Transcriber's Notes
Certain typographical features of the original cannot be reproduced
Illustrations cannot be reproduced in this version of the text. They
are indicated in the text, in their approximate positions, as:
[Illustration: <caption>]. Autograph letters, signatures, and similar
documents which were presented as images in the original, but have been
transcribed here, in lieu of captions.
Italic fonts are rendered using delimiting underscores, as _italic_.
The 'oe' ligature is spelled with separate characters. Words in all
small capital letters, including those which employ mixed case, are
shifted to uppercase.
Footnotes, which appeared at the bottom of the page, are positioned
at logical breaks following their references. They have been assigned
unique letters, beginning with 'A', and appear as:
[A] Text of footnote.
The lists of Illustrations and Contents have several anomalous, though
accurate, entries. For example, the section on the re-incorporation of
the Red Cross, beginning on page 94, appears in the Contents between
sections on p. 184 and p. 197, for no apparent reason. The reference has
been placed in its proper position in the Contents. Please note that
the entries in the Contents do not always refer to formal sections of
the text. They sometimes direct one to a change of topic otherwise
unmarked in the text itself.
Several of the photographs associated with the Spanish American War,
which were included at the end of the volume on pp. 675 and 676, are
listed in the Illustrations where their subjects would appear.
The opening of the section on General History is labeled "Chapter I",
the only use of that designation in the volume.
[Frontispiece: CLARA BARTON.
_From a portrait taken about 1875._]
THE RED CROSS
IN PEACE AND WAR
[Illustration]
BY CLARA BARTON
AMERICAN HISTORICAL PRESS
1906
Copyright 1898, by CLARA BARTON
From the President of the United States
In his Message to Congress December 6, 1898.
It is a pleasure for me to mention in terms of cordial appreciation
the timely and useful work of the American National Red Cross, both
in relief measures preparatory to the campaigns, in sanitary assistance
at several of the camps of assemblage, and, later, under the able and
experienced leadership of the president of the society, Miss Clara
Barton, on the fields of battle and in the hospitals at the front in Cuba.
Working in conjunction with the governmental authorities and under
their sanction and approval, and with the enthusiastic co-operation of
many patriotic women and societies in the various States, the Red
Cross has fully maintained its already high reputation for intense
earnestness and ability to exercise the noble purposes of its international
organization, thus justifying the confidence and support which
it has received at the hands of the American people. To the members
and officers and all who aided them in their philanthropic work,
the sincere and lasting gratitude of the soldiers and the public is due
and freely accorded.
In tracing these events we are constantly reminded of our obligations
to the Divine Master for His watchful care over us and His safe
guidance, for which the nation makes reverent acknowledgment and
offers humble prayers for the continuance of His favors.
[Illustration: William McKinley]
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE.
Clara Barton, from a portrait taken about 1875 Frontispiece.
The International Committee of the Red Cross,
Geneva, Switzerland opp. 16
Clara Barton, taken about 1885 opp. 17
The First Red Cross Warehouse, Washington, D.C. 21
National Red Cross Headquarters in Washington, from 1892 to 1897 22
Some of the First Members of the American National Red Cross 43
A Group of American National Red Cross Members 44
A Group of American National Red Cross Members 55
Suburban Headquarters, American National Red Cross 56
Some Red Cross Decorations Presented to Clara Barton 83
Chronological Historic Tree 84
Clara Barton, taken about 1884 113
"Josh V. Throop" 114
Camp Perry 143
Red Cross Headquarters 144
Johnstown, Pa., before the Flood of 1889 155
Red Cross Hotel, Locust Street, Johnstown, Pa. 156
Red Cross Furniture Room, Johnstown, Pa. 163
Typical Scene after the Flood at Johnstown, Pa., May 30, 1889 164
In Memoriam 174
Typhus Fever Patients in the Russian Famine, 1891-92 181
Count Lyoff Tolstoi 182
Women Cutting Potatoes for Planting--Sea Island Relief,
S.C., February, 1894 199
A Windfall for St. Helena 200
Testimonial from Russian Workmen for American Help and Sympathy
in the Famine of 1892 217
A Russian Peasant Village 218
Receiving Room for Clothing, S.C. Island Relief, 1893-94 235
South Carolina Sea Island Relief 236
The Island District from Savannah to Beaufort 251
Sick with the Famine Fever 253
Hunger-Stricken 254
Miss Barton's Room 271
In the Old Schloss of Baden 272
Red Cross Headquarters, Constantinople 281
View from Red Cross Headquarters, Constantinople 282
Turkish Cemetery 282
Chief of the Dersin Kourds and His Three Sub-Chiefs 291
Chief of the Dersin Kourds 292
Decoration of the Royal Order of Melusine 300
Tower of Christ, Constantinople 301
W.W. Peet, Esq. 302
Rev. Henry O. Dwight, D.D. 302
Rev. Joseph K. Greene, D.D. 302
Rev. George Washburn, D.D. 302
Signature of the Sultan 303
Turkish Dispatches 306, 307
Map of the Country traversed by the Red Cross Expeditions carrying
American Relief to the Victims of the Armenian Massacres in
1896 309
Interior of Gregorian Church at Oorfa 308
American College Buildings, Aintab 311
American and Armenian Quarters, Harpoot 311
Marash 312
Red Cross Caravan 312
A Bit of Palou 318
Rev. C.F. Gates, D.D., Harpoot 321
Miss Caroline E. Bush, Harpoot 321
First Expedition Embarking on Ferryboat, Euphrates River 321
A Turkish Teskere or Passport 322
Diarbeker, Vilayet of Diarbeker 331
Ruins of an Old Gateway at Farkin 332
Some Methods of Work 340
Salemlik 341
Pera Bridge, Constantinople 341
Turkish Coffee House 342
Hamalls--Showing Manner of Carrying Heavy Burdens 342
Red Cross Expeditions Passing through the Valley of Catch Beard 348
A Turkish Procession in Arabkir 349
Judge Alexander W. Terrell, United States Minister to
Constantinople during the Armenian Troubles 351
Armenian and Turkish Decorations 352
Group of Armenian Teachers and Pupils, Harpoot American Missionary
College 357
Clara Barton, taken in 1897 358
A Part of the American National Red Cross Fleet in the
Spanish-American War of 1898 371
Officers of the Executive Committee American National Red Cross 372
Admiral William T. Sampson 381
Governor-General's Palace, Havana 382
Entrance to Harbor of Havana--Punta Park 391
John D. Long, Secretary of Navy 392
On San Juan Hill, Santiago 407
Spanish Guerillas 409
A Mounted Advance, Reconnoitring 410
United States Steamship "Oregon" 413
"Almirante Oquendo," after the Engagement 419
United States Warships before the Entrance to Santiago Harbor 421
"Marie Teresa" after the Engagement 424
Chickamauga Camp 427
Camp Thomas, Headquarters American National Red Cross 428
Fortifications of Manila 440
Red Cross Dining Room for Convalescents, Fort McPherson, Ga. 445
Dining Tent Attached to Red Cross Kitchen, at Camp Hobson, Ga. 446
Panorama of Manila 451
In the Trenches before Santiago 453
A Soldier Funeral 463
McCalla Camp--Early Morning Attack 454
A Typical Cuban Camp 464
A Cuban "Block House," Garrisoned 481
A View of Eastern Cuba 482
A Part of the Red Cross Corps 499
"I Am with the Wounded."--Clara Barton's Cable Message from
Havana 500
Wreck of the Battleship "Maine," Havana Harbor 517
The Prado--Principal Street in Havana 518
Havana Harbor 535
Captain C.D. Sigsbee 536
Street in Cavite 539
Citizens of Jaruco Presenting a Memorial for the Victims of
the "Maine" 553
Little Convalescents in Hospital 554
Location of Shore Batteries, Santiago 556
July Fifth in Rifle Pits 558
Scenes on the "State of Texas" and in Siboney 570
The Physicians and Nurses of the Orphanage and Clinic in Havana 571
A Cuban Thatch Hut 581
A Battery of Cuban Artillery 582
A Group of Red Cross Sisters 591
Diploma of Gratitude for Miss Clara Barton from the Red Cross
of Spain 592
View of Santiago de Cuba from the Harbor 675
View of Morro Castle, Santiago de Cuba 676
The Burning of Siboney 597
Annie E. Wheeler 609
The Youngest Red Cross Nurse 610
Scenes in Siboney 627
Scenes in Santiago 628
Refugees from Santiago 636
Santiago Refugees at El Caney 639
Establishing Headquarters Ashore 640
Starving in the Plaza 647
Los Fosos 648
Bringing in the Wounded 657
Clearing for a Cross Road 658
CONTENTS.
PAGE
TO THE PEOPLE 13
INTRODUCTION 17
THE RED CROSS. General History 23
Organization and Methods of Work 27
Occupation in Times of Peace 29
Services in Time of War 30
Neutral Countries in Time of Peace 34
International Correspondence. M. Moynier's First Letter 36
American Association of the Red Cross. Constitution and
Original Incorporation 46-47
First International Conference 48
The Treaty of the Red Cross 57
Governments Adopting the Treaty 58
Address by Clara Barton 60
Action of the United States Government 72
The "Additional Articles" Concerning the Navy 74
International Bulletin, Extract from 77
Accession of the United States to the Treaty and
"Additional Articles" 80
Proclamation of President Arthur 85
International Bulletin. Concerning Adhesion of the
United States 87
International Committee. Letter Acknowledging Notice of
Adhesion by United States 90
International Committee. Fiftieth Circular Announcing
Adoption of Treaty by United States 91
The Reincorporation of the American National Red Cross 94
Significance of "Red Cross" in its Relation to Philanthropy.
Address by Clara Barton 97
MICHIGAN FOREST FIRES 107
MISSISSIPPI AND OHIO RIVER FLOODS 111
MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA CYCLONE 112
OHIO RIVER FLOOD 115
Down the Mississippi 121
"The Little Six" 130
TEXAS FAMINE 136
THE MOUNT VERNON CYCLONE 145
YELLOW FEVER EPIDEMIC IN FLORIDA 147
The MacClenny Nurses 150
THE JOHNSTOWN FLOOD 157
Arrival at Johnstown 158
Appointment of Committees 160
The Work of Relief 161
Farewell to Miss Barton 169
"The Dread Conemaugh" 170
In Memoriam 174
THE RUSSIAN FAMINE 175
Count Tolstoi on the Character of the Peasants 176
Beginning of American Relief 177
Appreciation of American Sympathy 180
Dr. Hubbell's Report 184
SEA ISLANDS HURRICANE 197
Coast of South Carolina 197
Admiral Beardslee's Description of the Hurricane 203
Relief Work South of Broad River 211
Report by John McDonald 211
Hiltonhead District Clothing Department. Report by Mrs. MacDonald 220
Medical Department. Report by Dr. E.W. Egan 222-228
Relief Methods in Field. Dr. Hubbell's Report 232
On the Charleston Group. Report by H.L. Bailey 244
The Clothing Department. Mrs. Gardner's Report 252
The Sewing Circles 257
A Christmas Carol 261
Mrs. Reed's Report 263
Leaving the Field 268
Letter to Charleston _News and Courier_ 268
Circular to Clergymen and Committees 273
ARMENIA 275
Distance and Difficulties of Travel and Transportation 305
Funds 307
Committees 310
To the Press of the United States 313
To Contributors 313
To the Government at Washington 314
To Our Legation in Constantinople 314
To the Ambassadors of other Nations 315
Commendatory 315
"Marmora." Poem by Clara Barton 319
Report of Financial Secretary 324
General Field Agent's Report 334
Medical Report 350
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 360
Home Camps and American Waters 361
The Central Cuban Relief Committee, Appointment of 362
The Red Cross Requested to Administer Relief in Cuba 365
Taking Command of the "State of Texas" 368
Relief Work at Tampa and Key West 368
Feeding Spanish Prisoners of War 369
Correspondence with Admiral Sampson 370
Appointment of the Executive Committee of the Red Cross and the
Relief Committee of New York 375
Communication from Secretary of State Acknowledging Official
Status of the American National Red Cross 377
The Modus Vivendi with Spain 384-394
Services of the Red Cross accepted by the Government 395
Appointment of Red Cross Field Agents for the Camps 395
Camp Alger, Washington, D.C. 397
Camp Thomas, Chickamauga Park 408
Jacksonville and Miami, Florida 414
Fort McPherson, Atlanta, Ga. 420
Camp Hobson, Lithia, Ga. 422
St. Paul Red Cross 425
Montauk Point, Long Island 426
Pacific Coast 431
The Red Cross of California 433
The Red Cross of Oregon 441
The Red Cross, Seattle, Wash. 452
PORTO RICO 460
Report of Horace F. Barnes 460
Shipments by United States Transports 470
Relief Committee of New York, Report by 473
Women's Auxiliaries of the Red Cross 491
"Women who went to the Field." Poem by Clara Barton 509
CUBA AND THE CUBAN CAMPAIGN 514
Havana 520
Los Fosos 521
The Orphanage 522
Destruction of the "Maine" 524
Jaruco 527
Matanzas 531
Senator Redfield Proctor's Speech in United States Senate 534
Artemisa 540
Sagua La Grande 542
Cienfuegos 544
Back to Havana 545
Leaving Havana 549
On Board the "State of Texas" 550
Tampa 552
Arrival at Santiago 555
Siboney 557
Hospital Work at Siboney 560
Relief Work at the Front 566
Entering the Harbor of Santiago 576
Unloading the "State of Texas" 577
Feeding the Refugees 577
Relief Work in Santiago 578
Departure of the "State of Texas" 580
The Transport "Clinton" at the Disposition of the Red Cross 583
Leaving Santiago for Havana 584
Departure from Havana 585
REPORTS.
Report of Dr. A. Monae Lesser 587
Report of Financial Secretary, Mr. C.H.H. Cottrell 600
The Schooner "Mary E. Morse." Distribution of Ice 624
Letter of Santiago Committee 637
Medical Report by E.W. Egan, M.D. 642
Clothing Department. Report by Miss Annie M. Fowler 656
The Red Cross of Other Nations 662
To the Congress of the United States. Address by Clara Barton 666
To the Committees on The Red Cross 674
To the Auxiliaries of the Red Cross and the Nurses Who Went
to the War 677
Unwritten Thanks 680
A Word of Explanation 680
Conclusion 681
Notes 683
TO THE PEOPLE.
In recounting the experience of the Red Cross in the Cuban campaign, I
have endeavored to tell the story of the events as they succeeded each
other, recording simply the facts connected with the work of the War
Relief, and refraining from criticism of men and methods. There were
unpleasant incidents to relate, and unfortunate conditions to describe,
but I have neither said nor written that any particular person, or
persons, were to blame. It is not my duty, nor is it within my power, to
analyze and criticise all the intricate workings of a government and its
armies in the field.
The conditions that existed during the campaign and the suffering that
had to be endured, were by no means peculiar to the Spanish-American
War. Suffering, sickness, confusion, and death--these are inseparable
from every armed conflict. They have always existed under such
circumstances; they are a part of war itself, against which no human
foresight can wholly provide.
Every civilized government is financially able to provide for its
armies, but the great and seemingly insuperable difficulty is, to always
have what is wanted at the place where it is most needed. It is a part
of the strategy of war, that an enemy seeks battle at a time and place
when his opponent is least prepared for it. Occasionally, too, an
attacking commander is deceived. Where he expects only slight
resistance, he encounters an overwhelming force and a battle of
unforeseen proportions, with unexpected casualties, occurs. This is the
universal testimony of nations. If it were not so, all needs could be
provided for and every move planned at the outset.
It was for these reasons that a body of gentlemen, now known as the
International Committee of Geneva, aided by National Associations in
each country, planned, urged and finally succeeded in securing the
adoption of the Treaty of the Red Cross. For these reasons the Treaty of
Geneva and the National Committees of the Red Cross exist to-day. It is
through the National Committees of the Red Cross in each treaty nation,
that the people seek to assist the government in times of great
emergency, in war or other calamity. It is only by favoring the
organization of this Auxiliary Relief in times of peace, encouraging its
development to the highest state of efficiency, preparing to utilize not
only all the ordinary resources, but also the generous support of the
people, through the Red Cross, that a government may hope to avoid much
of the needless suffering, sickness and death in war.
In carrying out its mission, to assist in the prevention and relief of
suffering, the Red Cross has neither the desire nor the intention to be
censorious, and is actuated neither by political opinion nor motives of
interference. It is but the outward and practical expression of that
universal sympathy that goes out from the millions of homes and
firesides, from the great heart of the nation, to humanity in distress,
to the soldier on the march, in the bivouac and on the field of battle.
Through all the past years, during which the Red Cross has sought
recognition, protection and co-operation, it was but for one purpose--to
be ready. Our only regret is that, during the late war, we were not
able to render greater service. Even the little that was accomplished,
could not have been done without the ever ready assistance of the
President and the Secretary of War.
Before us now lie the problems of the future, and the question is:
How shall we meet them? As friends of humanity, while there is still
a possibility of war or calamity, it behooves us to prepare. In America
perhaps, we are apt to undervalue careful preparation and depend too
much upon our impulses. Certainly in no other country have the
people so often risen from a state of unreadiness and accomplished such
wonderful results--at such a great sacrifice. The first American war
since the adoption of the Treaty of Geneva, has brought the Red Cross
home to the people; they have come to understand its meaning and
desire to become a permanent part of it. Now that the appropriate
time has come, it is the purpose of the Red Cross, relying upon the
active sympathy of the government and the generous support of the
people, to continue its work of preparation, until in its councils and in
its ranks the whole country shall be represented, standing together,
ready for any great emergency, inspired by the love of humanity and
the world-wide motto of the Red Cross:
"In time of peace and prosperity, prepare for war and calamity."
[Illustration: Clara Barton.]
[Illustration: THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS, GENEVA,
SWITZERLAND
_Dr. Appia died, succeeded by M.E. Jouard Neville. Recent
additions to the Committee are, N. Adolphe Moynier and M.
Paul des Goulles, Secretary to the President._]
[Illustration: CLARA BARTON.
_Taken about 1885._]
INTRODUCTION.
To be called to tell in a few brief weeks the whole story of the Red
Cross from its origin to the present time seems a labor scarcely less
than to have lived it. It is a task that, however unworthily it may now
be performed, is, in itself, not unworthy the genius of George Eliot or
Macaulay. It is a story illustrating the rapid rise of the humane
sentiment in the latter half of the nineteenth century. On its European
side, it tells of the first timid and cautious putting forth of the
sentiment of humanity in war, amid the rattling swords and guns of
Solferino, its deaths and wounds and its subsequent awful silence.
It tells of its later fertilization on the red fields of Gravelotte and
Sedan beneath my own personal observation.
It was from such surroundings as these that the Red Cross has become the
means by which philanthropy has been grafted onto the wild and savage
stem of war.
From the first filaments spun in the heart of a solitary traveler have
been drawn onward stronger and larger strands, until now more than forty
of the principal nations of the earth are bound together by bonds of the
highest international law, that must make war in the future less
barbarous than it has been in the past.
It gives hope that "the very torrent, tempest and whirlwind" of war
itself may some day at last, far off, perhaps, give way to the sunny and
pleasant days of perpetual and universal peace. When a proposition for
an absolute and common disarmament of nations, made by the strongest of
the rulers of Europe, will not be met by cynical sneers and suggestions
of Machiavelian craft.
On its American side it is a story of such immense success on the part
of the American National Red Cross in some of its greatest and most
difficult fields of labor, that no financial report of them has ever
been made, because the story would have been altogether incredible. The
universal opinion of ordinary business people would have been that these
results could not have been obtained on the means stated, and therefore
something must be wrong or hidden, and to save ourselves from painful
suspicion, it was decided, rightly or wrongly, that the story must
remain substantially untold till its work in other fields had prepared
the public mind to accept the literal truth.
But the time has come at last when the facts may properly be set forth
without fear that they will be discredited or undervalued.
It will relate some of the experiences, the labors, the successes and
triumphs of the American National Red Cross in times of peace, by which
it had prepared itself to enter upon the Cuban contest as its first
independent work in time of war.
The Red Cross has done its part in that contest in the same spirit in
which it has heretofore done all the work which has been committed to
its care. It has done it unobtrusively, faithfully and successfully.
It may not altogether have escaped censure in the rather wild cyclone of
criticism that has swept over the country, but we remember not so much
the faultfinding that may have occasionally been poured out upon the Red
Cross, as the blessings and benedictions from all sides for work well
and nobly done that have fallen even upon its humblest ministers and
assistants.
It has been truthfully said that "so great has been the pressure to
share the difficulties and dangers of this service with only
transportation and subsistence for pay, that the Red Cross could on
these terms have had as many volunteers as there were enlisted men, if
their services could have been utilized and made important."
Indeed, it seems to have become the milder romance of war, and is
gradually winning its way into the very heart of the pomp and
circumstance of "glorious" war itself.
The Red Cross has therefore come to be so loved and trusted, its
principles and insignia have been so deeply set into the substance of
international law and the life of many great nations, that people
everywhere are beginning to ask with enthusiasm about its origin and
history; about the principles on which it acts. They ask for some
statement of its experiences, its hardships and its perils, and for some
account of those who have been most prominent in its operations.
It is partially to answer these and many similar inquiries that this
book has been prepared. It is in part a compilation and revision of
various statements necessarily incomplete and unsatisfactory, made from
time to time to meet emergencies. In part it has been wholly rewritten.
A great portion of the story of the Red Cross has been told in other
languages than English, because it was of work done by other than
English people. Much of this literature has never been translated or
placed within the reach of the English-speaking public.
Although the gradual growth of the idea of something like humanity in
war, stimulated by the ignorant and insane horrors of India and the
Crimea, and soothed and instructed by the sensible and practical work of
Florence Nightingale, had slowly but surely led up to the conditions
which made such a movement possible, it was not until the remarkable
campaign of Napoleon III. in Northern Italy again woke the slumbering
sympathies of the world that any definite steps revealed themselves.
In compiling this book I have been compelled to make use of much of the
material contained in a previous history written by myself in 1883,
which in turn was based upon the records and the literature of the
International Committee, and the official correspondence connected with
the treaty.
[Illustration: Clara Barton.]
[Illustration: Copyright, 1893, by Clara Barton.
THE FIRST RED CROSS WAREHOUSE, WASHINGTON, D.C.]
[Illustration: NATIONAL RED CROSS HEADQUARTERS IN WASHINGTON,
FROM 1892 TO 1897.
_Formerly headquarters of General Grant from which he
entered the White House as President._]
THE RED CROSS.
CHAPTER I
On June 24, 1859, occurred the memorable battle of Solferino, in which
the French and Sardinians were arrayed against the Austrians. The battle
raged over a wide reach of country and continued for sixteen hours; at
the end of which sixteen thousand French and Sardinian soldiers and
twenty thousand Austrians lay dead or were wounded and disabled on that
field. The old and ever-recurring fact reappeared: the medical staff was
wholly inadequate to the immense task suddenly cast upon them. For days
after the battle the dead in part remained unburied, and the wounded
where they fell, or crawled away as they could for shelter and help.
A Swiss gentleman, Henri Dunant by name, was then traveling near that
battlefield, and was deeply impressed by the scenes there presented to
him. He joined in the work of relief, but the inadequacy of preparation
and the consequent suffering of the wounded haunted him afterwards and
impelled him to write a book entitled "A Souvenir of Solferino," in
which he strongly advocated more humane and extensive appliances of aid
to wounded soldiers. He lectured about them before the "Society of
Public Utility" of Geneva. M. Gustav Moynier, a gentleman of independent
fortune, was then president of that society. Dr. Louis Appia, a
philanthropic physician, and Adolph Ador, a counsellor of repute in
Geneva, became interested in his views. They drew the attention of
Dufour, the general of the Swiss army, to the subject, and enlisted his
hearty co-operation. A meeting of this society was called to consider "a
proposition relative to the formation of permanent societies for the
relief of wounded soldiers." This meeting took place on the ninth of
February, 1863. The matter was laid fully before the society. It was
heartily received and acted upon and a committee was appointed with M.
Moynier at its head to examine into methods by which the desired
results might be obtained. So fully did this committee realize its
responsibility and the magnitude, grandeur and labor of the undertaking,
that the first steps were made even with timidity. But overcoming all
obstacles, it decided upon a plan which seemed possible, and announced
for the twenty-sixth of the following October a reunion to which were
invited from many countries men sympathizing with its views or able to
assist in its discussions. This international conference was held at the
appointed time, and continued its sessions four days. At this meeting it
was decided to call an international convention to be held at Geneva
during the autumn of the following year (1864). At this convention was
brought out the Geneva Treaty, and a permanent international committee
with headquarters at Geneva was formed, and the fundamental plan of the
national permanent relief societies adopted.
One of the first objects necessary and desired by the International
Committee for the successful prosecution of its work was the
co-operation by some of the more important states of Europe in a treaty
which should recognize the neutrality of the hospitals established, of
the sick and wounded, and of all persons and effects connected with the
relief service; also the adoption of a uniform protective sign or badge.
It inquired with care into the disposition of the several governments,
and was met with active sympathy and moral support. It first secured the
co-operation of the Swiss Federal Council and the Emperor of France. It
shortly after procured the signatures of ten other governments, which
were given at its room in the city hall of Geneva, August 22, 1864, and
was called the Convention of Geneva.
Its sign or badge was also agreed upon, namely, a red cross on a white
ground, which was to be worn on the arm by all persons acting with or in
the service of the committees enrolled under the convention.
The treaty provides for the neutrality of all sanitary supplies,
ambulances, surgeons, nurses, attendants, and sick or wounded men, and
their safe conduct when they bear the sign of the organization, viz: the
Red Cross.
Although the convention which originated the organization was
necessarily international, the relief societies themselves are entirely
national and independent; each one governing itself and making its own
laws, according to the genius of its nationality and needs.
It was necessary for recognition and safety, and for carrying out the
general provisions of the treaty, that a uniform badge should be agreed
upon. The Red Cross was chosen out of compliment to the Swiss republic,
where the first convention was held, and in which the central committee
has its headquarters. The Swiss colors being a white cross on a red
ground, the badge chosen was these colors reversed.
There are no "members of the Red Cross," but only members of societies
whose _sign_ it is. There is no "_Order of the Red Cross_." The relief
societies use, each according to its convenience, whatever methods seem
best suited to prepare in times of peace for the necessities of sanitary
service in times of war. They gather and store gifts of money and
supplies; arrange hospitals, ambulances, methods of transportation of
wounded men, bureaus of information, correspondence, etc. All that the
most ingenious philanthropy could devise and execute has been attempted
in this direction.
In the Franco-Prussian war this was abundantly tested. That Prussia
acknowledged its beneficence is proven by the fact that the emperor
affixed the Red Cross to the Iron Cross of Merit. The number of
governments adhering to the treaty was shortly after increased to
twenty-two and at the present date there are forty-two.
The German-Austria war of 1866, though not fully developing the
advantages of this international law, was yet the means of discovering
its imperfections. Consequently, in 1867 the relief societies of Paris
considered it necessary that the treaty should be revised, modified and
completed. Requests were issued for modification. The International
Committee transmitted them to the various governments, and in 1868 a
second diplomatic conference was convened at Geneva at which were voted
additional articles, improving the treaty by completing its design and
extending its beneficial action to maritime warfare.
During the war of 1866 no decisive trial of the new principles involved
in the treaty could be made, for Austria at that time had not adopted
it. But in 1870-71 it was otherwise. The belligerents, both France and
Germany, had accepted the treaty. Thus it became possible to show to the
world the immense service and beneficent results which the treaty,
through the relief societies, might accomplish.
The dullest apprehension can partially appreciate the responsibility
incurred by relief societies in time of war. The thoughtful mind will
readily perceive that these responsibilities involve constant vigilance
and effort during periods of peace. It is wise statesmanship which
suggests that in time of peace we must prepare for war, and it is no
less a wise benevolence that makes preparation in the hour of peace for
assuaging the ills that are sure to accompany war. We do not wait till
battles are upon us to provide efficient soldiery and munitions of war.
Everything that foresight and caution can devise to insure success is
made ready and kept ready against the time of need. It is equally
necessary to hold ourselves in readiness for effective service in the
mitigation of evils consequent upon war, if humane work is to be
undertaken for that purpose.
Permanent armies are organized, drilled and supported for the actual
service in war. It is no less incumbent if we would do efficient work in
alleviating the sufferings caused by the barbarisms of war, that we
should organize philanthropic efforts and be ready with whatever is
necessary, to be on the field at the sound of the first gun. An
understanding of this truth led the conference of 1863 to embody in its
articles as one of its first cardinal characteristics the following: "In
time of peace the committee will occupy itself with means to render
genuine assistance in time of war."
The International Committee assumed that there should be a relief
association in every country which endorsed the treaty, and so generally
was the idea accepted that at the end of the year 1864, when only ten
governments had been added to the convention, twenty-five committees had
been formed, under each of which relief societies were organized. It
was, however, only after the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870 that the
movement began really to be popular. These conflicts brought not only
contestants, but neutral powers so to appreciate the horrors of war,
that they were quite ready to acknowledge the beneficence and wisdom of
the Geneva Treaty. Many who approved the humane idea and expressed a
hearty sympathy for the object to be obtained, had heretofore regarded
it as Utopian, a thing desirable but not attainable, an amiable and
fanatical illusion which would ever elude the practical grasp.
Nevertheless, the work accomplished during the wars referred to won over
not only such cavillers, but persons actually hostile to the movement,
to regard it as a practical and most beneficent undertaking. The crowned
heads of Europe were quick to perceive the benign uses of the
associations, and bestowed upon the central committees of their
countries money, credit and personal approbation. The families of
sovereigns contributed their sympathy and material support. The list of
princes and princesses who came forward with personal aid and assumed
direction of the work, was by no means small, thus proving correct the
augury of the Conference of 1863, that "The governments would accord
their high protection to the committees in their organization."
From one of the bulletins of the International Committee we make the
following hopeful extract:
"The whole of Europe is marshaled under the banner of the Red Cross. To
its powerful and peaceful sign the committee hopes to bring all the
civilized nations of the earth. Wherever men fight and tear each other
in pieces, wherever the glare and roar of war are heard, they aim to
plant the white banner that bears the blessed sign of relief. Already
they have carried it into Asia. Their ensign waves in Siberia, on the
Chinese frontier, and in Turkestan, and, through the African committee,
in Algeria and Egypt. Oceanica has a committee at Batavia. Japan
accepted the Treaty of Geneva in 1886, and on the breaking out of
hostilities between Japan and China, the Minister of War issued a
notification to the Japanese army, September 22, 1894, calling their
attention to the substance of the treaty."
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF WORK.
One of the things considered indispensable, and therefore adopted as a
resolution by the Conference of 1863, was the centralization of the work
in each country separately by itself.
While the treaty must be universally acknowledged and its badge accepted
as a universal sign, it was equally essential that the societies of the
different countries should be simply national and in no respect
international. It was therefore ordained by the conference that all
local committees or organizations desirous of working with the Red
Cross, should do so under the auspices of the Central Committee of their
own nation, which is recognized by its government and also recognized by
the International Committee from which the sign of the Red Cross
emanates. Singularly enough, the International Committee has had
considerable difficulty in making this fully understood, and frequently
has been obliged to suggest to local committees the necessity for their
subordination to the Central or National Committee. Once in three months
the International Committee publishes an official list of all central
committees recognized by it as national. In this way it is able to
exercise a certain control, and to repress entanglements and abuses
which would become consequent on irresponsible or counterfeit
organizations. To recapitulate: the Commission of Geneva, of which M.
Moynier is president, is the only International Committee. All other
committees are simply national or subordinate to national committees.
The Conference of 1863 foresaw that national differences would prevent a
universal code of management, and that to make the societies
international would destroy them, so far as efficiency was concerned.
They therefore adopted a resolution that "Central committees should
organize in such a manner as seemed the most useful and convenient to
themselves." Every committee being its own judge, has its own
constitution and laws. To be efficient, it must have the recognition of
its own government, must bear the stamp of national individuality and be
constructed according to the spirit, habits and needs of the country it
represents. No hierarchy unites the national societies; they are
independent of each other, but they have each an individual
responsibility to the treaty, under the ensign of which they work, and
they labor in a common cause. It is desirable that they should all be
known by one name, namely, the Society of the Red Cross. The functions
of the International Committee, whose headquarters are at Geneva, were
also determined by the Conference of 1863. It is to serve provisionally
as an intermediate agent between national committees, and to facilitate
their communications with each other. It occupies itself with the
general interests of the Red Cross in correspondence, and the study of
theoretical and practical methods of amelioration and relief.
The national committees are charged with the direction and
responsibility for the work in their own countries. They must provide
resources to be utilized in time of need, take active measures to secure
adherents, establish local societies, and have an efficient working
force always in readiness for action, and in time of war to dispatch and
distribute safely and wisely all accumulations of material and supplies,
nurses and assistants, to their proper destination, and, in short,
whatever may be gathered from the patriotism and philanthropy of the
country. They must always remember that central committees without
abundant sectional branches would be of little use.
In most countries the co-operation of women has been eagerly sought. It
is needless to say it has been as eagerly given. In some countries the
central committees are mixed, both sexes working together; in others,
sub-committees are formed by women, and in others, such as the Grand
Duchy of Baden, woman leads.
As a last detail of organization, the Conference of 1863 recommended to
the central committees to put themselves _en rapport_ with their
respective governments, in order that their offers of service should be
accepted when required. This makes it incumbent upon national societies
to obtain and hold government recognition, by which they are endowed
with the immunities and privileges of legally constituted bodies and
with recognition from other nations in time of war, not otherwise
possible to them.
OCCUPATIONS OF RELIEF SOCIETIES IN TIMES OF PEACE.
Organization, recognition and communication are by no means all that is
necessary to insure the fulfillment of the objects of these
associations. A thing most important to be borne in mind is that if
money be necessary for war, it is also an indispensable agent in relief
of the miseries occasioned by war. Self-devotion alone will not answer.
The relief societies need funds and other resources to carry on their
work. They not only require means for current expenses, but, most of
all, for possible emergencies. To obtain and prudently conserve these
resources is an important work. The Russian Society set a good example
of activity in this direction. From the beginning of its organization in
1867 it systematically collected money over the whole empire and
neglected nothing that tended to success. It put boxes in churches,
convents, armories, railroad depots, steamboats, in every place
frequented by the public. Beside the collection of funds, the Conference
of 1863 recommended that peace periods should be occupied in gathering
necessary material for service. In 1868 there were in Geneva alone five
depots where were accumulated one thousand two hundred and twenty-eight
shirts, besides hosiery, bandages, lint, etc., for over one thousand
wounded. There were also large collections in the provinces, and now,
thirty years later, these accumulations have probably greatly increased.
In other countries the supplies remaining after wars were gathered in
depots and were added to abundantly. Thus, in 1868, the Berlin Committee
was in possession of supplies worth over twenty-five thousand dollars.
Especial care is taken to acquire familiarity with the use of all
sanitary material, to eliminate as far as possible whatever may be
prejudicial to sick or wounded men, to improve both sanitary system and
all supplies to be used under it, to have everything of the very best,
as surgical instruments, medicine chests, bandages, stretchers, wagons,
tents and field hospitals.
We would refer to the effort made in the national exhibitions of the
various countries, where the societies of the Red Cross have displayed
their practical improvements and inventions in competitive fields,
taxing to the utmost human ingenuity and skill. Some countries have
taken grand prizes. An exposition at The Hague was held in 1867
exclusively for the work of the Red Cross. Permanent museums have been
established where all sorts of sanitary material for relief are
exhibited, as may be seen in Stockholm, Carlsruhe, St. Petersburg,
Moscow and Paris. The museum of Paris is the most important of all, and
is international, other countries having participated in its foundation.
Another method is the publication of works bearing upon this subject,
some of which are scientific and very valuable. Not less important is
the sanitary personnel. Of all aid, efficient nurses are the most
difficult to obtain. There are numbers of men and women who have the
will and devotion necessary to lead them into hospitals or to
battlefields, but very few of them are capable of performing well the
duties of nurses. Therefore, but a small portion of the volunteers are
available. The relief societies soon found that women were by nature
much better fitted for this duty than men can be, and to enable them to
fulfill to the best advantage the mission for which they are so well
adapted, it was decided to afford them the best possible professional
instruction. For this purpose, during peace training schools were
established from which were graduated great numbers of women who are
ready at a moment's notice to go upon the battlefield or into hospitals.
These professional nurses find no difficulty during times of peace in
securing remunerative employment. Indeed, they are eagerly sought for by
the community to take positions at the bedside of the sick, with the
proviso that they are to be allowed to obey the pledge of their society
at the first tocsin of war. There are schools for this purpose in
England, Germany, Sweden, Holland, Russia and other European countries,
and nothing has been neglected to make them thorough and to place them
on a strong and solid basis.
SERVICES IN TIME OF WAR.
Notwithstanding the readiness with which most persons will perceive the
beneficent uses of relief societies in war, it may not be amiss to
particularize some of the work accomplished by the societies of the Red
Cross. Not to mention civil disturbances and lesser conflicts, they
participated in not less than five great wars in the first ten years,
commencing with Schleswig-Holstein, and ending with the Franco-German.
Russia and Turkey have followed, with many others since that time, in
all of which these societies have signally proved their power to
ameliorate the horrors of war. The earlier of these, while affording
great opportunity for the beneficent work of the societies, were also
grand fields of instruction and discipline to the committee, enabling
them to store up vast funds of practical knowledge which were to be of
great service.
The Sanitary Commission of the United States also served as an excellent
example in many respects to the relief societies of Europe, and from it
they took many valuable lessons. Thus in 1866 Europe was much better
prepared than ever before for the care of those who suffered from the
barbarisms of war. She was now ready with some degree of ability to
oppose the arms of charity to the arms of violence, and make a kind of
war on war itself. Still however there was a lack of centralization. The
provincial committees worked separately, and consequently lost force.
Notwithstanding these drawbacks, large amounts of money were gathered,
and munificent supplies of material brought into store. The Austrian
Committee alone collected 2,170,000 francs, and a great supply of all
things needed in hospital service. The Central Committee was of great
use in facilitating correspondence between the different peoples
comprising the Austrian Empire, the bureau maintaining correspondence in
eleven different languages.
Italy was not backward in the performance of her duty. She used her
abundant resources in the most effectual way. Not only were her
provincial societies of relief united for common action, but they
received external aid from France and Switzerland. Here was exhibited
the first beautiful example of neutral powers interfering in the cause
of charity in time of war--instead of joining in the work of
destruction, lending their aid to repair its damages. The provincial
committees banded together under the Central Committee of Milan. Four
squads, comprising well-trained nurses and assistants, were organized
and furnished with all necessary material to follow the military
ambulances or field hospitals, whose wagons were placed at their
disposal.
Thus the committee not only reinforced the sanitary _personnel_ of the
army, but greatly increased its supplies. It provided entirely the
sanitary material for the Tyrolese volunteers, and afforded relief to
the navy, and when the war was over it remained among the wounded. In
addition to the supplies this committee afforded, it expended in money
not less than 199,064 francs.