[1] The ordinary account of Simone is that given by Vasari, and since
repeated in a variety of forms. Modern research shows that it is far
from correct, the incidents being erroneous, and the paintings
attributed to Simone in various principal instances not his. We
follow the authority of Crowe and Cavalcaselle.
MARTINIQUE, an island of the West Indies, belonging to the chain of the
Lesser Antilles, and constituting a French colony, between the British
islands of Dominica and St Lucia, 25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of
the other, about 14° 40´ N., 61° W. Its length is 40 m., its greatest
width 21 m.; and the area comprises 380 sq. m. A cluster of volcanic
mountains in the north, a similar group in the south, and a line of
lower heights between them, form the backbone of the island. Its deep
ravines and precipitous escarpments are reduced in appearance to gentle
undulations by the drapery of the forests. The massif of Mont Pelé in
the north is the culminating point of the island (4430 ft.); that of
Carbet is little inferior (3963 ft.), but the mountains in the south are
much lower. Mont Pelé is notorious for an appalling eruption in May
1902.
Of the numerous streams which traverse the few miles of country
between the watershed and the sea (the longest radiating from Mount
Carbet), about seventy-five are of considerable size, and in the rainy
season become deep and often destructive torrents. On the north-west
and north the coast is elevated and bold; and similarly on the south,
where a lateral range, branching from the backbone of the island,
forms a blunt peninsula bounding the low-shored western bay of Fort de
France on the south. Another peninsula, called Caravelle, projects
from the middle part of the east coast, and south of this the coast is
low and fretted, with many islets and cays lying off it. Coral reefs
occur especially in this locality. Plains, most numerous and extensive
in the south, occupy about one-third of the total area of the island.
The mean annual temperature is 80° F. in the coast region, the monthly
mean for June being 83°, and that for January 77°. Of the annual
rainfall of 87 in., August has the heaviest share (11.3 in.), though
the rainy season extends from June to October; March, the driest
month, has 3.7. Martinique enjoys a marked immunity from hurricanes.
The low coastal districts are not very healthy for Europeans in the
hotter months, but there are numerous sanatoria in the forest region
at an elevation of about 1500 ft., where the average temperature is
some 10° F. lower than that already quoted. The north winds which
prevail from November to February are comparatively fresh and dry;
those from the south (July to October) are damp and warm. From March
to June easterly winds are prevalent.
The population increased from 162,861 in 1878 to 175,863 in 1888 and
203,781 in 1901. In 1902 the great eruption of Mont Pelé occurred, and
in 1905 the population was only 182,024. The bulk of the population
consists of Creole negroes and half-castes of various grades, ranging
from the "Saccatra," who has retained hardly any trace of Caucasian
blood, to the so-called "Sangmêlé," with only a suspicion of negro
commixture. The capital of the island is Fort de France, on the
west-coast bay of the same name, with a fine harbour defended by three
forts, and a population of 18,000. The other principal centres of
population are, on the west coast Lamentin, on the same bay as the
capital, and on the east coast Le François and Le Robert. The colony is
administered by a governor and a general council, and returns a senator
and two deputies. There are elective municipal councils. The chief
product is sugar, and some coffee, cocoa, tobacco and cotton are grown.
The island is served by British, French and American steamship lines,
and local communications are carried on by small coasting steamers and
by subsidized mail coaches, as there are excellent roads. In 1905 the
total value of the exports, consisting mainly of sugar, rum and cocoa,
was £725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while imports were
valued at £596,294, of which rather more than one-half by value came
from France, the United States of America being the next principal
importing country. In 1903, the year following the eruption of Mont
Pelé, exports were valued at £604,163.
[Illustration: Map of Martinique.]
Martinique, the name of which may be derived from a native form Madiana
or Mantinino, was probably discovered by Columbus on the 15th of June
1502; although by some authorities its discovery is placed in 1493. It
was at that time inhabited by Caribs who had expelled or incorporated an
older stock. It was not until the 25th of June 1635 that possession was
taken of the island in the name of the French _Compagnie des Îles
d'Amérique_. Actual settlement was carried out in the same year by
Pierre Belain, Sieur d'Esnambuc, captain-general of the island of St
Christopher. In 1637 his nephew Dyel Duparquet (d. 1658) became
captain-general of the colony, now numbering seven hundred men, and
subsequently obtained the seigneurie of the island by purchase from the
company under the authority of the king of France. In 1654 welcome was
given to three hundred Jews expelled from Brazil, and by 1658 there were
at least five thousand people exclusive of the Caribs, who were soon
after exterminated. Purchased by the French government from Duparquet's
children for 120,000 livres, Martinique was assigned to the West India
Company, but in 1674 it became part of the royal domain. The _habitants_
(French landholders) at first devoted themselves to the cultivation of
cotton and tobacco; but in 1650 sugar plantations were begun, and in
1723 the coffee plant was introduced. Slave labour having been
introduced at an early period of the occupation, there were 60,000
blacks in the island by 1736. This slavery was abolished in 1860.
Martinique had a full share of wars. In early days the Caribs were not
brought under subjection without severe struggles. In 1666 and 1667 the
island was attacked by the British without success, and hostilities were
terminated by the treaty of Breda. The Dutch made similar attempts in
1674, and the British again attacked the island in 1693. Captured by
Rodney in 1762, Martinique was next year restored to the French; but
after the conquest by Sir John Jervis and Sir Charles Grey in 1793 it
was retained for eight years; and, seized again in 1809, it was not
surrendered till 1814. The island was the birth-place of the Empress
Josephine.
Martinique has suffered from occasional severe storms, as in 1767, when
1600 persons perished, and M. de la Pagerie, father of the Empress
Josephine, was practically ruined, and in 1839, 1891 and 1903, when much
damage was done to the sugar crop. Earthquakes have also been frequent,
but the most terrible natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pelé in
1902, by which the town of St Pierre, formerly the chief commercial
centre of the island, was destroyed. During the earlier months of the
year various manifestations of volcanic activity had occurred; on the
25th of April there was a heavy fall of ashes, and on the 2nd and 3rd of
May a heavy eruption destroyed extensive sugar plantations north of St
Pierre, and caused a loss of some 150 lives. A few days later the news
that the Souffrière in St Vincent was in eruption reassured the
inhabitants of St Pierre, as it was supposed that this outbreak might
relieve the volcano of Pelé. But on the 8th of May the final catastrophe
came without warning; a mass of fire, compared to a flaming whirlwind,
swept over St Pierre, destroying the ships in the harbour, among which,
however, one, the "Roddam" of Scrutton, escaped. A fall of molten lava
and ashes followed the flames, accompanied by dense gases which
asphyxiated those who had thus far escaped. The total loss of life was
estimated at 40,000. Consternation was caused not only in the West
Indies, but in France and throughout the world, and at first it was
seriously suggested that the island should be evacuated, but no
countenance was lent to this proposal by the French government. Relief
measures were undertaken and voluntary subscriptions raised. The
material losses were estimated at £4,000,000; but, besides St Pierre,
only one-tenth of the island had been devastated, and although during
July there was further volcanic activity, causing more destruction, the
economic situation recovered more rapidly than was expected.
See _Annuaire de la Martinique_ (Fort de France); H. Mouet, _La
Martinique_ (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guët, _Origines de la Martinique_
(Vannes, 1893); G. Landes, _Notice sur la Martinique_ (with full
bibliography), (Paris, 1900); M. Dumoret, _Au pays du sucre_ (Paris,
1902); and on the eruption of 1902, A. Heilprin, _Mont Pelée and the
Tragedy of Martinique_ (Philadelphia and London, 1903); A. Lacroix,
_La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (Paris, 1904); and the report of
Drs J. S. Flett and T. Anderson (November 20, 1902), who investigated
the eruptions on behalf of the Royal Society; cf. T. Anderson, "Recent
Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies," in _Geographical Journal_,
vol. xxi. (1903).
MARTINSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Berkeley county, West
Virginia, U.S.A., about 74 m. W.N.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1890)
7226; (1900) 7564 (678 negroes); (1910) 10,698. It is served by the
Baltimore & Ohio and the Cumberland Valley railways; the former has
repair shops here. It lies in the Lower Shenandoah Valley at the foot of
Little North mountain, in the midst of a fruit-growing region, peaches
and apples being the principal crops. Slate and limestone also abound in
the vicinity. The town has a fine Federal Building and a King's
Daughters' hospital. There are grain elevators, and various
manufactures, including hosiery, woollen goods, dressed lumber, &c.
Martinsburg owns its waterworks, the supply being derived from a
neighbouring spring. A town was laid out here a short time before the
War of Independence and was named Martinstown in honour of Colonel
Thomas Bryan Martin, a nephew of Thomas, Lord Fairfax (1692-1782); in
1778 it was incorporated under its present name. During the Civil War
Martinsburg was occupied by several different Union and Confederate
forces.
MARTINS FERRY, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio
River, nearly opposite Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. (1890), 6250;
(1900), 7760, including 1033 foreign-born and 252 negroes; (1910), 9133.
It is served by the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburg Division), the
Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash System) railways,
and by several steamboat lines. The city is situated on two plateaus;
the lower is occupied chiefly by factories, the upper by dwellings. Coal
mining and manufacturing are the principal industries; among factory
products are iron, steel, tin, stoves, machinery and glassware. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks and an electric-lighting
plant. A settlement was attempted here in 1785, but was abandoned on
account of trouble with the Indians. In 1795 a town was laid out by
Absalom Martin and was called Jefferson, but this, too, was abandoned,
on account of its not being made the county-seat. The town was laid out
again in 1835 by Ebenezer Martin (son of Absalom Martin) and was called
Martinsville; the present name was substituted a few years later. The
Martins and other pioneers are buried in Walnut Grove Cemetery within
the city limits. Martins Ferry was incorporated as a town in 1865 and
chartered as a city in 1885.
MARTINUZZI, GEORGE [GYÖRGY UTIE[VS]ENOVI['C]] (1482-1551), Hungarian
statesman, who, since he usually signed himself "Frater Georgius," is
known in Hungarian history as FRATER GYÖRGY or simply THE FRATER, was
born at Kamicic in Croatia, the son of Gregory Utiesenovi['c], a
Croatian gentleman. His mother was a Martinuzzi, a Venetian patrician
family. From his eighth to his twentieth year he was attached to the
court of John Corvinus; subsequently, entering the service of the
Zapolya family, he saw something of warfare under John Zapolya but,
tiring of a military life, he entered the Paulician Order in his
twenty-eighth year. His historical career began when his old patron
Zapolya, now king of Hungary, forced to fly before his successful rival
Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., sent him on a diplomatic
mission to Hungary. It was due to his tact and ability that John
recovered Buda (1529), and henceforth Frater György became his treasurer
and chief counsellor. In 1534 he became bishop of Grosswardein; in 1538
he concluded with Austria the peace of Grosswardein, whereby the royal
title and the greater part of Hungary were conceded to Zapolya. King
John left the Frater the guardian of his infant son John Sigismund, who
was proclaimed and crowned king of Hungary, the Frater acting as regent.
He frustrated all the attempts of the queen mother, Isabella, to bring
in the Austrians, and when, in 1541, an Austrian army appeared beneath
the walls of Buda, he arrested the queen and applied to the Porte for
help. On the 28th of August 1541, the Frater did homage to the sultan,
but during his absence with the baby king in the Turkish camp, the grand
vizier took Buda by subtlety. Then only the Frater recognized the
necessity of a composition with both Austria and Turkey. He attained it
by the treaty of Gyula (Dec. 29, 1541), whereby western Hungary fell to
Ferdinand, while Transylvania, as an independent principality under
Turkish suzerainty, reverted to John Sigismund. It included, besides
Transylvania proper, many Hungarian counties on both sides of the
Theiss, and the important city of Kassa. It was the Frater's policy to
preserve Transylvania neutral and intact by cultivating amicable
relations with Austria without offending the Porte. It was a difficult
policy, but succeeded brilliantly for a time. In 1545, encouraged by the
growing unpopularity of Ferdinand, owing to his incapacity to defend
Hungary against the Turks, the Frater was tempted to unite Austrian
Hungary to Transylvania and procure the election of John Sigismund as
the national king. But recognizing that this was impossible, he aimed at
an alliance with Ferdinand on terms of relative equality, and to this
system he adhered till his death. Queen Isabella, who hated the Frater
and constantly opposed him, complained of him to the sultan, who
commanded that either the traitor himself or his head should be sent to
Constantinople (1550). A combination was then formed against him of the
queen, the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia and the Turks; but the
Frater shut the queen up in Gyula-Fehérvár, drove the hospodars out of
Transylvania, defeated the Turks at Déva, and finally compelled Isabella
to accept a composition with Austria very profitable to her family and
to Transylvania, at the same time soothing the rage of the sultan by
flatteries and gifts. This compact, a masterpiece of statesmanship, was
confirmed by the diet of Kolozsvár in August 1551. The Frater retained
the governorship of Transylvania, and was subsequently consecrated
archbishop of Esztergom and received the red hat. Thus Hungary was once
more reunited, but the inability of Ferdinand to defend it against the
Turks, as promised, forced the Frater, for the common safety, to resume
the payment of tribute to the Porte in December 1551. Unfortunately, the
Turks no longer trusted a diplomatist they could not understand, while
Ferdinand suspected him of an intention to secure Hungary for himself.
When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanád and other places, the Frater and
the imperial generals Castaldo and Pallavicini combined their forces
against the common foe; but when the Frater privately endeavoured to
mediate between the Turks and the Hungarians, Castaldo represented him
to Ferdinand as a traitor, and asked permission to kill him if
necessary. The Frater's secretary Marco Aurelio Ferrari was hired, and
stabbed his master from behind at the castle of Alvinczy while reading a
letter, on the 18th of December 1551; but the cardinal, though in his
sixty-ninth year, fought for his life, and was only despatched with the
aid of Pallavicini and a band of bravos. Ferdinand took the
responsibility of the murder on himself. He sent to Julius III. an
accusation of treason against the Frater in eighty-seven articles, and
after long hesitation, and hearing one hundred and sixteen witnesses,
the pope exonerated Ferdinand of blame.
See A. Bechet, _Histoire du ministère du cardinal Martinusius_ (Paris,
1715); O. M. Utiesenovi['c], _Lebensgeschichte des Cardinals Georg
Utiesenovi['c]_ (Vienna, 1881); _Codex epistolaris Fratris Georgii
1535-1551_, ed. A. Károlyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid
presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jókai's fine historical
romance, _Brother George_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1893). (R. N. B.)
MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794-1868), German botanist and
traveller, was born on the 17th of April 1794 at Erlangen, where he
graduated M.D. in 1814, publishing as his thesis a critical catalogue of
plants in the botanic garden of the university. He afterwards devoted
himself to botanical study, and in 1817 he and J. B. von Spix were sent
to Brazil by the king of Bavaria. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro
through several of the southern and eastern provinces of Brazil, and
ascended the river Amazon to Tabatinga, as well as some of its larger
affluents. On his return to Europe in 1820 he was appointed conservator
of the botanic garden at Munich, and in 1826 professor of botany in the
university there, and held both offices till 1864. He devoted his chief
attention to the flora of Brazil, and in addition to numerous short
papers he published the _Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Brasiliensium_
(1823-1832, 3 vols.) and _Icones selectae Plantarum Cryptogamicarum
Brasiliensium_ (1827), both works being finely illustrated. An account
of his travels in Brazil appeared in 3 vols. 4to, 1823-1831, with an
atlas of plates, but probably the work by which he is best known is his
_Historia Palmarum_ (1823-1850) in 3 large folio volumes, of which one
describes the palms discovered by himself in Brazil. In 1840 he began
the _Flora Brasiliensis_, with the assistance of the most distinguished
European botanists, who undertook monographs of the various orders. Its
publication was continued after his death under the editorship of A. W.
Eichler (1839-1887) until 1887, and subsequently of Ignaz von Urban. He
also edited several works on the zoological collections made in Brazil
by Spix, after the death of the latter in 1826. On the outbreak of
potato disease in Europe he investigated it and published his
observations in 1842. He also published works and short papers on the
aborigines of Brazil, on their civil and social condition, on their past
and probable future, on their diseases and medicines, and on the
languages of the various tribes, especially the Tupi. He died at Munich
on the 13th of December 1868.
MARTOS, CHRISTINO (1830-1893), Spanish politician, was born at Granada
on the 13th of September 1830. He was educated there and at Madrid
University, where his Radicalism soon got him into trouble, and he
narrowly escaped being expelled for his share in student riots and other
demonstrations against the governments of Queen Isabella. He
distinguished himself as a journalist on _El Tribuno_. He joined
O'Donnell and Espartero in 1854 against a revolutionary cabinet, and
shortly afterwards turned against O'Donnell to assist the Democrats and
Progressists under Prim, Rivero, Castelar, and Sagasta in the
unsuccessful movements of 1866, and was obliged to go abroad. His
political career had not prevented Martos from rising into note at the
bar, where he was successful for forty years. After remaining abroad
three years, he returned to Spain to take his seat in the Cortes of 1869
after the revolution of 1868. Throughout the revolutionary period he
represented in cabinets with Prim, Serrano and Ruiz Zorilla, and lastly
under King Amadeus, the advanced Radical tendencies of the men who
wanted to give Spain a democratic monarchy. After the abdication of
Amadeus of Savoy, Martos played a prominent part in the proclamation of
the federal republic, in the struggle between the executive of that
republic and the permanent committee of the Cortes, backed by the
generals and militia, who nearly put an end to the executive and
republic in April 1873. When the republicans triumphed Martos retired
into exile, and soon afterwards into private life. He reappeared for a
few months after General Pavia's _coup d'état_ in January 1874, to join
a coalition cabinet formed by Marshal Serrano, with Sagasta and Ulloa.
Martos returned to the Bar in May 1874, and quietly looked on when the
restoration took place at the end of that year. He stuck to his
democratic ideals for some years, even going to Biarritz in 1881 to be
present at a republican congress presided over by Ruiz Zorilla. Shortly
afterwards Martos joined the dynastic Left organized by Marshal Serrano,
General Lopez Dominguez, and Moret, Becerra, Balaguer, and other quondam
revolutionaries. He sat in several parliaments of the reign of Alphonso
XII. and of the regency of Queen Christina, joined the dynastic Liberals
under Sagasta, and gave Sagasta not a little trouble when the latter
allowed him to preside over the House of Deputies. Having failed to form
a rival party against Sagasta, Martos subsided into political
insignificance, despite his great talent as an orator and debater, and
died in Madrid on the 16th of January 1893.
MARTOS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, 16 m. W.S.W.
of Jaen, by the Jaen-Lucena railway. Pop. (1900), 17,078. Martos is
situated on an outlying western peak of the Jabalcuz mountains, which is
surmounted by a ruined castle and overlooks the plain of Andalusia. In
the neighbourhood are two sulphurous springs with bathing
establishments. The local trade is almost exclusively agricultural.
Martos perhaps stands on or near the site of the _Tucci_ of Ptolemy,
which was fortified and renamed _Colonia Augusta Gemella_ by the
Romans. By Ferdinand III. it was taken from the Moors in 1225, and
given to the knights of Calatrava; it was here that the brothers
Carvajal, commanders of the order, were in 1312 executed by command of
Ferdinand IV. Before their death they summoned Ferdinand to meet them
within thirty days at the judgment-seat of God. Ferdinand died a month
later and thus received the popular name of _el Emplazado_--"the
Summoned."
MARTYN, HENRY (1781-1812), English missionary to India, was born on the
18th of February 1781, at Truro, Cornwall. His father, John Martyn, was a
"captain" or mine-agent at Gwennap. The lad was educated at Truro grammar
school under Dr Cardew, entered St John's College, Cambridge, in the
autumn of 1797, and was senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in
1801. In 1802 he was chosen a fellow of his college. He had intended to
go to the bar, but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles
Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary, William
Carey, and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd, the
apostle of the Indians of North America. He resolved, accordingly, to
become a Christian missionary. On the 22nd of October, 1803, he was
ordained deacon at Ely, and afterwards priest, and served as Simeon's
curate at the church of Holy Trinity, taking charge of the neighbouring
parish of Lolworth. He was about to offer his services to the Church
Missionary Society, when a disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his
unmarried sister of the provision their father had made for them, and
rendered it necessary that he should obtain a salary that would support
her as well as himself. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the
East India Company and left for India on the 5th of July 1805. For some
months he was stationed at Aldeen, near Serampur; in October 1806 he
proceeded to Dinapur, where he was soon able to conduct worship among the
natives in the vernacular, and established schools. In April 1809 he was
transferred to Cawnpore, where he preached in his own compound, in spite
of interruptions and threats. He occupied himself in linguistic study,
and had already, during his residence at Dinapur, been engaged in
revising the sheets of his Hindostani version of the New Testament. He
now translated the whole of the New Testament into Hindi also, and into
Persian twice. He translated the Psalms into Persian, the Gospels into
Judaeo-Persic, and the Prayer-book into Hindostani, in spite of
ill-health and "the pride, pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat."
Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage, he obtained leave to go to
Persia and correct his Persian New Testament, whence he wished to go to
Arabia, and there compose an Arabic version. Accordingly, on the 1st of
October 1810, having seen his work at Cawnpore crowned on the previous
day by the opening of a church, he left for Calcutta, whence he sailed on
the 7th of January 1811, for Bombay, which he reached on his thirtieth
birthday. From Bombay he set out for Bushire, bearing letters from Sir
John Malcolm to men of position there, as also at Shiraz and Isfahan.
After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz, and was
soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes, "Sufi,
Mahommedan, Jew, and Jewish-Mahommedan, even Armenian, all anxious to
test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had
visited them." Having made an unsuccessful journey to Tabriz to present
the shah with his translation of the New Testament, he was seized with
fever, and after a temporary recovery, had to seek a change of climate.
On the 12th of September 1812, he started with two Armenian servants,
crossed the Araxes, rode from Tabriz to Erivan, from Erivan to Kars, from
Kars to Erzerum, from Erzerum to Chiflik, urged on from place to place by
a thoughtless Tatar guide, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat
(near Eski-Shehr in Asia Minor), he was compelled by prostration to stop
there. On the 6th of October he died. Macaulay's youthful lines, written
early in 1813, testify to the impression made by his career.
His _Journals and Letters_ were published by Samuel Wilberforce in
1837. See also _Lives_ by John Sargent (1819; new ed. 1885), and G.
Smith (1892); and _The Church Quarterly Review_ (Oct. 1881).
MARTYN, JOHN (1699-1768), English botanist, was born in London on the
12th of September 1699. Originally intended for a business career, he
abandoned it in favour of medical and botanical studies. He was one of
the founders (with J. J. Dillen and others) and the secretary of a
botanical society which met for a few years in the Rainbow Coffee-house,
Watling Street; he also started the _Grub Street Journal_, a weekly
satirical review, which lasted from 1730 to 1737. In 1732 he was
appointed professor of botany in Cambridge University, but, finding
little encouragement and hampered by lack of appliances, he soon
discontinued lecturing. He retained his professorship, however, till
1762, when he resigned in favour of his son Thomas (1735-1825), author
of _Flora rustica_ (1792-1794). Although he had not taken a medical
degree, he long practised as a physician at Chelsea, where he died on
the 29th of January 1768. His reputation chiefly rests upon his
_Historia plantarum rariorum_ (1728-1737), and his translation, with
valuable agricultural and botanical notes, of the _Eclogues_ (1749) and
_Georgics_ (1741) of Virgil. On resigning the botanical chair at
Cambridge he presented the university with a number of his botanical
specimens and books.
See memoir by Thomas Martyn in _Memoirs of John Martyn and Thomas
Martyn_, by G. C. Gorham (1830).
MARTYR (Gr. [Greek: martyr] or [Greek: martys]), a word meaning
literally "witness" and often used in that sense in the New Testament
e.g. Matt, xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63. During the conflict between Paganism
and Christianity when many Christians "testified" to the truth of their
convictions by sacrificing their lives, the word assumed its modern
technical sense. The beginnings of this use are to be seen in such
passages as Acts xxii. 20; Rev. ii. 13, xiii. 6. During the first three
centuries the fortitude of these "witnesses" won the admiration of their
brethren. Ardent spirits craved the martyr's crown, and to confess
Christ in persecution was to attain a glory inferior only to that won by
those who actually died. Confessors were visited in prison, martyrs'
graves were scenes of pilgrimage, and the day on which they suffered
was celebrated as the birthday of their glory. Martyrology was the most
popular literature in the early Church. While the honour paid to
martyrdom was a great support to early champions of the faith, it was
attended by serious evils. It was thought that martyrdom would atone for
sin, and imprisoned confessors not only issued to the Churches commands
which were regarded almost as inspired utterances, but granted pardons
in rash profusion to those who had been excommunicated by the regular
clergy, a practice which caused Cyprian and his fellow bishops much
difficulty. The zeal of Ignatius (c. 115), who begs the Roman Church to
do nothing to avert from him the martyr's death, was natural enough in a
spiritual knight-errant, but with others in later days, especially in
Phrygia and North Africa, the passion became artificial. Fanatics sought
death by insulting the magistrates or by breaking idols, and in their
enthusiasm for martyrdom became self-centred and forgetful of their
normal duty. None the less it is true that these men and women endured
torments, often unthinkable in their cruelty, and death rather than
abandon their faith. The same phenomena have been witnessed, not only in
the conflicts within the Church that marked the 13th to the 16th
centuries, but in the different mission fields, and particularly in
Madagascar and China.
See A. J. Mason, _The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive Church_
(London, 1905); H. B. Workman, _Persecution in the Early Church_
(London, 1906); Paul Allard, _Ten Lectures on the Martyrs_ (London,
1907); John Foxe, _The Book of Martyrs_; Mary I. Bryson, _Cross and
Crown_ (London, 1904).
MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or list of _martyrs_, or, more exactly, of
saints, arranged in the order of their anniversaries. This is the now
accepted meaning in the Latin Church. In the Greek Church the nearest
equivalent to the martyrology is the Synaxarium (q.v.). As regards form,
we should distinguish between simple martyrologies, which consist merely
of an enumeration of names, and historical martyrologies, which also
include stories or biographical details. As regards documents, the most
important distinction is between local and general martyrologies. The
former give a list of the festivals of some particular Church; the
latter are the result of a combination of several local martyrologies.
We may add certain compilations of a factitious character, to which the
name of martyrology is given by analogy, e.g. the _Martyrologe
universel_ of Châtelain (1709). As types of local martyrologies we may
quote that of Rome, formed from the _Depositio martyrum_ and the
_Depositio episcoporum_ of the chronograph of 354; the Gothic calendar
of Ulfila's Bible, the calendar of Carthage published by Mabillon, the
calendar of fasts and vigils of the Church of Tours, going back as far
as Bishop Perpetuus (d. 490), and preserved in the _Historia francorum_
(xi. 31) of Gregory of Tours. The Syriac martyrology discovered by
Wright (_Journal of Sacred Literature_, 1866) gives the idea of a
general martyrology. The most important ancient martyrology preserved to
the present day is the compilation falsely attributed to St Jerome,
which in its present form goes back to the end of the 6th century. It is
the result of the combination of a general martyrology of the Eastern
Churches, a local martyrology of the Church of Rome, some general
martyrologies of Italy and Africa, and a series of local martyrologies
of Gaul. The task of critics is to distinguish between its various
constituent elements. Unfortunately, this document has reached us in a
lamentable condition. The proper names are distorted, repeated or
misplaced, and in many places the text is so corrupt that it is
impossible to understand it. With the exception of a few traces of
borrowings from the Passions of the martyrs, the compilation is in the
form of a simple martyrology. Of the best-known historical martyrologies
the oldest are those which go under the name of Bede and of Florus
(_Acta sanctorum Martii_, vol. ii.); of Wandelbert, a monk of Prüm
(842); of Rhabanus Maurus (c. 845); of Ado (d. 875); of Notker (896);
and of Wolfhard (c. 896 v. _Analecta bollandiana_, xvii. 11). The most
famous is that of Usuard (c. 875), on which the Roman martyrology was
based. The first edition of the Roman martyrology appeared at Rome in
1583. The third edition, which appeared in 1584, was approved by
Gregory XIII., who imposed the Roman martyrology upon the whole Church.
In 1586 Baronius published his annotated edition, which in spite of its
omissions and inaccuracies is a mine of valuable information.
The chief works on the martyrologies are those of Rosweyde, who in
1613 published at Antwerp the martyrology of Ado (also edition of
Giorgi, Rome, 1745); of Sollerius, to whom we owe a learned edition of
Usuard (_Acta sanctorum Junii_, vols. vi. and vii.); and of
Fiorentini, who published in 1688 an annotated edition of the
_Martyrology of St Jerome_. The critical edition of the latter by J.
B. de Rossi and Mgr. L. Duchesne, was published in 1894, in vol. ii.
of the _Acta sanctorum Novembris_. The historical martyrologies taken
as a whole have been studied by Dom Quentin (1908). There are also
numerous editions of calendars or martyrologies of less universal
interest, and commentaries upon them. Mention ought to be made of the
famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi (Naples, 1744) and
Sabbatini (Naples, 1744).
See C. de Smedt, _Introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam_
(Gandavi, 1876), pp. 127-156; H. Matagne and V. de Buck in De Backer,
_Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus_, 2nd ed., vol.
iii. pp. 369-387; De Rossi-Duchesne, _Les Sources du martyrologe
hiéronymien_ (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, _Die Martyrologien, ihre
Geschichte und ihr Wert_ (Berlin, 1900); H. Delehaye, "Le Témoignage
des martyrologes," in _Analecta bollandiana_, xxvi. 78-99 (1907); H.
Quentin, _Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1908).
(H. De.)
MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA (d. 1500), Greek scholar, poet, and
soldier, was born at Constantinople. In 1453, when the Turks captured
Constantinople, he was taken to Ancona in Italy, where he became the
friend and pupil of J. J. Pontanus, with whom his name is associated by
Ariosto (_Orl. Fur._ xxxvii. 8). He received his education at Florence,
where he obtained the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. He was the author
of epigrams and _hymni naturales_, in which he happily imitated
Lucretius. He took no part in the work of translation, then the
favourite exercise of scholars, but he was understood to be planning
some great work when he was drowned, on the 10th of April 1500, in the
river Cecina near Volterra. He was a bitter enemy of Politian, whose
successful rival he had been in the affections of the beautiful and
learned Alessandra Scala. He is remembered chiefly for the brilliant
emendations on Lucretius which he left unpublished; these were used for
the Juntine edition (Munro's _Lucretius_, Introduction).
The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, _De Principum
institutione_, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in _Documents
inédits relatifs à l'histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge_, vol. vii.
(1888).
MARUM, MARTIN VAN (1750-1837), Dutch man of science, was born on the
20th of March 1750 at Groningen, where he graduated in medicine and
philosophy. He began to practise medicine at Haarlem, but devoted
himself mainly to lecturing on physical subjects. He became secretary of
the scientific society of that city, and under his management the
society was advanced to the position of one of the most noted in Europe.
He was also entrusted with the care of the collection left to Haarlem by
P. Teyler van der Hulst (1702-1778). His name is not associated with any
discovery of the first order, but his researches (especially in
connexion with electricity) were remarkable for their number and
variety. He died at Haarlem on the 26th of December 1837.
MARUTS, in Hindu mythology, storm-gods. Their numbers vary in the
different scriptures, usually thrice seven or thrice sixty. In the Vedas
they are called the sons of Rudra. They are the companions of Indra, and
associated with him in the wielding of thunderbolts, sometimes as his
equals, sometimes as his servants. They are armed with golden weapons
and lightnings. They split drought (_Vritra_) and bring rain, and cause
earthquakes. Various myths surround their birth. A derivative word,
Maruti or Maroti, is the popular name throughout the Deccan for Hanuman
(q.v.).
MARVELL, ANDREW (1621-1678), English poet and satirist, son of Andrew
Marvell and his wife Anne Pease, was born at the rectory house,
Winestead, in the Holderness division of Yorkshire, on the 31st of March
1621. In 1624 his father exchanged the living of Winestead for the
mastership of Hull grammar school. He also became lecturer at Holy
Trinity Church and master of the Charterhouse in the same town. Thomas
Fuller (_Worthies of England_, ed. 1811, i. 165) describes him as "a
most excellent preacher." The younger Marvell was educated at Hull
grammar school until his thirteenth year, when he matriculated on the
14th of December 1633 (according to a doubtful statement in Wood's
_Athen. oxon._) at Trinity College, Cambridge. It is related by his
early biographer, Thomas Cooke, that he was induced by some Jesuit
priests to leave the university. After some months he was discovered by
his father in a bookseller's shop in London, and returned to
Cambridge.[1] He contributed two poems to the _Musa cantabrigiensis_ in
1637, and in the following year he received a scholarship at Trinity
College, and took his B.A. degree in 1639. His father was drowned in
1640 while crossing the Humber in company with the daughter of a Mrs
Skinner, almost certainly connected with the Cyriack Skinner to whom two
of Milton's sonnets are addressed. It is said that Mrs Skinner adopted
Marvell and provided for him at her death. The Conclusion Book of
Trinity College, Cambridge, registers the decision (Sept. 24, 1641) that
he with others should be excluded from further advantages from the
college either because they were married, or did not attend their "days"
or "acts." He travelled for four years on the Continent, visiting
Holland, France, Italy and Spain. In Rome he met Richard Flecknoe, whom
he satirized in the amusing verses on "Flecnoe, an English priest at
Rome."
Although Marvell ranks as a great Puritan poet his sympathies were at
first with Charles I., and in the lines on "Tom May's Death" he found no
words too strong to express his scorn for the historian of the Long
Parliament. He himself was no partisan, but had a passion for law and
order. He acquiesced, accordingly, in the strong rule of Cromwell, but
in his famous "Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland"
(1650)[2] he inserts a tribute to the courage and dignity of Charles I.,
which forms the best-known section of the poem. In 1650 he became tutor
to Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, afterwards duchess of Buckingham, then
in her twelfth year. During his life with the Fairfaxes at Nunappleton,
Yorkshire, he wrote the poems "Upon the Hill and Grove at Billborow" and
"On Appleton House." Doubtless the other poems on country life, and his
exquisite "garden poetry" may be referred to this period. "Clorinda and
Damon" and "The Nymph complaining for the Death of her Faun" are good
examples of the beauty and simplicity of much of this early verse. But
he had affinities with John Donne and the metaphysical poets, and could
be obscure on occasion.
Marvell was acquainted with Milton probably through their common
friends, the Skinners, and in February 1653 Milton sent him with a
letter to the lord president of the council, John Bradshaw, recommending
him as "a man of singular desert for the state to make use of," and
suggesting his appointment as assistant to himself in his duties as
foreign secretary. The appointment was, however, given at the time to
Philip Meadows, and Marvell became tutor to Cromwell's ward, William
Dutton. In 1653 he was established with his pupil at Eton in the house
of John Oxenbridge, then a fellow of the college, but formerly a
minister in the Bermudas. No doubt the well-known verses, "Bermudas,"
were inspired by intercourse with the Oxenbridges. At Eton he enjoyed
the society of John Hales, then living in retirement. He was employed by
Milton in 1654 to convey to Bradshaw a copy of the _Defensio secunda_,
and the letter to Milton in which he describes the reception of the gift
is preserved. When the secretaryship again fell vacant in 1657 Marvell
was appointed, and retained the appointment until the accession of
Charles II. During this period he wrote many political poems, all of
them displaying admiration for Cromwell. His "Poem upon the Death of his
late Highness the Lord Protector" has been unfavourably compared to
Edmund Waller's "Panegyric," but Marvell's poem is inspired with
affection.
Marvell's connexion with Hull had been strengthened by the marriages of
his sisters with persons of local importance, and in January 1659 he was
elected to represent the borough in parliament. He was re-elected in
1660, again in 1661, and continued to represent the town until his
death. According to Milton's nephew, Edward Phillips, the poet owed his
safety at the Restoration largely to the efforts of Marvell, who "made a
considerable party for him" in the House of Commons. From 1663 to 1665
he acted as secretary to Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, on his
difficult and unsuccessful embassy to Muscovy, Sweden, and Denmark; and
this is the only official post he filled during the reign of Charles.
With the exception of this absence, for which he had leave from his
constituents, and of shorter intervals of travel on private business
which took him to Holland, Marvell was constant in his parliamentary
attendance to the day of his death. He seldom spoke in the House, but
his parliamentary influence is established by other evidence. He was an
excellent man of affairs, and looked after the special interests of the
port of Hull. He was a member of the corporation of Trinity House, both
in London and Hull, and became a younger warden of the London Trinity
House. His correspondence with his constituents, from 1660 to 1678, some
400 letters in all, printed by Dr Grosart (_Complete Works_, vol. ii.),
forms a source of information all the more valuable because by a
resolution passed at the Restoration the publication of the proceedings
of the House without leave was forbidden. He made it a point of duty to
write at each post--that is, every two or three days--both on local
interests and on all matters of public interest. The discreet reserve of
these letters, natural at a time when the post office was a favourite
source of information to the government, contrasts curiously with the
freedom of the few private letters which state opinions as well as
facts. Marvell's constituents, in their turn, were not unmindful of
their member. He makes frequent references to their presents, usually of
Hull ale and of salmon, and he regularly drew from them the wages of a
member, six-and-eightpence a day during session.
The development of Marvell's political opinions may be traced in the
satirical verse he published during the reign of Charles II., and in his
private letters. With all his admiration for Cromwell he had retained
his sympathies with the royal house, and had loyally accepted the
Restoration. In 1667 the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and Marvell
expressed his wrath at the gross mismanagement of public affairs in
"Last Instructions to a Painter," a satire which was published as a
broadside and of course remained anonymous. Edmund Waller had published
in 1665 a gratulatory poem on the duke of York's victory in that year
over the Dutch as "Instructions to a Painter for the drawing up and
posture of his Majesty's forces at sea...." A similar form was adopted
in Sir John Denham's four satirical "Directions to a Painter," and
Marvell writes on the same model. His indignation was well grounded, but
he had no scruples in the choice of the weapons he employed in his
warfare against the corruption of the court, which he paints even
blacker than do contemporary memoir writers; and his satire often
descends to the level of the lampoon. The most inexcusable of his
scandalous verses are perhaps those on the duchess of York. In the same
year he attacked Lord Clarendon, evidently hoping that with the removal
of the "betrayer of England and Flanders" matters would improve. But in
1672 when he wrote his "Poem on the Statue in the Stocks-Market" he had
no illusions left about Charles, whom he describes as too often
"purchased and sold," though he concludes with "Yet we'd rather have him
than his bigoted brother." "An Historical Poem," "Advice to a Painter,"
and "Britannia and Raleigh" urge the same advice in grave language. In
the last-named poem, probably written early in 1674, Raleigh pleads that
"'tis god-like good to save a fallen king," but Britannia has at length
decided that the tyrant cannot be divided from the Stuart, and proposes
to reform the state on the republican model of Venice. These and other
equally bold satires were probably handed round in MS., or secretly
printed, and it was not until after the Revolution that they were
collected with those of other writers in _Poems on Affairs of State_ (3
pts., 1689; 4 pts., 1703-1707). Marvell's controversial prose writings
are wittier than his verse satires, and are free from the scurrility
which defaces the "Last Instructions to a Painter." A short and
brilliant example of his irony is "His Majesty's Most Gracious Speech to
both Houses of Parliament" (printed in _Grosart_, ii. 431 seq.), in
which Charles is made to take the house into the friendliest confidence
on his domestic affairs.
Marvell was among the masters of Jonathan Swift, who, in the "Apology"
prefixed to the _Tale of a Tub_, wrote that his answer to Samuel Parker
could be still read with pleasure, although the pamphlets that provoked
it were long since forgotten. Parker had written a _Discourse of
Ecclesiastical Politye_ (1670) and other polemics against Dissenters, to
which Marvell replied in _The Rehearsal Transposed_ (2 pts., 1672 and
1673). The book contains some passages of dignified eloquence, and some
coarse vituperation, but the prevailing tone is that of grave and
ironical banter of Parker as "Mr Bayes." Parker was attacked, says
Bishop Burnet (_Hist. of His Own Time_, ed. 1823, i. 451), "by the
liveliest droll of the age, who writ in a burlesque strain, but with so
peculiar and entertaining a conduct, that, from the king down to the
tradesman, his books were read with great pleasure." He certainly
humbled Parker, but whether this effect extended, as Burnet asserts, to
the whole party, is doubtful. Parker had intimated that Milton had a
share in the first part of Marvell's reply. This Marvell emphatically
denied (_Grosart_, iii. 498). He points out that Parker had, like
Milton, profited by the royal clemency, and that he had first met him at
Milton's house. He takes the opportunity to praise Milton's "great
learning and sharpness of wit," and to the second edition of _Paradise
Lost_ (1674) he contributed some verses of just and eloquent praise.
His _Mr Smirke, or the Divine in Mode ..._ (1676) was a defence of
Herbert Croft, bishop of Hereford, against the criticisms of Dr Francis
Turner, master of St John's College, Cambridge. A far more important
work was _An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in
England, more particularly from the Long Prorogation of Parliament ..._
(1677). This pamphlet was written in the same outspoken tone as the
verse satires, and brought against the court the indictment of nursing
designs to establish absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic religion
at the same time. A reward was offered for the author, whose identity
was evidently suspected, and it is said that Marvell was in danger of
assassination. He died on the 16th of August 1678 in consequence of an
overdose of an opiate taken during an attack of ague. He was buried in
the church of St Giles-in-the-Fields, London. Joint administration of
his estate was granted to one of his creditors, and to his widow, Mary
Marvell, of whom we have no previous mention.
As a humorist, and as a great "parliament man," no name is of more
interest to a student of the reign of Charles II. than that of Marvell.
He had friends among the republican thinkers of the times. Aubrey says
that he was intimate with James Harrington, the author of _Oceana_, and
he was probably a member of the "Rota" club. In the heyday of political
infamy, he, a needy man, obliged to accept wages from his constituents,
kept his political virtue unspotted, and he stood throughout his career
as the champion of moderate and tolerant measures. There is a story that
his old schoolfellow, Danby, was sent by the king to offer the
incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of £1000, which Marvell
refused with the words: "I live here to serve my constituents: the
ministry may seek men for their purpose; I am not one." When
self-indulgence was the ordinary habit of town life, Marvell was a
temperate man. His personal appearance is described by John Aubrey: "He
was of a middling stature, pretty strong set, roundish faced, cherry
cheeked, hazel eyed, brown haired. In his conversation he was modest and
of very few words." ("Lives of Eminent Persons," printed in _Letters ...
in the 17th and 18th Centuries_, 1813).
Among Marvell's works is also a _Defence of John Howe on God's
Prescience ..._ (1678), and among the spurious works fathered on him
are: _A Seasonable Argument ... for a new Parliament_ (1677), _A
Seasonable Question and a Useful Answer ..._ (1676), _A Letter from a
Parliament Man ..._ (1675), and a translation of _Suetonius_ (1672).
Marvell's satires were no doubt first printed as broadsides, but very
few are still extant in that form. Such of his poems as were printed
during his lifetime appeared in collections of other men's works. The
earliest edition of his non-political verse is _Miscellaneous Poems_
(1681), edited by his wife, Mary Marvell. The political satires were
printed as _A Collection of Poems on Affairs of State, by A----
M----l, Esq. and other Eminent Wits_ (1689), with second and third
parts in the same year. The works of Andrew Marvell contained in these
two publications were also edited by Thomas Cooke (2 vols., 1726), who
added some letters. Cooke's edition was reprinted by Thomas Davies in
1772. Marvell's next editor was Captain Thompson of Hull, who was
connected with the poet's family, and made further additions from a
commonplace book since lost. Other editions followed, but were
superseded by Dr A. B. Grosart's laborious work, which, in spite of
many defects of style, remains indispensable to the student. _The
Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Andrew Marvell, M.P._ (4 vols.,
1872-1875) forms part of his "Fuller Worthies Library." See also the
admirable edition of the _Poems and Satires of Andrew Marvell ..._ (2
vols., 1892) in the "Muses' Library," where a full bibliography of his
works and of the commentaries on them is provided; also _The Poems and
some Satires of Andrew Marvell_ (ed. Edward Wright, 1904), and _Andrew
Marvell_ (1905), by Augustine Birrell in the "English Men of Letters"
series.