, at a certain stage of its development when

applied to social life, leads to the conclusion that whatever exists,

simply because it exists, is therefore right. Hence, on this principle,

as class distinctions already existed in India, Brahmanism fixed

and consecrated them into the system of castes, which thenceforth

settled the status and the vocation of every individual in society.

The Brahmans were by origin and birth invested with sacred functions,

they were hereditary priests and lords over all the other castes, and

separated from them by an impassable barrier. They had the exclusive

right of reading and expounding the sacred books, and of performing

sacrificial rites; and any interference with their sacred functions

was prohibited under the severest penalties. This order of priesthood,

as determined by descent and birth alone, inevitably tended to the

substitution of mere rites and ceremonies for spiritual worship; and

ultimately issued in a fixed and dead level of debased ceremonialism

and superstition; while its system of caste resulted in a social

organisation of stereotyped inequalities, which completely stifled all

hope and chance of progress; and thus morally and socially perpetuated

injustice. As the Brahman by birth was nearer to God than other men,

whatever his character or moral worth might be, he stood in a special

relation to God such as no man of any other caste could aspire to,

however great his gifts and abilities; no other man could by any

possibility become his equal. On the other hand, there were amongst

the people those with whom the Brahman dare not associate, or help,

eat with, or visit in sickness, or even come into accidental contact

with, without undergoing a ceremonial pollution which could only be

atoned for by severe penalties. In short, the system of caste involved

the sanction of some of the worst and most cruel wrongs which could

be inflicted on human society. A reaction gradually arose in the

consciousness of the people against a religion, which so grossly

outraged the deepest instincts of man’s being.

About the sixth century B.C., the great religious teacher Buddha

appeared in India, and entered on his remarkable career. There is no

very authoritative account of his personal characteristics and life,

as the writings in which such information is given were not written

until long after his death. But it has been recorded that, Buddha, the

Enlightened, was the son of a Rajah of the Sakyas, an Aryan tribe of

central India, who in early life abandoned his position and prospects

as heir to his father’s throne, and entered on a wandering life as a

religious mendicant. Considering the influence which the corruption

of the period――an age of degrading superstition and of cruel social

inequality and fixed injustice――would be likely to exert on a mind of

marked originality and great metaphysical power, as well as of deep

moral and intense religious susceptibilities, the step which Buddha

took is not difficult to understand. He seems to have been gifted

with a reflective, introspective, and restless mind, for which the

great problems of the moral and spiritual life have a significance

transcending all external interests, and which is induced to seek the

solution of these problems by an inner and irresistible aspiration.

Whether the inquiry present itself as the search for truth, or as the

search for the meaning and end of human life, the explanation of its

inconsistencies and anomalies, or for salvation from sin, suffering,

and death――for such a mind there is no resting-place till the inner

perplexities of the soul are dispelled. They cannot passively accept

the existing conditions of social life, so long as these conflict with

pure morals, and the higher craving and aspiration of the human soul

exists. Buddha’s life was a search for truth, a struggle for spiritual

rest and the moral reform of the race.

Buddha first enrolled himself under the most famous Brahmanical

teachers of the time, and listened earnestly to their expositions

of the questions of metaphysics and ethics. But these studies under

the Brahmans failed to give him any mental peace. His moral and

religious sympathies were too keen, and his interest in humanity and

its suffering too intense to admit of his being satisfied with any

doctrines which the Brahmans could present. He then retired with five

faithful friends to a solitary spot in the jungles of Uruvela, and

there followed the ascetic discipline for the space of six years. At

last he became convinced that in seeking mental and spiritual peace

through the ascetic channel, he was on the wrong path. Accordingly

he relinquished asceticism, and betook himself simply to meditation

and prayer, wandering about from place to place, still longing and

aspiring after the secret of spiritual rest. It seems highly probable

that it was during these wanderings that Buddha made his profound

and exhaustive analysis of the human mind――an analysis perhaps more

accurate than has ever been made by any single man before or since. At

length, (we are told) after a prolonged stretch of meditation, while

resting under a tree, a new light seemed to break in upon his mind, his

difficulties vanished, and the secret of his own spiritual freedom, and

of the regeneration of the human race were within his grasp.

The new light or doctrine which Buddha found and proclaimed, was that

salvation can not be obtained by external sacrifices and penances,

but only through inner renunciation and self-devotion. This religion

announced that human happiness, salvation, and blessedness, which

is the goal of life, does not consist in external conditions, but

essentially in the internal character of the mind itself. Thenceforth

the life of Buddha was that of a preacher of the new doctrine. Filled

with compassion for the wretchedness and ignorance of his fellow-men,

and conscientiously believing that he possessed the only truth which

could save them, he proceeded enthusiastically on his mission of love.

The fame of the new teacher and his doctrine began to spread abroad.

His intense earnestness, his self-renunciation, associated with unusual

gentleness and great benignity, his stirring eloquence and wisdom, and

his personal dignity, gave striking force to the doctrines which he

taught, and everywhere moved men’s hearts and minds. Great crowds of

people flocked to hear his teaching, and thousands of all castes soon

became his adherents; the schools of the Brahmans began to be deserted,

and some of the notable Brahmanical teachers joined Buddha. The

bondage of caste was shaken by the power of the new doctrine of human

brotherhood which Buddha preached; and a great moral Reformation

bore witness to the influence of the doctrines which he taught. It

is reported that he lived to the age of eighty years. He was a highly

gifted man, of a very lofty nature, one of those rare and exceptional

personalities, who wield a strange power over all men coming within the

range of their influence, and become great moral and religious leaders

of the human race.

Morality formed the prime part of Buddha’s teaching, and this was

one of the chief causes of his remarkable success. The pre-existing

Brahmanism might be characterised as a political and social

institution――an organised system of castes――rather than as a religion

in the usual meaning of the term. Brahmanism had driven the religious

and moral instincts of the body of the people into a groove of an

elaborate system of prayers, penances, purifications, authoritative

precepts and prohibitions touching almost every action of daily life.

But it was the special and distinctive characteristic of Buddhism, that

the way in which it taught men to reach salvation, was simply through

the inner purification of the mind and heart, and moral goodness. It

rejected secret mysteries and ontological dogmas, which were attainable

only to speculative minds; and instead of these, demanded a knowledge

of morality which could be attained by clearing the soul from the

darkening influence of impulse and passion. Buddha said: “The highest

insight is not that which can be measured by an intellectual standard.

Merely to know is of little use. What is of supreme importance, is a

change of the heart and spirit.” As “anger, drunkenness, deception, and

envy constitute uncleanness, and not the eating of flesh,” so “neither

abstinence, nor going naked, nor shaving the head, nor a rough garment;

neither offerings to the priests nor sacrifices to the gods, will

cleanse a man, nor free him from the deluding influence of sensual

pleasure.” The importance assigned to practical morality in the

Buddhist religion, and its recognition of an appeal to the conscience

and the inner spiritual sentiment of man, formed the main element of

its strength, and placed it higher than any religion which had preceded

it. In short, its morals founded on love, charity and virtue, are so

humane, that it might perhaps be said to be the only religion that has

brought no ideal element of hostility into the world.

When Buddha’s disciples met in council to form their primitive church,

they did not propose to teach men a new metaphysics; their chief aim

was to improve the bad customs of the people, to reform their morals,

to purify their souls from all debasing passions, and to unite them in

a universal sense of brotherhood and love. From this sprang the intense

proselytising spirit of Buddhism, and the remarkable self-denial of

its early teachers, who established centres of their religion in Tibet,

in Samarcand, in Siam, in Ceylon, China, and other countries, to the

reformation and the civilisation of which it largely contributed. Its

conquests have been greater and more permanent than those of any other

religion; and even now, two thousand and four hundred years after

the birth of its founder, its adherents number upwards of two hundred

millions of the human race. It appears that Buddhism easily and rapidly

overcame those countries in which there was no organised priesthood or

orthodox religion. A somewhat similar result occurred when Christianity

arrived in the West, where it only met with a decaying and incoherent

Polytheism.

In so far as Buddha’s teaching was in its essence opposed to the

system of castes, Buddhism was a reaction against Brahmanism. From

another point of view, it was a marked original advance, and a higher

development of genuine religion. The vigour and spiritual power of

Buddhism as a reforming influence, was manifested in the effect which

it produced on the ancient religion itself; and in the reform which

it partly succeeded in effecting in the social life of the people. For

several centuries it was the dominant religion in India; although the

Brahmans after a time became intensely alarmed at its success, and, at

last, began to fight against it. When it is stated that the principles

of Buddhism admitted and recognised a priesthood recruited from

the lower castes, and from the pariahs or outcasts, the causes of

the opposition and the enmity of the Brahmans against it, is easily

understood. The Brahmans, as a hereditary priesthood, considered

themselves a class of very superior beings, on account of their pure

Aryan blood, and gloried in tracing their descent back to the early

Vedic times of the invasion and conquest of India. A hereditary caste

of priests, and a hereditary caste of legislators associated with

political institutions, always and everywhere, have fought hard to

maintain their status and special privileges. Buddhism dealt a severe

blow to the system of caste, and almost effected a complete social

revolution in India. But unhappily the usual and baneful consequence

followed. The reform of morals and religion had to give way to state

and political considerations. Hence on the revival of Brahmanism with

its political institution of castes, Buddhism was driven out of India,

the place of its birth, about the beginning of the sixth century, A.D.

The Brahman priesthood has continued, owing to the institution of

castes, which is its corner-stone.

It would be going beyond the scope and aim of this chapter to enter

into the treatment of the ontology, metaphysics, or the highest

conceptions of the Brahmans touching God and the universe; let it

suffice to say that the highest conception of the Brahmans and of

Hindu thought are fundamentally pantheistic. The highest form of this

conception may be indicated thus:――The visible universe is nothing, God

is all in all――the One Unity, the One Being; or in other words, God is

the invisible substance, the only real existence――the One eternal and

self-existent essence of the universe. Such is the highest conception

of Brahmanic thought. Although metaphysics form one of the three parts

of the collection of Buddhist writings, usually called the “Tripitaka,”

yet it would be quite unhistoric and unjust to judge of Buddhism from

its metaphysical side. As I said before, it was in psychology, ethics

and religion, that Buddha was original, and really great, for in these

branches he left all his Aryan predecessors far behind him. Touching

Nirvana, which has been made a special Buddhist problem, and has

elicited much discussion, the conception of it was expounded by the

Brahmans long before Buddha’s time. It cannot therefore be specially

assigned to Buddha as one of his original and primary doctrines.

Nirvana means extinction, and applied to man it may be taken to mean

his absorption into God at death.

Let me now direct attention briefly to the religion of the people of

Europe prior to the introduction of Christianity. The ancient religion

of Greece was elaborately polytheistic. There was no clear idea of

the one God in Greek religion, or any worthy conception of the Divine

attributes. The gods of the Greeks were mostly local, and bound to a

particular family, city, or district. As observed in the fifth section

of the Introduction, the Greeks had only a vague and feeble notion of

the immortality of the soul. Heroes might sometimes be exalted to the

skies, but for the common people there was no hope beyond the grave.

There was nothing in their religion to satisfy the inner craving of

the human soul, while its moral side was negative, if not positively

baneful. It was the Greek philosophers who gave morals and rules of

life to the people, not their religion. Thus Greek philosophy from

the first tended to undermine the popular religion, and any cult which

cannot embrace ethical ideas and truth, is doomed to decay.

The religion of the ancient Romans was also polytheistic, and

associated with a strong element of ancestor worship. Apparently the

Romans had no more difficulty in changing and modifying their gods,

than in making new domestic and State arrangements. They had a great

multitude of gods and also goddesses, as the formula used by the

officiating priest on great occasions shows:――“Be thou god or goddess,

man or woman; whoever thou art, or by whatever name it is right to call

thee.” Ancestor worship held an important place among the Romans, and

their funeral rites were elaborate. At Rome it was the custom, after

the dead body had been washed, anointed, and clothed, to keep it seven

days in the house: and on the eighth day it was carried out and burned;

then the remains were collected, sprinkled with wine and milk, placed

in an urn, and deposited in the family tomb. The relatives on returning

home stepped over a fire, and were sprinkled with water. Then the

departed was believed to be a kind of divine being, and eight days

after the funeral, sacrifices were celebrated in his honour; and the

offering consisted of sheep or swine, dedicated to Ceres. This was

followed by a feast, during which speeches and songs were given in

honour of the departed, libations were made for him and incense burned.

After all the requisite rites had been performed, the soul of the

departed was supposed to be at rest; as it had become one of the Manes.

On the 19th of February every year, a commemorative festival was held,

at which offerings were made to the Manes; and similar offerings had to

be made on several other days; and again on other occasions connected

with important events. The Manes were supposed to remain in the lower

world; but the departed were also called gods. Cicero said “that the

days kept sacred for the dead, would not, like the days kept sacred

for the gods, have been called solemn holydays, had not our ancestors

wished that the departed should be considered as gods.” From this it

was an easy step to the deification of the Emperors.

The College of Pontiffs was instituted at an early period, and

originally consisted of four persons of the patrician class, who

continued members for life, and had the right of electing to all

vacancies. In 300 B.C., four plebeians were added; and in 81 B.C. the

number was increased to fifteen. At first the Supreme Pontiff of the

College was elected by and from its own members, and subsequently by

the voice of the people. He was perpetual president of the College,

and invested with supreme power over the religion, worship, and the

priesthood of the State. In all matters relating to religious rites,

sacrifice and worship, sacred days and festivals, and the admission of

foreign gods with their cultus, the ceremonies at birth, marriage, and

funeral, and the conduct of the priesthood, their power was supreme.

All official documents touching religion were in their custody;

and of all the laws written and unwritten relating to it, they were

the interpreters and guardians; they had also the sole powers of

legislation in such matters. Dressed in purple-bordered robes and

conical woollen caps, they attended all the great public ceremonies,

and presided and read prayers at the opening of the Comitia, and other

important assemblies. The great Cæsar was made Supreme Pontiff as well

as Dictator; and all the Emperors to Theodosius assumed the same office.

Cæsar in his lifetime was honoured as a god, and after his death, he

was by the Senate formally enrolled amongst the deities. The Emperors

were also deified; the Romans talked of their majesty and eternity;

sacrifices were offered to them, and the sacred fire was carried before

them. The worship of the Emperors, in short, constituted the religion

of a corrupted and declining Empire.

The religion of the Teutonic nations――the Germans and the

Scandinavians――was a rude and vigorous polytheism. Their chief gods

were Odin and Thor, and their great goddess was Friga, one of Odin’s

wives, though they had many minor gods, and elves and dwarfs were also

numerous in their world. Odin, as the father of the gods, was called

Allfather, and also Valfather, because he takes as his sons the heroes

who fall in battle. He was represented as a very tall, one-eyed old

man, with a long beard and flowing hair, and a rather broad brimmed

hat, which was supposed to represent the vault of heaven, and a spear

in his hand to signify his great conquering power. All the other gods

were emanations from him, or renovations of him. He was the “father of

time, the lord of gods and men, the god of heaven, the king of the year,

and the god of war and giver of victory.” The other gods were generated

through Odin’s relations to external objects. Thor was the son of

Odin by his wife Jord, the uninhabited earth, and he was a great and

physically powerful personage. He was the god of thunder, and ruled

over clouds and rain. His home was in the region of cloudy gloom, and

his great shining palace contained five hundred and forty floors, from

which he sent forth lightnings. His grand chariot was drawn by two

goats, whose hoofs and teeth flashed forth fire. He was girded with a

wonderful belt which doubled his strength, and in his hand he carried

his terrible hammer, which he hurled at his foes, and which, after

dealing the fatal blow, returned to him. His great enemies were the

frost and mountain giants, with whom he was constantly at war. He was

represented as a powerful young man with a red beard, and when it

thundered in some places, the people used to say that “Thor is blowing

through his beard.” The worshippers of Odin and Thor were rude and

ruthless, yet they were free, brave, vigorous, and enterprising. Their

cult was extremely crude, and their stage of civilisation was still

comparatively low.

Looking at the peoples of Europe from the moral and social stand-point

at the period immediately preceding the general introduction of

Christianity amongst them, it appears that they were in a very bad

condition. In those parts of Europe which had been overrun and

conquered by the Romans, the spirit of the inhabitants was broken and

greatly enfeebled by complete subjection to a military power, which had

obtained the empire by force and upheld it by the same means; while the

Romans themselves had become corrupted by power, and their Empire was

disorganised, and exhausted at its centre. When the day of retribution

came, the Empire, raised by so many hands, by so much bloodshed,

cruelty and oppression, was attacked in the north and in the south, in

the west and in the east, and compelled to contract its lines till its

power and existence ceased.

It has been ascertained that humane sentiment, a respect for justice,

honesty, and an elevating and humanising morality, have been only very

slowly developed, even amongst the most advanced branches of mankind.

How is this? What were the causes and influences which retarded moral

developments? Such questions are not easily answered, and can be only

briefly touched on, in relation to the problem under consideration.

For a long period mankind was so much engaged in war that the higher

sentiments could not be developed, save in a very imperfect and limited

degree. At later periods, when conquering races appeared, the rude

and cruel natural propensities and passions were stimulated, fed, and

developed to an extent which often engendered in the conquering race

or nation an utter disregard for human life and human suffering. The

conquering race or nation became intoxicated by power, and elated by

the feelings and pride always associated with power, easily imagined

that they were a superior class of people, and had a right to subject

and enslave as many of the human race as they possibly could. Time

rolled on and human intellect developed, and mankind multiplied; but

the military passion and the inhuman propensities associated with it

still reigned in the world.

In the short intervals of peace, which occurred here and there, moral

feeling and humane sentiment had not time to develop, except on a

very narrow and limited scale. For ages, the moral development of the

race was retarded by the interest of power, empire, caste, and the

supposed requisites of political institutions. Religion too was usually

subordinated to State and political considerations, and this often

vitiated its moral influence. Although Buddhism had effected a social

revolution in India, the ruling power, for considerations connected

with the immoral and degrading system of caste, expelled this great

religion from India.

Viewed as a conception of an invisible Being, religion is distinct

from morality. Yet it is only when religion exercises an influence on

the moral character and life of man that it attains significance and

real importance. If the god or object of worship be not conceived as

benevolent, perfect, pure, and just, the religion to which it belongs

can be neither elevating nor purifying. It is quite true that the

attributes of God cannot be adequately conceived by finite minds; still,

if in the Divine attributes there is no moral characteristic, the great

difficulty of the relation between God and man becomes insurmountable.

Christianity removed this difficulty.

Christianity in the person and life of Jesus, its founder, manifested

the complete relation between God and man, the union of the Divine

and human. This Christian communion with God should embrace the whole

receptive life of man, filling him with the peace and love and joy of

God, and pervade his whole active life.

When Christianity was introduced into Europe, it had no difficulty in

overcoming the decaying and disjointed polytheisms which then existed.

Yet the Gospel of Jesus, as may be easily imagined, was too elevated

to be received in all its purity; and the result was that some of the

old notions were retained and transferred to it, for instance, ancestor

worship was continued under the form of the worship of the Saints.

In fact, at an early stage of the history of Christianity in the

West, Rome became its chief centre, and the Popes of Rome with their

immediate associates elaborated a great system of religious polity,

framed partly on the principles of the Roman empire; but partly also

on the principle of caste. Thus what is called Roman Catholicism is

essentially a political, and not a religious institution. It is well

known that the Popes claimed and exercised unlimited temporal power.

The royal power of Kings was subordinated to the head of the Church;

the authority of the Church assumed the right to dominate over civil

law and every institution. The Pope suspended Kings by excommunication,

and exercised despotic political power. Centuries passed, and the

organisations of the Roman hierarchy multiplied and developed to an

enormous extent in every country of Europe; while, as stated in the

first section of this volume, the Gospel of Jesus was obscured and

almost superseded by a vast number of legends, relics, traditions and

ceremonies, which for a considerable length of time seems to have been

pretty much in harmony with the ancient cultus of the people of Europe.

Throughout the centuries of comparative darkness, however, there was

a slow but continuous moral and intellectual progress, which, owing to

various agencies and influences, at last assumed the form of a reaction,

and issued in the Reformation.

It was already stated, that the diffusion of the Bible amongst the

people of Europe in the vernacular language was one of the deepest and

most powerful causes of the Reformation. Both Catholics and Protestants

believed in the supernatural origin of the Scriptures. The latter

especially maintained that the Bible contained a special revelation

from God to man, and therefore to the Reformers the Word of God was the

real and absolute authority in religion. The influence of this belief

was great, and in conjunction with other influences contributed much to

awaken the religious consciousness, and to intensify the feelings and

emotions. Moreover, the Gospel――the Christian revelation as contained

in the New Testament――presented in a simple and intelligible form,

the precepts, the doctrines, and the promises of immortality, which

satisfied the inmost craving of the soul, gave to faith and hope a

clearer vision, and in relation with the will and active efforts,

contributed much to sustain and cheer man in the daily struggle of life,

and in the most trying and perplexing difficulties. As life’s sojourn

approached its termination, and the years came when men are accustomed

to say there is no pleasure in them, they experienced the Saviour to be

as rivers of water in a dry place, and as the shadow of a great rock in

a weary land. At last, when the Christian’s feet began to stumble upon

the dark mountains of eternity, and one by one external objects began

to vanish away, the faith in immortality became as an anchor of hope to

the still conscious soul.

This faith in a future life has had a great and beneficial influence

in stimulating and sustaining human effort. A belief in the immortality

of the soul is not in the least inconsistent with the highest knowledge

and the most accurate results as yet reached by science. While the

universe still remains far above and beyond our finite power of

comprehension, a belief in the immortality of the soul appears to be

requisite, as a supreme act of faith in the reasonableness of God’s

work. It seems to me, that only on such a view can the reasonableness

of the universe maintain its ground.

Volition, feeling, emotion, and sentiment, have usually entered more

into the heart of religion than cognition or formal thought. Religion

in the highest reach of its ideal always involves something which

cannot be known as a fact, or demonstrated as a scientific truth; in

other words, there is a region of belief, and beyond it, a region of

faith and hope. As some men manifest this emotional and volitional side

of the mind more than others, or even the same man at different times

under changed circumstances and influences may manifest it in higher

or lower degrees; in like manner there have been periods in the history

of the race, and in the history of nations, when this psychological

phenomenon became unusually prominent, and culminated in social

revolutions. Now, the Reformation era was of this character, as it was

characterised by an awakening of the religious consciousness, which was

manifested by an intense and prolonged excitement of the emotional and

the volitional sides of the mind.

I. The evidence supplied by the history of Scotland touching the

progress of social organisation and religion in relation to the

Reformation, may be briefly summarised. In the first volume it was

shown that the earliest inhabitants of the country were a people of

short stature, living under the tribal organisation; and that their

religion probably contained an element of animal worship, which was

connected with a form of ancestor worship. Subsequently the Celts

arrived and became the dominant people. The religion of the Celts

was polytheistic, with a strong element of ancestor worship in it;

and a vivid belief in the future existence of the soul. Christianity

was introduced into Scotland under the monastic form; and the early

saints who converted the people were venerated down to the eve of

the Reformation. In the twelfth century the Church of Scotland was

brought into conformity with the prevailing form of Christendom――Roman

Catholicism. The national clergy, however, on many occasions gave

evidence that their patriotism had risen above their allegiance to

the Pope; and this was specially manifested in the great struggle for

national Independence, as the bishops and the clergy gave effective aid

to Wallace and Bruce, and to other national leaders.¹

¹ Volume I., pages 266, 271, 281, 288, _et seq._

It was shown that historic conditions had arisen after the arrival of

the Celts, and that the nation was gradually developed out of a number

of tribes. It was indicated how the social and moral characteristics

of the nation had been developed, and the influences which Christianity

had contributed to it were pointed out. At a certain stage of

civilisation the customary law of the country appeared to be passing

into crude written laws, which in turn were modified and improved by

the current flow of influences and events, and the increasing command

of appliances; and it was noted that the conception of public justice

was gradually formed, and at last distinguished from the primitive

feeling of revenge. The growing complexity of the internal organisation

of the nation, as shown in the rise and the incorporation of the towns,

and also in the incorporation of the various classes of craftsmen in

these small centres of industry, was elucidated. Ample details were

presented touching the religious ideas, feelings, and sentiments of the

people from the prehistoric ages to the end of the fifteenth century.

II. In this volume, the first section of the thirteenth chapter

presented a brief outline of the general causes of the Reformation,

and of the state of Roman Catholicism and its chief characteristics;

while in the second section of the same chapter, and in the fourteenth

chapter, and the first part of the twenty-first chapter, evidence

of the awakening of the moral and religious consciousness was given,

which was soon perceived by the Roman Catholic clergy, who exerted

themselves to the utmost to extinguish it. Many of the heretics proved

the sincerity of their conviction and the strength of their faith by

suffering at the stake. Thus the religious feeling and aspiration was

constant in its action and persistent in its manifestation, even in the

face of the most appalling suffering and of death itself. On the other

hand, it was pointed out that the political causes of the Reformation

could not have originated, or produced, or sustained it; because

when the selfish aims which stimulated these political causes were

gained, then such causes fluctuated, and soon ceased to operate; nay,

these political powers, as soon as their special ends were attained,

frequently turned round and fought against the genuine outcome of this

great religious and moral revolution of the sixteenth century.

III. In this chapter on psychological and historic ground, I have

made a brief, and consequently a very incomplete effort, to indicate

the probable origin of religion. It appears that religion at first

was limited to the family, and to small communities, so that great

orthodoxies, such as Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Roman Catholicism, are

comparatively late developments. Fully developed ♦Brahmanism was more

of a political institution than a religion, while Buddhism was a real

and vigorous religious reaction against the frigid and rigid orthodox

Brahmanism and its system of castes. After Buddhism had effected a

social and moral revolution in India, mainly through the purity of its

moral doctrines and the humane ideas which it inculcated, the ruling

power, for political considerations connected with the degrading

system of castes, deemed it necessary to expel Buddhism from India.

Thus Brahmanism was revived and continued in India, because it was a

political institution under the semblance of a religion, but utterly

without the spirit and the characteristics of a real religion. In

like manner, the Reformation was a reaction against the hierarchy and

orthodoxy of Roman Catholicism; and, in so far as Catholicism was a

political institution, it then suffered an irreparable shock.

♦ “Brahmanisms” replaced with “Brahmanism”

It was remarked on a preceding page that the moral development

of the race has been greatly retarded by the absorbing interest

always associated with political power, empire, caste, and the

supposed necessities of State institutions. Thus the highest ideal

of Christianity and its most elevating doctrines have often been

perverted, and used for the accomplishment of the most pernicious ends;

yet this will yield no ground for an argument against Christianity. On

the contrary, it only shows how corrupting the love of power and its

exercise by an individual, a class, a nation, or an empire, always is,

when not limited and restrained by a sense of justice and feelings of

humanity.

IV. In Scotland there were indications of widening sympathy and humane

feeling in the earnest appeals of the Reformed preachers on behalf of

the oppressed tenants and labourers of the land, and in the efforts

to mitigate the suffering of the poor and helpless. The reformed

clergy made the utmost efforts to procure the cessation of all manual

labour on Sunday, and to devote that day to the moral and religious

instruction of the people, and to the worship of God. The ministers

in the daily exercise of their functions, and in their Sessions, and

in other Church Courts, unceasingly struggled to reform the habits

and to improve the morals of the people; they endeavoured to check all

disorder and excess; to place the important institution of marriage

on a proper footing, and manifested an earnest intention to protect

the lives of infants. They fearlessly exposed the immorality of the

Court, and of those in authority, and fought manfully against vice and

crime in all its forms. When they were harassed by the Government and

deserted by the nobles, they still continued steadfastly to contend

for what they believed to be the truth. Finally, they made great and

successful efforts to introduce and to extend the means of education

to the humblest classes of the people in the Kingdom. Thus various

influences were brought to bear upon the people which ultimately

effected a marked improvement in their moral habits and character. The

tentative deduction enunciated at the close of the eighteenth chapter

may be re-stated:――“The prime sustaining causes of the Reformation

throughout were the moral sentiments and ideas, associated with the

religious aspiration and the belief in the Divine revelation of the

Bible.” This deduction seems to be well founded, inasmuch, that, so far

as has been ascertained, the social instincts of the race originated

society; and that slowly in the roll of ages, the primitive social

instincts developed into moral sentiments, humane feeling, and finally,

the moral sense or conscience――from which in association with cognition

and the special faculties of knowledge――all conceptions of Justice,

of Law, of Truth, and of God, have been gradually developed. The

social feelings were the original foundation of society, and the

ethnic conceptions and ideals evolved from them in association with

the cognitive faculties of the mind, ultimately gave forms to law and

justice, and to all organisations and institutions. Thus the social

feelings and the moral sentiments have always been an essential factor

in the progress and civilisation of the human race. In so far as

religion has tended to elevate the ethnic standard and ideal, it has

contributed to the culture of the race. While viewed in its divine

and spiritual characteristics, it has satisfied the inner craving and

the highest aspiration of the soul, and thus Christianity has been an

important factor in civilisation.

V. But the Reformation ultimately produced intellectual results not

less remarkable than the moral and religious ones; as it was then that

a real zeal for education was instilled into the Scottish mind, which

ever since has been developing. The general intelligence of the people

of Scotland, the scientific and literary eminence which many Scotsmen

have attained, is partly traceable to the revolutionary movement of the

sixteenth century.

Another important result of the Reformation was to weaken the claims

and the chains of authority, and thus to give a new impetus to those

habits of mind so necessary in all branches of scientific inquiry.

Men began with greater freedom and boldness to interrogate nature; the

human mind awoke from a long sleep, and with refreshed strength and

glowing energy entered on the course of modern scientific progress.

Improvements in the methods of investigation were made, and original

discoveries and inventions soon followed; conquest after conquest

succeeded each other in regular sequence, the varied and beneficial

results of which we see around us at the present day. After a

relatively advanced stage of scientific knowledge is reached,

intellectual ideas begin to influence religious beliefs and doctrines,

and in some directions moral conceptions. The diffusion of knowledge

tends to purify religion; the conception of the Supreme Being gradually

becomes more elevated; the horizon of the moral vision is widened; and

more effective methods are devised and applied for the moral culture of

the race.

INDEX.

Abercorn, i., 116;

castle of, 343, 390;

Earl of, iii., 19.

Abercromby, Dr. Patrick, iv., 143.

Aberdeen, i., 148, 151, 234, 238‒9, 264, 284, 288, 306, 325, 366,

370, 386‒7, 390;

ii., 116, 123, 192, 202, 212, 241, 247;

iii., 28, 90, 91, 219, 223, 228;

iv., 370, 375;

University of, i., 415, 467;

ii., 412, 413;

iii., 62, 392‒3;

iv., 60, 139, 317‒320.

Aberdeen, Earl of, iv., 482.

Aberdeenshire, i., 28, 49, 52, 68, 75, 90, 95, 140, 184, 271, 284,

287, 325;

ii., 154;

iii., 244;

iv., 370, 371.

Abernethy, i., 114, 165, 245.

Aboyne, i., 174;

Viscount of, iii., 93.

Ada, daughter of Earl David, i., 204, 256.

Adam,

Dr. Alexander, iv., 153;

William, Robert, James, 402.

Adamson, Archbishop of St. Andrews, ii., 182‒4, 189, 271, 380.

Aed, King, i., 136.

Agricola, General, i., 105, 109.

Agriculture, i., 100, 133, 150, 250‒254, 376‒381;

ii., 266, 289, 290;

iii., 303‒305;

iv., 332‒339.

Aidan, King of Dalriada, i., 117‒8.

Aikman, iv., ♦429.

♦ page number provided by transcriber

Airlie, Earl of, iii., 90;

castle of, 337.

Alan, Lord of Galloway, i., 211.

Albany,

Duke of, i., 319, 321‒2, 324‒6;

Murdoch, 326, 327, 328;

Alexander, 348‒351;

John, Regent, ii., 36‒37.

Ale, i., 251, 399, 400, 401, 402, 404;

ii., 291‒292;

iii., 217‒219;

iv., 395.

Alexander I., reign of, i., 200, 201.

Alexander II., reign of, i., 209‒212, 242.

Alexander, III.,

coronation of, i., 213;

reign of, 213‒217.

Alexander, William, iv., 209‒211.

Alison,

Rev. Archibald, iv., 86;

Sir Archibald, 155‒6;

Dr. William, 312.

Allan,

David, iv., 433;

Sir William, 443.

Alloa, iv., 433.

Alnwick castle, i., 143, 300.

Amberley, Viscount, ii., 43, 44.

Anderson,

Dr. Joseph, i., 52, 55, 57, 61, 65, 66, 168, 180;

William, ii., 68;

James, iv., 143, 144;

Robert, 173.

Angles, i., 113, 118, 119.

Angus,

Pictish King, i., 120;

Angus, Chief, 116, 202;

Angus Duff, 329;

Angus, Lord of the Isles, 218, 285, 292, 293;

Angus, Earl of, 342, 343, 350, 351;

ii., 36, 37, 38, 61, 63, 64, 65, 181, 195, 212.

Annandale, i., 26, 203, 223, 349.

Annandale, Earl of, iii., 179.

Anne, Queen, iii., 204, 205, 209, 211, 220, 222.

Anstruther, ii., 192.

Arbroath,

monastery of, i., 249, 296, 432, 433, 434;

town of, 238, 409;

iii., 93, 301;

iv., 375.

Arbuthnot,

Alexander, ii., 372, 373, 413;

Dr. John, iv., 228‒230.

Architecture, i., 157‒165, 247‒250, 428‒431;

ii., 396, 397;

iii., 396‒7;

iv., 401‒411.

Ardnamurchan, i., 24, 261, 356;

iii., 90.

Ardoch, i., 106.

Argyle,

Earl of, i., 356‒7, 364, 365;

ii., 63, 64, 89, 96, 97, 130, 134, 135, 145, 150, 181, 201,

202, 224, 226, 229;

iii., 90, 91, 92, 99, 104, 121, 123, 159, 167, 192;

Duke of, 206, 223, 241.

Argyleshire, i., 53, 116, ♦117, 121, 127, 210, 261, 369;

iii., 91; iv.

♦ “177” replaced with “117”

Arkinholm, battle of, i., 343.

Armada, ii., 191, 192.

Armstrong,

John, a marauder, ii., 224, 225;

Dr. John, iv., 169.

Arran, island of, i., 23, 95, 216, 286, 379, 380.

Arran,

Earl of, i., 346;

Regent, ii., 63, 65, 67, 70, 74, 78, 86, 87;

Stewart, Earl of Arran, 175, 177, 181, 184, 185, 187.

Arrowheads, i., 49, 50.

Art,

early, i., 52, 75‒79, 166‒174, 176‒180, 241‒243, 470, 471;

ii., 423‒425;

iii., 393‒396;

Progress of, in Scotland, iv., 428.

Aryan race, i., 38‒42;

language of, 43.

Arth, a friar, ii., 51‒53.

Asceticism, i., 131, 156, 157, 244;

ii., 43‒46, 261, 262.

Assembly, General,

ii., 115, 129, 149, 151, 160, 166, 167, 169, 188, 193, 211,

213;

iii., 28, 34, 36, 39, 69‒72, 77, 83, 84, 98, 104, 186;

iv., 465‒485.

Athole,

Earl of, i., 208, 209, 214, 217, 255, 263, 283, 285, 305, 306,

335, 337;

ii., 143, 148;

iii., 110;

Marquis of, 174;

Duke of, 207, 212.

Attwood, iv., 143, 144.

Auldearn, battle of, iii., 94.

Ayr,

Burgh of, i., 240, 356, 359, 386, 387;

ii., 69;

iii., 303;

iv., 369‒372;

Castle of, i., 215, 248, 274, 287.

Ayrshire, i., 29, 114, 286, 287, 379;

ii., 78;

iii., 134, 153;

iv., 341, 342.

Aytoun, William E., iv., 194.

Bacon, Lord, ii., 395;

iii., 434‒435.

Badenoch, i., 211, 276, 356;

iii., 181.

Badenoch, Lord of, i., 217, 256, 271, 274, 275, 277.

Baillie,

General, iii., 93, 94, 95;

Rev. Robert, 75, 76, 87, 88, 357, 358.

Bain, Dr. Alexander, ii., 420;

iv., 139, 140, 141, 155.

Balcanqhall, Walter, ii., 177, 184, 187, 206.

Balfour,

Sir James, ii., 75, 135, 144, 146;

John, of Burley, iii., 151, 153, 343;

Sir Andrew, 369.

Baliol, Bernard de, i., 203.

Baliol,

King John, i., 256, 258, 259, 260‒262, 263, 264, 366;

Edward, 304, 305, 306, 307.

Ballads,

early, i., 184‒5, 441‒450;

ii., 76, 77, 244, 245, 341‒345;

referring to the Civil War and persecution, iii., 237‒346;

Jacobite ballads, 346‒353.

Balmerino, Lord, iii., 18, 60.

Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, iii., 32.

Bane, Donald, King, i., 144.

Banff, i., 148, 248, 307, 385, 390, 391;

iii., 301;

iv., 373.

Bank of Scotland established, iii., 327‒329.

Bannatyne, George, ii., 371, 372.

Bannockburn, battle of, i., 291‒295.

Barbour, John, i., 451‒454.

Barclay,

Robert, iii., 258;

Dr., iv., 308.

Barlow, Bishop, ii., 54, 56.

Barmekyn hill, fort on, i., 90.

Barony, i., 223, 225.

Barton, Captain, i., 359, 363.

Beaton,

James, Archbishop, ii., 38, 58;

David, Cardinal, 58, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70‒72, 79.

Beaumont, Henry, i., 301, 305, 306.

Beck, Bishop of Durham, i., 266, 270.

Bede, i., 116, 122, 126.

Bellhaven, Lord, iii., 197, 211‒12.

Bell Rock, i., 23.

Bell,

Dr. John, iv., 306, 307;

Sir Charles, 307, 308.

Bellenden,

John, ii., 317, 318;

Sir John, 158;

Sir Lewis, 274.

Berkeley, Bishop, iii., 470, 471.

Berwick-North, i., 387, 389.

Berwick, i., 206, 233, 234, 236, 238, 239, 248, 259, 260, 263,

264, 268, 279, 285, 295, 305, 350, 382;

Treaty of, ii., 100, 272.

Bible, translations of, ii., 25‒27, 49, 170.

Bisset, Thomas, i., 271.

Black,

David, ii., 204‒206;

Dr. Joseph iv., 260‒263, 273, 276, 278.

Blackadder, John, iii., 139.

Blackie, John S., iv., 247‒249.

Blakey, Robert, iv., 160.

Blacklock, Dr. Thomas, iv., 171, 172.

Blair,

Robert, iv., 169, 170;

Dr. Hugh, 215.

Blair Athole, iii., 90.

Blair Castle, iii., 181.

Bœce, Hector, ii., 316.

Bondmen, i., 252, 380‒382.

Book of Common Order, ii., 113, 114;

Book of Discipline, the first, 105‒113;

the second, 171‒173.

Book of Canons, iii., 45, 46.

Boot and shoe manufactures, iv., 392, 393.

Borders,

state of, i., 309, 315‒318, 322, 324, 342;

ii., 223‒225;

order established on the Borders, iii., 20‒28.

Borthwick Castle, ii., 143.

Bothwell,

Earl of, i., 353, 426;

ii., 69, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138‒145;

Francis Stewart, Earl of, 198, 272, 273, 274‒276.

Bothwell Bridge, Battle of, iii., 153, 154.

Botriphnie, i., 378;

iv., 197.

Bower, Walter, i., 376, 463.

Boyd,

Robert, of Kilmarnock, i., 283;

Robert, Lord Boyd, 345, 346, 347;

Sir Thomas, created Earl of Arran, 146, 147.

Boyd, Zachary, iii., 358, 359.

Braemar, iii., 222.

Brahmanism, ii., 428, 429, 431, 433.

Braxfield, Lord, iv., 458.

Breadalbane, Earl of, iii., 190, 191.

Brechin, i., 138, 164, 183, 238, 249, 276, 409;

Castle of, 264, 276;

Battle of, 342.

Bridges, Early, i., 250.

Briggs, Henry, ii., 389, 390, 391.

Brigham, treaty of, i., 218.

Britons of Strathclyde, i., 113, 114, 117, 123‒125, 138.

Britons and Scots, early laws of, i., 151‒153.

Brochs, i., 157‒163.

Brodick Castle, i., 286.

Brodie,

Alexander, iii., 255;

William, iv., 454.

Bronze weapons and tools, i., 74‒79.

Brooches, i., 117‒119.

Brown,

Janet, ii., 231;

Dr. Thomas, iv., 87‒97;

John, 216;

Dr. John, 217;

Dr. William L., 218, 219.

Bruce,

Robert, of Annandale, i., 203, 218, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259,

260;

Robert, Earl of Carrick, 266, 267, 271, 276, 278, 281‒283.

Bruce,

Nigel, Thomas, Alexander, i., 285;

Edward, 287, 290, 291, 292;

Robert, ii., 201, 208, 216, 381, 382;

Michael, iv., 177.

Brude, King of the Picts, i., 127.

Bruno, Giordano, writings of, iii., 399‒401.

Brunston, Laird of, ii., 69.

Buchan, Earl of, i., 208, 209, 211, 213, 217, 262, 287, 288, 319,

325, 352, 353, 373.

Buchan, Peter, i., 446.

Buchanan,

George, ii., 58, 145;

writings of, 364‒369, 409;

Thomas, 260;

Dr. Robert, iv., 224.

Buddha, his life and work, ii., 429‒432.

Buddhism, ii., 233, 432.

Burghs,

the origin and organisation of, i., 33, 82, 83, 152, 232‒237;

Custom and trade of, 382‒391;

Social life and characteristics of the burghal communities,

397‒408, 414, 438, 439;

ii., 230‒243, 291‒294;

iii., 245‒248, 274‒278, 283‒289.

Burghs of regality, barony, and church, i., 226, 237, 238, 408,

409.

Burial dues exacted by the Church, ii., 39, 40.

Burnet,

Bishop, his works, iii., 364‒366;

John, iv., 441.

Burns, Robert, iv., 179‒182.

Burntisland, iii., 301.

Burton, Dr. John H., iv., 160.

Caerlaverock Castle, i., 247, 272.

Cairns, burial, chambered, i., 53‒64, 91, 92.

Caithness,

prehistoric structures in, i., 53‒58;

Norseman inroads, 136, 138, 139.

Caithness, Earls of, i., 207, 208;

ii., 227;

iii., 237, 238, 239.

Calderwood, David, iii., 38, 356, 357.

Caledonians, i., 105‒109, 110, 111, 114.

Caledonian Canal, iv., 354.

Calvin, ii., 119, 357‒360.

Cambuskenneth, i., 249, 367.

Cameron of Lochiel, i., 356;

iii., 181.

Cameron, Richard, iii., 155, 156.

Cameronians, iii., 155, 174, 185, 186, 187.

Campbell of Glenlyon, iii., 192.

Campbell,

Sir Colin, iii., 395;

Dr. John, iv., 144;

Dr. George, 85, 86;

Thomas, his writings, 185‒187;

Colin, architect, 402;

Thomas, sculptor, 454.

Candlish, Dr. R. T., iv., 221, 222.

Canterbury, Archbishop of, i., 200, 201, 272.

Cantyre, i., 21, 215, 261, 285, 348.

Canute, i., 139, 192.

Carberry Hill, ii., 144.

Cardross, i., 302, 303.

Cargill, Donald, iii., 155, 156, 157.

Carham, battle of, i., 138.

Carlisle, i., 210, 318;

iii., 227.

Carlyle,

Thomas, iv., 156‒159;

Dr. Alexander, 19, 43, 44.

Carmichael, Lord, iii., 186, 187.

Carmichael,

John, of ♦Meadowflat, iii., 27;

William, 151;

Gershom, iv., 18.

♦ “Meadowflatt” replaced with “Meadowflat”

♦Carmon, Colonel, iii., 183.

♦ Printed out of alphabetic order.

Carrick, Earl of, i., 217, 266, 271, 278, 281, 302, 305, 314,

316.

Carswell, John, ii., 108.

Carstairs, William, iii., 178, 179.

Carved woodwork, i., 430;

ii., 423.

Casket Letters, ii., 141, 142;

iv., 145.

Cassillis, Earl of, i., 365;

ii., 69, 150;

iii., 19, 56, 87, 99, 104.

Castellio, Sebastia, ii., 359.

Castles, i., 247, 248, 428, 430;

ii., 422, 423.

Catechisms, ii., 77, 78, 85, 109, 110;

iii., 89.

Caterthun, hill fort, i., 89, 90.

Cathen, the King’s adviser, i., 125.

Caves, i., 43, 83, 163.

Celestius, ii., 356.

Celibacy, i., 131, 156, 244, 245;

ii., 21, 22, 41‒43, 45, 46, 261, 262.

Celtic tribes, i., 44, 45, 90, 100, 101, 105, 110, 113‒116, 119.

Censorship of the press, ii., 277, 278.

Chalmer, James, ii., 90.

Chalmers,

George, iv., 153;

Dr. Thomas, 219‒221.

Chambered Cairns, i., 53‒65.

Chambers,

Thomas, i., 336, 337;

David, ii., 138;

Dr. Robert, iv., 163.

Charles I.,

reign of, iii., 42‒100;

policy of, 43‒50, 51‒54, 57, 58, 59, 63‒65, 66‒68, 71, 73‒75,

76, 77, 78‒82, 90, 95, 96, 97.

Charles II., reign of, iii., 103, 107, 110, 119‒163.

Charles Stewart, prince, iii., 226‒229.

Charters, i., 148, 201, 223‒225, 227, 232‒234, 373, 387, 422.

Chartularies, i., 247.

Chatelherault, Duke of, ii., 86, 130.

Chemical Science, iv., 260‒266, 273, 286, 296‒298, 397.

Chepman, Walter, ii., 300‒302.

Christian I., King of Denmark, i., 346.

Christianity,

introduced, i., 121‒129;

early form of, 130‒134;

influence of, 134, 135, 168, 181, 186, 232, 245, 248‒250, 288,

289, 466, 467;

ii., 437‒439, 443.

Church,

early, i., 130‒134, 155‒157, 200, 201;

re-organisation of, 212, 213, 243‒245;

property of, 227, 252‒254, 380, 431‒433;

state of, 332, 333, 431, 432;

ii., 40‒43, 51, 76‒78, 79, 102.

Church, the Reformed,

organisation of, ii., 104‒115;

conflict with the Government, 165‒173, 177‒189, 192‒194,

197‒220;

iii., 20‒42, 46‒82, 83‒87, 95‒101, 110, 120‒163, 164‒169;

internal struggles of, iv., 467, _et seq._

Circuit Courts, i., 222, 355, 356, 424;

Lords of Council, Judicial Committee, i., 370, 371;

Court of Session, ii., 216, 223;

iii., 112, 113, 124, 232‒235; iv.;

Church Courts, i., 227, 230, 371.

Cists, i., 55, 93, 95.

Civilisation,

primary causes of, i., 19‒20, 31‒33, 34, 35;

ii., 426, 427;

gradual progress of, i., 53, 70, 71, 98‒102, 119‒121, 135,

149‒151, 161, 164, 169, 170, 181‒188, 232‒241, 245‒55,

330‒332, 366‒371, 382‒397, 408, 418‒422, 465‒472;

ii., 109, 278‒291, 398, 419;

iii., 101, 102, 294‒335;

rapid development of, iii., 215;

iv., 142‒145, 165, 284, 324‒332; _et seq._, 341‒400.

Clackmannan, iv., 343.

Claim of Right,

of the Scotch Parliament, iii., 176, 177;

Claim of Right, of General Assembly of the Church, iv., 480,

_et seq._

Clan, i., 146;

iii., 225.

Clan Canan, i., 150.

Clan Morgan, i., 150.

Clanranald, chief of, i., 356;

ii., 226;

iii., 242, 243.

Cleland, William, iii., 153.

Clunymore, i., 378.

Coal,

early notice of, i., 238, 409;

mining, ii., 286;

iii., 292‒293;

iv., 341‒343.

Cochrane, Robert, i., 348‒350.

Cockburne, of Henderland, ii., 224.

Cockburn, Sir Richard, Sir John, iii., 18.

Coinage, i., 238, 394‒397;

ii., 279‒282;

iii., 320‒327;

paper currency, 327‒329.

Coldingham, i., 209, 246.

Colin, King, i., 137.

Colliers, iii., 291‒292;

iv., 342‒344.

Colville, John, i., 448.

Commerce, i., 239‒240, 391‒394;

ii., 286‒290;

iii., 112, 300‒303, 311;

iv., 352‒357, 359‒363, _et seq._

Compurgators, i., 228‒229.

Comyn, Clan, i., 213‒214.

Comyn,

John, i., 217, 256, 271, 275, 277;

slaughter of, 281.

Confessions of Faith, ii., 34‒35, 102, 204‒205;

iii., 89.

Constantine, Roman general, i., 112.

Constantine I., son of Kenneth M‘Alpin, i., 136.

Constantine II., 136‒137.

Constantine III., 138.

Conventicles, acts against, iii., 130, 131, 133, 138, 140, 146,

148, 149.

Convention of Royal Burgh, i., 234, 235.

Convention of Estates, iii., 173‒177.

Cope, Sir John, iii., 226, 227.

Corrichie, battle of, ii., 123, 124.

Cotterel, Colonel, iii., 110, 111.

Covenant,

National, iii., 59‒62;

Solemn League and Covenant, 83‒86.

Covenanters, iii., 68‒73, 74‒77, 78‒82, 86, 89‒102, 103‒105, 107.

♦Craftsmen, i., 335, 336, 404‒408;

ii., 240, 241, 242, 293, 294;

iii., 287‒289.

♦ “Craftesmen” replaced with “Craftsmen”

Craig,

John, ii., 110, 158, 167, 185;

Sir Thomas, 384;

Andrew, iii., 245.

Craigellachie, iv., 354.

Craigmiller Castle, i., 349.

Craigphadrig, vitrified fort, i., 91.

Crannogs, i., 42, 84‒87.

Cranstoun, Sir William, iii., 21, 24, 25, 27.

Crawar, Paul, i., 332.

Crawford, Earl of, i., 321, 340, 341, 342, 343, 364;

iii., 120, 179, 186.

Crawford, Sir William, i., 388, 389.

Crawford Moor, ii., 282;

iii., 293.

Crichton, Sir William, i., 338, 339, 340.

Crinan, Abbot of Dunkeld, i., 139, 140.

Cromwell, iii., 99, 108, 100, 110, 111, 112‒115.

Culblean, battle of, i., 306.

Cullen, burgh of, i., 385, 386.

Culloden, battle of, iii., 229, 230, 351, 352;

iv., 172, 173.

Cumberland, i., 105, 125, 142.

Cumberland, Duke of, iii., 228, 229.

Cummene, i., 181.

Cunningham, Allan, iv., 192, 193.

Cupar, i., 465;

iii., 157.

Curates, under Charles II., iii., 130, 132, 173.

Dacre, Lord, ii., 62.

Dalkeith, iii., 227;

castle of, i., 316, 342;

ii., 423.

Dalriada, i., 116, 117, 127.

Dalry, iii., 133.

Dalrymple, Sir John, iii., 191‒193, 233, 234.

Dalziel, General, iii., 134, 135, 342.

Dancing, i., 457, 468;

ii., 124, 125, 415;

iv., 416.

Darien Colony, iii., 196‒204.

Darnaway Castle, i., 360;

ii., 124.

Darnley, ii., 128, 129, 130‒136, 137, 138.

Dauney, William, iv., 416.

David I., reign of, i., 201‒204, 221, 223, 224, 225, 227, 228,

230, 232, 234, 235, 243, 244.

David II., reign of, i., 304, 306, 307‒313, 429.

David, Earl of Huntingdon, i., 204, 256.

Davidson,

John, ii., 198, 214, 373, 374;

Thomas, 302, 303;

John, Principal of the University of Glasgow, 352, 408;

Dr. Patrick, iv., 164.

Dean of Lismore’s Book, i., 442, 443.

Defence of the Country, armour, weapons, organisation of the

army, i., 409‒413.

Denmark, marriage treaty, i., 346.

Descartes, method and principles of his system, iii., 403‒418.

Dickson, David, iii., 61, 359.

Dingwall, i., 385, 386.

Divorce, ii., 265, 266.

Donald I., i., 136.

Donald II., i., 136.

Donald Bane, i., 144.

Donald Balloch, i., 329, 330.

Donald, Lord of the Isles, i., 324‒326.

Douglas,

Sir William, i., 266, 267;

Sir James, 283, 286, 287, 290, 292, 300, 303;

Sir Archibald, 305, 306;

Sir William, 307;

Sir John of Dalkeith, 342;

Sir James, 435;

Sir William of Drumlanrig, 389;

Sir James, ii., 225;

George of Parkhead, 284, 285;

Sir Archibald, iii., 18.

Douglas, Earl of, i., 316, 317, 318, 321, 323, 326, 338, 339,

340, 341, 342, 343, 349, 388, 389, 390.

Douglas,

Gavin, ii., 36, 310‒315;

Dr. James, iv., 320.

Drumclog, battle of, iii., 153.

Drummond,

Lord, i., 360;

ii., 228;

Earl of Perth, iii., 171, 172;

Lady Margaret, i., 360.

Drummond,

General, iii., 135;

James, 227;

William, 366, 367.

Dryburgh, Monastery, ii., 66.

Duff,

King, i., 137;

Angus Chief, 329;

♦Dumbarton, i., 114, 121;

castle of, 248, 278;

ii., 149, 154, 155;

burgh of, i., 386, 391;

iii., 302, 303;

iv., 361.

♦ Separate item, not part of Duff.

♦Dumfries,

Castle of, i., 248, 290;

burgh of, 282, 356, 384;

ii., 131, 186;

iii., 24, 27, 134, 212, 228, 342, 386;

iv., 371.

♦ Printed out of alphabetic order.

♦Dumplin, battle of, i., 305.

♦ Printed out of alphabetic order.

Dunaverty Castle, i., 285, 355.

Dunbar,

Castle, i., 263, 383;

ii., 133, 140, 141, 143, 149;

town of, i., 383, 503;

iii., 227, 300, 387;

battle of, 109.

Dunbar, Earl of, i., 212, 214, 217, 218;

iii., 18, 25, 26, 30.

Dunbar, William, ii., 303‒310.

Dunblane,

cathedral, i., 249;

ii., 423;

city of, i., 238, 408.

Duncan I., i., 139, 140.

Duncan II., i., 143, 144.

Duncan, Dr. Andrew, iv., 302‒304.

Dundee, i., 83, 119, 248, 265, 267, 288, 387, 391, 437;

ii., 69, 93, 197, 202, 233, 235, 237, 240, 243, 400;

iii., 93, 223, 301, 303;

iv., 243, 331, 357, 358, 375, 376.

Dundee, Viscount, iii., 174, 175, 181, 182, 183.

Dunfermline,

Abbey of, i., 141, 144, 156, 239, 248, 252, 303, 385;

burgh of, 238, 258, 408;

ii., 400;

iv., 375.

Dunfermline, Earl of, iii., 18, 30.

Dunkeld, i., 119;

church of, 120, 134;

abbot of, 138, 139, 143;

bishopric of, 210, 218, 222, 225.

Dunlop,

John, iv., 155;

Alexander, 480.

Dunnichen, i., 116.

Dunnotter, i., 136.

Duns Law, iii., 74.

Dunsinnane, i., 91, 92, 140.

Dupin, Nicolas, iii., 313, 318, 333.

Durham, i., 203;

battle of, 308;

iii., 97.

Durham, James, iii., 359.

♦Durrisdeer, i., 91.

♦ Printed out of alphabetic order.

Durward, Alan, i., 214, 216.

Dury, John, ii., 167, 178, 179, 182.

Eadmer, i., 200, 201.

Earth-houses, i., 65‒70.

Earthenware, iii., 317;

iv., 365, 366.

Edgar, King, i., 143, 144, 148.

Edinburgh,

annexed, i., 137, 144, 151, 233, 247, 258, 276, 301, 306, 312,

317, 319, 338, 352, 354, 370, 388, 389;

ii., 35, 54, 58, 65, 66, 78, 89, 90, 91, 93, 97, 99, 100,

115, 117, 119, 124, 128, 132, 133, 135, 140, 143, 148,

151, 154, 163, 167, 179, 183, 203, 206, 213, 219, 237;

iii., 37, 41, 42‒44, 48, 49, 54, 55, 56, 67, 81, 99, 110,

120, 129, 134, 135, 147, 153, 163, 168, 171‒173, 174‒176,

180, 182, 186, 203, 206, 213, 219, 227, 236, 241, 274, 285;

iv., 44, 70, 75, 87, 97, 144, 148, 165, 174, 178, 194, 211,

222, 234, 330, 391, 405‒6;

Castle of, i., 248, 264, 274, 307, 322, 339, 349, 350, 358,

429;

ii., 101, 134, 142, 144, 149, 152, 155;

iii., 73, 159, 174, 175, 227;

University of, ii., 414‒419;

iii., 392, 393;

iv., 18, 69, 70, 74, 75, 87, 97, 102, 103, 136, 148, 156,

157, 167, 257, 263, 274, 291‒315.

Edinburgh, treaty of, ii., 100.

Edmund, i., 143.

Education, i., 184, 245, 466;

first Educational Act, 466, 467, 468;

ii., 109, 110, 397‒422;

iii., 375‒393;

iv., 324‒330.

Edward I., policy of, i., 218, 219, 255‒260, 261, 262, 263‒265,

266, 269‒271, 272, 273‒279, 283, 287.

Edward II., i., 287, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 298, 299, 300.

Edward III.,

Invasions of Scotland, i., 305, 306, 307;

policy of, 309, 310, 311, 312.

Edward IV., i., 348, 349, 351.

Edward VI., ii., 75, 86, 87.

Egfrid, defeat of, i., 116.

Eglinton, Earl of, ii., 140, 229;

iii., 56, 75, 99.

Elgin, i., 139, 264, 385, 390;

ii., 251;

iii., 92, 94;

iv., 370;

Elizabeth, wife of Robert I., i., 303.

Elizabeth, Queen, ii., 92, 93, 99, 100, 145, 150, 220;

iv., 147.

Elliot, Robert, iii., 27.

Ellon, iv., 370.

Elphinstone, Bishop, i., 467;

ii., 300, 301.

Elphinstone,

Lord, iii., 19;

master of, 292.

England, policy of toward Scotland, i., 206, 214, 218, 257‒260,

261, 263‒265, 271, 273, 278, 280, 283, 287, 299, 300, 301,

305, 306, 309, 310, 322, 349, 361, 362;

ii., 54‒57, 63‒67, 76, 99‒101, 155;

iii., 179, 183, 184, 190‒193, 198, 201‒204, 206, 217‒221.

English language, i., 441, 443, 464.