[1] By all old authors, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw and Fleming, the word
is written "Martin," but this form of spelling is now generally
reserved for the bird (see MARTIN). The word, as applied to the
animal here described, occurs in most Germanic and Romanic languages:
German, _marder_; Dutch, _marter_; Swedish, _mard_; Danish, _maar_;
English, _marteron_, _martern_, _marten_, _martin_ and _martlett_;
French, _marte_ and _martre_; Italian, _martora_ and _martorella_;
Spanish and Portuguese, _marta_. Its earliest known use is in the
form _martes_ (Martial, _Ep._ x. 37), but it can scarcely be an old
Latin word, as it is not found in Pliny or other classical writers,
and Martial often introduced foreign words into his Latin. Its
etymology has been connected with the German "martern," to torment. A
second Romanic name for the same animal is _fuina_, in French
_fouine_. The term "Marten Cat" is also used.
MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE (1845-1909), Russian jurist, was born at
Pernau in Livonia. In 1868 he entered the Russian ministry of foreign
affairs, was admitted in 1871 as a _Dozent_ in international law in the
university of St Petersburg, and in 1871 became lecturer and then (1872)
professor of public law in the Imperial School of Law and the Imperial
Alexander Lyceum. In 1874 when Prince Gorchakov, then imperial
chancellor, needed assistance for certain kinds of special work,
Martens was chosen to afford it. His book on _The Right of Private
Property in War_ had appeared in 1869, and had been followed in 1873 by
that upon _The Office of Consul and Consular Jurisdiction in the East_,
which had been translated into German and republished at Berlin. These
were the first of a long series of studies which won for their author a
world-wide reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of
international jurisprudence in all civilized countries. First amongst
them must be placed the great _Recueil des traités et conventions
conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères_ (13 vols.,
1874-1902). This collection, published in Russian and French in parallel
columns, contains not only the texts of the treaties but valuable
introductions dealing with the diplomatic conditions of which the
treaties were the outcome. These introductions are based largely on
unpublished documents from the Russian archives. Of Martens' original
works his _International Law of Civilized Nations_ is perhaps the best
known; it was written in Russian, a German edition appearing in
1884-1885, and a French edition in 1887-1888. It displays much judgment
and acumen, though some of the doctrines which it defends by no means
command universal assent. More openly "tendencious" in character are
such treatises as _Russia and England in Central Asia_ (1879); _Russia's
Conflict with China_ (1881), _The Egyptian Question_ (1882), and _The
African Conference of Berlin and the Colonial Policy of Modern States_
(1887). In the delicate questions raised in some of these works Martens
stated his case with learning and ability, even when it was obvious that
he was arguing as a special pleader. Martens was repeatedly chosen to
act in international arbitrations. Among the controversies which he
helped to adjust were that between Mexico and the United States--the
first case determined by the permanent tribunal of The Hague--and the
difference between Great Britain and France in regard to Newfoundland in
1891. He played an important part in the negotiations between his own
country and Japan, which led to the peace of Portsmouth (Aug. 1905) and
prepared the way for the Russo-Japanese convention. He was employed in
laying the foundations for The Hague Conferences. He was one of the
Russian plenipotentiaries at the first conference and president of the
fourth committee--that on maritime law--at the second conference. His
visits to the chief capitals of Europe in the early part of 1907 were an
important preliminary in the preparation of the programme. He was judge
of the Russian supreme prize court established to determine cases
arising during the war with Japan. He received honorary degrees from the
universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Yale; he was also awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1902. In April 1907 he addressed a remarkable
letter to _The Times_ on the position of the second Duma, in which he
argued that the best remedy for the ills of Russia would be the
dissolution of that assembly and the election of another on a narrower
franchise. He died suddenly on the 20th of June 1909.
See T. E. Holland, in _Journal of the Society of Comparative
Legislation_ for October 1909, where a list of the writings of Martens
appears.
MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON (1756-1821), German jurist and diplomatist,
was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1756. Educated at the
universities of Göttingen, Regensburg and Vienna, he became professor of
jurisprudence at Göttingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made
a counsellor of state by the elector of Hanover in 1808, and in 1810 was
president of the financial section of the council of state of the
kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 he was appointed privy cabinet-councillor
(_Geheimer Kabinetsrat_) by the king of Hanover, and in 1816 went as
representative of the king to the diet of the new German Confederation
at Frankfort, where he died on the 21st of February 1821.
Of his works the most important is the great collection of treaties
_Recueil des traités, &c._ from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven
volumes were published at Göttingen (1791-1801), followed by four
supplementary volumes partly edited by his nephew Karl von Martens
(see below). These were followed by _Nouveau recueil_, of treaties
subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Göttingen, 1817-1842), of which G. F.
von Martens edited the first four, the fifth being the work of K. von
Martens, the others (6-9) by F. Saalfeld and (10-16) F. Murhard. A
_Nouveau supplément_, in 3 vols., filling gaps in the previous
collection, was also published by Murhard (Göttingen, 1839-1842). This
was followed by _Nouveau recueil ... continuation du grand recueil de
Martens_, in 20 vols. (Göttingen, 1843-1875), edited in turn by F.
Murhard, C. Murhard, J. Pinhas, C. Samwer and J. Hopf, with a general
index of treaties from 1494 to 1874 (1876). This was followed by
_Nouveau recueil, 2me série_ (Göttingen, 1876-1896; vols. xxii.-xxxv.,
Leipzig, 1897-1908). From vol. xi. on this series was edited by Felix
Stork, professor of public law at Greifswald. In 1909 appeared vol. i.
of a further _Continuation (troisième série)_ under the editorship of
Professor Heinrich Triepel of Kiel University.
Of Martens' other works the most important are the _Précis du droit
des gens modernes de l'Europe_ (1789; 3rd ed., Göttingen, 1821; new
ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); _Erzählungen
merkwürdiger Fälle des neueren europäischen Völkerrechts_, 2 vols.
(Göttingen, 1800-1802); _Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations
des puissances de l'Europe_, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1801); _Grundriss einer
diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshändel u. Friedensschlüsse seit
dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts_ (ibid. 1807).
His nephew KARL VON MARTENS (1790-1863), who at his death was minister
resident of the grand-duke of Weimar at Dresden, published a _Manuel
diplomatique_ (Leipzig, 1823), re-issued as _Guide diplomatique_ in
two vols. in 1832 (5th ed. by Geffcken, 1866), a valuable textbook of
the rules and customs of the diplomatic service; _Causes célèbres du
droit des gens_ (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and _Nouvelles causes célèbres_
(2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in 5 vols. (1858-1861);
_Recueil manuel et pratique de traités_ (7 vols., ibid., 1846-1857);
continued by Geffcken in 3 vols., (1885-1888).
MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN (1808-1884), Danish divine, was born at Flensburg
on the 19th of August 1808. He studied in Copenhagen, and was ordained
in the Danish Church. At Copenhagen he was lektor in theology in 1838,
professor extra-ordinarius in 1840, court preacher also in 1845, and
professor ordinarius in 1850. In 1854 he was made bishop of Seeland. In
his studies he had come under the influence of Schleiermacher, Hegel and
Franz Baader; but he was a man of independent mind, and developed a
peculiar speculative theology which showed a disposition towards
mysticism and theosophy. His contributions to theological literature
included treatises on Christian ethics and dogmatics, on moral
philosophy, on baptism, and a sketch of the life of Jakob Boehme, who
exercised so marked an influence on the mind of the great English
theologian of the 18th century, William Law. Martensen was a
distinguished preacher, and his works were translated into various
languages. The "official" eulogy he pronounced upon Bishop Jakob P.
Mynster (1775-1854) in 1854, brought down upon his head the invectives
of the philosopher Sören Kierkegaard. He died at Copenhagen on the 3rd
of February 1884.
Amongst his works are: _Grundriss des Systems der Moralphilosophie_
(1841; 3rd ed., 1879; German, 1845), _Die christl. Taufe und die
baptistische Frage_ (2nd ed., 1847; German, 2nd ed., 1860), _Den
Christelige Dogmatik_ (4th ed., 1883; Eng. trans., 1866; German by
himself, 4th ed., 1897); _Christliche Ethik_ (1871; Eng. trans., Part
I. 1873, Part II. 1881 seq.); _Hirtenspiegel_ (1870-1872);
_Katholizismus und Protestantismus_ (1874); _Jacob Böhme_ (1882; Eng.
trans., 1885). An autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben_, appeared in 1883,
and after his death the _Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner_
(1888).
MARTHA'S VINEYARD, an island including the greater part of Dukes county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., lying about 3 m. off the southern coast of that
state. Its extreme length (east to west) is about 20 m., and its extreme
width (north to south) about 9½ m. Along its north-west and a portion of
its north-east shore lies Vineyard Sound. Its principal bays are
Vineyard Haven Harbor, a deep indentation at the northernmost angle of
the island; and, on the eastern coast, Edgartown Harbor and Katama Bay,
both formed by the juxtaposition of Chappaquiddick Island. The surface
is mainly flat, excepting a strip about 2 m. broad along the
north-western coast, and the two western townships (Chilmark and Gay
Head), which are hilly, with several eminences of 200 to 300 ft.--the
highest, Prospect Peak, in Chilmark township, 308 ft. Gay Head Light, a
beacon near the western extremity, stands among picturesque cliffs, 145
ft. above the sea. Along the southern coast are many ponds, all shut off
from the ocean by a narrow strip of land, excepting Tisbury Great Pond,
which has a small outlet to the sea. Others are Sengekontacket Pond on
the eastern coast; Lagoon Pond, which is practically an arm of Vineyard
Haven Harbor; and, about a mile east of the Harbor, Chappaquonsett Pond.
Martha's Vineyard is divided into the following townships (from east to
west): Edgartown (in the south-eastern part of the island), pop. (1910),
1191; area, 29.7 sq. m.; Oak Bluffs (north-eastern portion), pop.
(1910), 1084; area, 7.9 sq. m.; Tisbury, pop. (1910), 1196; area, 7.1
sq. m.; West Tisbury, pop. (1910), 437; area, 30.5 sq. m.; Chilmark,
pop. (1910), 282; area, 19.4 sq. m.; and Gay Head, pop. (1910), 162;
area 5.2 sq. m. The population of the county, including the Elizabeth
Ids. (Gosnold town, pop. 152), N. W. of Martha's Vineyard;
Chappaquiddick Island (Edgartown township), and No Man's Land (a small
island south-west of Martha's Vineyard), was 4561 in 1900 (of whom 645
were foreign-born, including 79 Portuguese and 72 English-Canadians, and
154 Indians), and in 1910, 4504. The principal villages are Oak Bluffs
on the north-east coast, facing Vineyard Sound; Vineyard Haven, in
Tisbury township, beautifully situated on the west shore of Vineyard
Haven Harbor, and Edgartown on Edgartown Harbor--all summer resorts. No
Man's Land, included politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6½ m.
south of Gay Head. It is about 1½ m. long (east and west) and about 1 m.
wide, is composed of treeless swamps, and is used mainly for
sheep-grazing; the neighbouring waters are excellent fishing ground.
Martha's Vineyard is served by steamship lines from Wood's Hole and New
Bedford to Vineyard Haven, Oak Bluffs, and Edgartown. The Martha's
Vineyard railway (from Oak Bluffs to the south-east extremity of the
island, by way of Edgartown), opened in 1874, was not a financial
success, and had been practically abandoned in 1909, but an electric
line from Oak Bluffs to Vineyard Haven provides transit facilities for
that part of the island.
For more than a century whale fishing was practically the sole industry
of Martha's Vineyard. It was carried on at first from the shore in small
boats; but by the first decade of the 18th century vessels especially
built for the purpose were being used, and by 1760 shore fishing had been
practically abandoned. The industry, seriously crippled by invasions of
British troops during the War of American Independence--especially by a
force which landed at Holmes's Hole (Vineyard Haven) in September
1778--and again during the War of 1812, revived and was at its height in
1840-1850, only to receive another setback during the Civil War. In the
last part of the 19th century its decline was rapid, not only because of
the increasing scarcity of whales, but because of the introduction of the
mineral oils, and by the end of the century whaling had ceased to be of
any economic importance. Herring fishing, on both the north and the south
shore, occupies a small percentage of the inhabitants, and there is also
some deep-sea fishing. Sheep-raising, especially for wool, is an industry
of considerable importance, and Dukes county is one of the three most
important counties of the state in this industry.
Martha's Vineyard was discovered in 1602 by Captain Bartholomew Gosnold,
who landed (May 21) on the island now called No Man's Land, and named it
Martha's Vineyard,[1] which name was subsequently applied to the larger
island. Captain Gosnold rounded Gay Head, which he named Dover Cliff,
and established on what is now Cuttyhunk Island, which he called
Elizabeth Island, the first (though, as it proved, a temporary) English
settlement in New England. The entire line of sixteen islands, of which
Cuttyhunk is the westernmost of the larger ones, have since been called
the Elizabeth Islands; they form the dividing line between Buzzards Bay
and Vineyard Sound, and in 1864 were incorporated as Gosnold township
(pop. in 1905, 161) of Dukes county.
The territory within the jurisdiction of the Council for New England was
parcelled in 1635 among the patentees in such terms--owing to
insufficient knowledge of the geography of the coast--that both William
Alexander, earl of Stirling, and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of
Maine, claimed Martha's Vineyard. In 1641 Stirling's agent, Forrett,
sold to Thomas Mayhew (1592-1682),[2] of Watertown, Massachusetts, for
$200, the island of Nantucket, with several smaller neighbouring
islands, and also Martha's Vineyard. It seems probable that Forrett
acted without authority, and his successor, Forrester, was arrested by
the Dutch in New Amsterdam and sent to Holland before he could confirm
the transfer. In 1644 the Commissioners of the United Colonies,
apparently at the request of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard,
annexed the island to Massachusetts, but ten years later the islanders
declared their independence of that colony, and apparently for the next
decade managed their own affairs. Meanwhile Mayhew had recognized the
jurisdiction of Maine;[3] and though the officials of that province
showed no disposition to press their claim, it seems that this technical
suzerainty continued until 1664, when the Duke of York received from his
brother, Charles II., the charter for governing New York, New Jersey,
and other territory, including Martha's Vineyard. In 1671 Governor
Francis Lovelace, of New York, appointed Mayhew governor for life of
Martha's Vineyard; in 1683, the island, with Nantucket, the Elizabeth
Islands, No Man's Land, and Chappaquiddick Island were erected into
Dukes county, and in 1695 the county was re-incorporated by
Massachusetts with Nantucket excluded. Under the new charter of
Massachusetts Bay (1691), after some dispute between Massachusetts and
New York, Martha's Vineyard became a part of Massachusetts.
There is a tradition that the first settlement of Martha's Vineyard was
made in 1632, at or near the present site of Edgartown village, by
several English families forming part of a company bound for Virginia,
their ship having put in at this harbour on account of heavy weather. It
is certain, however, that in 1642, the year after Thomas Mayhew bought
the island, his son, also named Thomas Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), and
several other persons established a plantation on the site of what is
now Edgartown village. This settlement was at first called "Great
Harbor," but soon after Mayhew was appointed governor of the island it
was named Edgartown, probably in honour of the only surviving son of the
Duke of York. The younger Mayhew, soon after removing to Martha's
Vineyard, devoted himself to missionary work among the Indians, his work
beginning at about the same time as that of John Eliot; he was lost at
sea in 1657 while on his way to secure financial assistance in England,
and his work was continued successfully by his father.[4] The township
of Edgartown was incorporated in 1671, and is the county-seat of Dukes
county. In 1783 several Edgartown families joined the association made
up of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Providence and Newport whalers, who
founded Hudson, on the Hudson river, in Columbia county, New York. Oak
Bluffs had its origin as a settlement in the camp meetings, which were
begun here in 1835, and by 1860 had grown to large proportions. As the
village expanded it took the name of Cottage City. In 1880 the township
was incorporated under that name, which it retained until January 1907,
when the name (and that of the village also) was changed to Oak Bluffs.
Tisbury township was bought from the Indians in 1669 and was
incorporated in 1671. Its principal village, Vineyard Haven, was called
"Holmes's Hole" (in honour of one of the early settlers) until 1871,
when the present name was adopted. West Tisbury township was set off
from Tisbury, and incorporated in 1892. Chilmark township was
incorporated in 1694. Gay Head township was set off from Chilmark, and
incorporated in 1870.
See C. Gilbert Hine, _The Story of Martha's Vineyard_ (New York,
1908); Charles E. Banks, "Martha's Vineyard and the Province of Maine"
in _Collections and Proceedings_ of the Maine Historical Society, 2nd
series, vol. ix. p. 123 (Portland, Maine, 1898); and Walter S. Tower,
_A History of the American Whale Fishery_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
(G. G.*)