Demarara, April.
The commandant having required me to wait the reply of the commander in
chief, to a letter upon the subject of our recall from this station, I
have availed myself of the interval, to make out a complete set of the
returns and accounts of the whole hospital department, from the date of
our arrival upon this coast; and having toiled at official papers for
several weeks, with all the application of an office clerk, I feel that
I cannot better devote my remaining leisure, than in transcribing for
your eye a few notes which I have collected, from time to time, upon the
general subject of these colonies.
To an intelligent and inquiring mind, like yours, every thing that
concerns mankind, and the countries we inhabit, must be strongly
interesting: the general appearance of the territory—the salubrity of
the air—the common productions, and the returns of produce—the price of
provisions—the wages of labour—the laws and form of government—the
distribution of property, and the administration of justice, cannot fail
to be questions of importance; and hence, although I have not had an
opportunity of acquiring minute or extensive information upon these
subjects, I offer no apology for laying before you the few observations
which I have been able to make, assured that you will not deem them
wholly devoid of interest.
An unfavorable prejudice has been imbibed respecting the climate upon
this coast; and a general opinion prevails, as well in the West India
islands as in Europe, that these settlements are very unhealthy: but,
however the fact may stand, upon a comparison with the genial climate of
a portion of Europe, it is certainly incorrect with respect to the
neighbouring islands. Probably it is a prejudice that dates its origin
from the earliest cultivation of the colonies; being formed either from
a superficial view of the peculiar surface of the land; or in
consequence of sickness having prevailed among the settlers, at the time
of first clearing the soil.
Low and flat countries are usually unpropitious to the health of man;
but the insalubrity does not result as a necessary consequence of this
form of the land: other circumstances are required: for, unless these
conspire, or, having conspired, if they be removed, the fact no longer
exists. A level country badly cleared, not well drained, and only
partially improved, will, no doubt, be unhealthy: but a district so well
cultivated as Demarara, will not be sickly, only because it is low. A
broken or mountainous territory may preserve its salubrity in great
measure from its form, or the particular exposure of its irregular
surface: but a flat soil ever demands the aid of industry; and can only
be made healthy by unceasing toil: and, herein, is afforded a beautiful
and striking example of the all-providing care of Nature: she has made
labour necessary to the well-being of man; and she causes the earth to
bestow health as the consequence of his toil; but if he neglect the
salutary exertions required, she compels the very fields, not only to
reproach his indolence, but to punish him with sickness. She has gone
even further; for, these fields which, bereft of his health-inspiring
toil, will destroy him, she has particularly empowered to reward him
with plenty and riches, if he deny them not the attentions which she
dictates for the preservation of his health.
You will have collected some knowledge of the general appearance, and
the state of cultivation of this coast, from the desultory remarks I
have already sent you; but as I find a few words upon these subjects,
among my general notes, I shall transcribe them, with the others, and
you may read them, or not, as suits your leisure. I have told you that
on approaching these colonies from the sea, the land is not visible,
until you come very near to the shore. The tops of trees only are seen;
which appear to be growing out of the ocean. Before the coast was
brought into a state of culture, the forest reached nearly to the verge
of the water, and from the land being low, it was frequently overflowed
by the tides. Now, there is a cultivated territory, a mile and a half in
depth, between the ocean and the forest; but this is so entirely flat,
as to escape the eye, and on sailing towards the coast, the trees still
look as if they were growing within the margin of the sea.
Perhaps none but the plodding industrious Hollander would have attempted
to clear such a country: where wood and water concealed every appearance
of the land, and seemed to bid defiance to all the powers of
cultivation. Nor indeed were the early labours of the first settlers
directed to this part of the coast. They sailed far up the rivers, and
established the settlements upon their more elevated banks, at a
distance remote from the sea; not venturing to devote their industry to
the immediate borders of the ocean, until they were prompted to it by
the enterprise of more adventurous planters from the British islands.
The whole of the territory now brought into cultivation upon the coast,
is _made_-land. It has been placed—I had almost said created, by the
hand of man; and is preserved to his use, only by constant toil.
Numerous ditches and canals are cut to drain the water from the common
surface; and the land that is planted, is merely the mud and clay thrown
out of these channels.
An estate, or plantation, usually consists of a long piece of flat land,
about a quarter of a mile in width, and a mile and half in depth,
running back from the sea to the woods. It is bordered by wide ditches,
traversed by numbers of others, and thus formed into many separate
divisions, somewhat resembling an assemblage of beds; such as are
usually made in our English gardens, for the planting of asparagus.
A deep bank of earth, called a dyke, is thrown up in front, to defend
the estate from the encroachments of the sea; and a similar bank is
raised at the back, to prevent it from being inundated by the waters,
which overspread the flat surface of the forest. The ditches unite by
frequent intersections, and form ready communications with the sea. It
is one of the regular duties of the estate, thoroughly to scour out
these trenches every year; when the mud that is removed, makes a coating
of manure, and serves to raise, while it enriches the soil; which from
cultivation, from the falling of heavy rains, and from the flowing of
the tides in the numerous channels around it, were it not for this
supply, would soon wear to a level, and be again a prey to the waters.
From a number of these estates lying contiguous to each other, the coast
is formed into an open, though narrow, territory; and the border of the
sea is seen spreading into one splendid cotton-field, a mile and half
deep, and of nearly seventy miles extent. The surface being quite level,
this immense tract of cultivated land opens at once to the eye, and the
scene is not less rich than novel. Perhaps a plain so spacious, a soil
so fertile, and a produce so abundant, cannot be met with in any other
country.
Like the earth in cultivation, that which forms the public roads is only
the mud and clay procured from the ditches which skirt them. They are of
course flat, like the rest of the territory, and running at the bottom,
or along the sides of the estates, they form straight lines, and right
angles, throughout the whole extent of the plantations, interrupted only
by the wooden bridges which cross the numerous ditches and canals.
In allotting the land, a certain width of it between each two estates,
is, with much wisdom, reserved to the settlement, in order to form what
are here termed colony-paths. These not only serve as common ways, from
the front to the back of every plantation, but in each of them is cut a
public canal, which runs from the sea, throughout the whole depth of the
cultivated land, to the forest. By this provision many useful purposes
are answered; general convenience is promoted; and each individual
planter is benefited.
The colony-path not only offers itself as a common road, from the sea to
the Bush, but preserves a free communication for any future settlers,
who may engage in the culture of land at the back of the present
estates; while the canal, by means of flood-gates, lets off to the
ocean, the water that lodges in the forest, and prevents it from
overflowing the cultivated fields; bringing at the same time, a supply
of fresh water, for the use of the negroes and the cattle; and affording
to the planters a ready means of conveying the produce of their estates
to the sea.
Although the general face of the colonies be such as to convey an
unfavorable impression, the peculiar mode of cultivation protects them
from the ills, which, upon a first view of the soil, might seem to be
threatened. From the frequent use of the hoe, in clearing the crops,
scarcely a weed is left to grow up and decay; from the numerous
channels, which intersect each other, the rain that falls is carried
off, without becoming stagnant; from the flowing of the tide, every
thing noxious, brought to the ditches, is speedily removed; and from an
annual scouring, the channels are kept peculiarly free from impurities:
hence, notwithstanding its flatness, the land which is brought into
cultivation is not suffered to grow swampy; no offensive accumulation is
formed; nor does the mud-impregnated water of the ditches remain to grow
putrid, and emit unhealthy vapours. The earth is always fresh; the
channels are free; and the waters frequently renewed; it consequently
follows that the evils, which commonly proceed from low and neglected
ground, are in a great measure prevented.
When I mentioned as one of the advantages of the public canals, that
they furnish a supply for the slaves and the cattle, I might have added,
that the paucity of good water is one of the greatest inconveniences
that is known in these colonies; for although the canals bring in plenty
that is fresh, it is so strongly impregnated with infused leaves, and
other vegetable matters, in consequence of coming from the forest, that
it is very unpleasant, both to the eye and the palate, and as the
negroes express it, “_no good for backra_,” although these poor beings
are, themselves, obliged to share it with the cattle.
The river water is brackish to the distance of many miles from the
coast: springs there are none; and what might be procured by wells could
not be used. Under these circumstances, the expedient of preserving the
offerings from the clouds naturally suggested itself; and accordingly,
tanks, or cisterns, have been constructed for this purpose at almost
every estate. Some families put the rain-water into large earthen jars,
in which, with much care, it is kept good, during the whole period of
the dry season. Those who are not possessed of either jars, or cisterns,
are obliged to content themselves with the strongly macerated infusion
of the forests, called “bush-water;” or to send parties many miles, with
boats and casks, to obtain fresh water from a remote part of the river,
or from some of its tributary streams.
From the nature of the land, the crops upon this coast are very
abundant, and are far more regularly productive, than in any others of
our settlements in the West Indies. These colonies likewise possess the
great advantage of being free from hurricanes and earthquakes, and from
that mischievous insect, the borer, which in the islands so often
destroys the canes. They are also exempt from great droughts, which are
so frequently injurious to the islands, and, in consequence of being
open to the breeze, they are less liable to frequent and sudden changes
of temperature: neither hills, nor rocks, nor woods offer any impediment
to the trade winds, which come to them from the ocean, and are scarcely
ever absent throughout the whole annual circle.
The year is commonly divided into two wet and two dry seasons. The long
wet season begins in April, declines in August, and ceases in September.
The roads are then dry, and the weather fine until the middle of
November; when the short wet season sets in, and continues till January.
From the middle of that month until the latter end of April, the weather
is dry, the atmosphere clear and pure, and the climate genial. The roads
are then good, the breeze is powerful and steady, the air comparatively
cool, and the temperature subject to little variation.
In these colonies laws are made, and acts passed by the governor and
council; the governor having two votes.
The members of council are chosen by keizers, or electors; these being
appointed by the inhabitants; each inhabitant, possessed of property, to
the amount of six hundred guilders per annum, being entitled to a vote.
To qualify a person for being elected a member of council, it is
requisite that he be a freeholder, and a protestant: that he shall have
resided three years in the colony; and that he understand the Dutch
language.
The council framing laws, is called a court of policy: this court is of
a mixed form, resembling a combination of the house of assembly, and the
governor and council of the British colonies.
The court of justice, like the legislative and executive, is composed of
the governor, and of counsellors elected by the keizers. This court
takes cognizance of all civil and criminal causes, and admits of no
appeal, except to the sovereign.
A commissary court is established for the adjustment of petty offences,
and for the decision of all questions of property below the value of 600
guilders. This court consists of two members of the court of justice,
who are appointed in rotation, the governor nominally presiding. The
fiscal is the active officer of this court. It is his duty to announce,
or impose the fines; but he has no power to levy them. If they be
resisted, he serves the parties with a citation, and they appeal to the
commissary court.
The fiscal is the great law officer, and may be considered as the
attorney and solicitor general of the colony. His powers and privileges
are very considerable, and his influence, of course, extensive.
The country is divided into a certain number of districts, with a
burgher captain appointed to each, on whom devolves the more immediate
execution of the public regulations, whether made for the particular
convenience of the respective districts, or for the common benefit of
the colony at large.
It is a regulation—or law of the colony, that each planter shall keep in
repair that portion of the public road, together with its bridges, which
crosses or passes at the end of his own estate. But instead of
overseers, or surveyors of the road being appointed, it is made the duty
of the fiscal, to travel throughout the colony, twice in every year, for
the express purpose of inspecting the roads and bridges, and imposing
fines upon the owners of such as are not found to be in good repair.
In these tours of inspection the law requires that he shall be
accompanied by a burgher officer, and a clerk from the government
secretary’s office; the former to approve, the latter to witness such
approval, and to note the fines imposed. This control seems to be highly
necessary, as certain proportions of these fines become the perquisite
of the fiscal, and serve to enrich his own purse.
The planters, upon receiving notice of the fines, thus levied, have the
privilege of resisting the payment of them: in which case the fiscal
refers the question to the commissary court, and himself pleads the
cause, as the principal law officer of the colony. But it frequently
happens, that by offering a third, or a half of the fine, the affair is
compromised—the fiscal silenced—his pocket satisfied; and all further
appeal to the court of justice prevented.
The regulation has, however, the effect of keeping the public roads in
very excellent repair; for, knowing how very improbable it is, that the
least defect can escape the penetrating and interested eye of the
fiscal, each planter is particularly attentive to the highways and the
bridges[4].
All grants of land, in these colonies, are made from the States General
of the United Provinces; and they commonly consist of lots, either of
250, or 500 acres, laid out in the abovementioned regular form, which is
favored by the situation, and flatness of the land. In front, towards
the sea, each estate is about 1200 Dutch[5] feet in width; and in
length, back from the sea into the forest, or Bush, 9000 feet. In
Berbische many of the grants are 1800 feet wide, and 12,000 feet deep.
On granting the land it is stipulated that the plantation shall be
advanced to a certain state of cultivation by a given period, under the
penalty of being forfeited at the expiration of that term, if not
improved to the extent specified; and by way of encouragement to the
planter, a second depth, further into the forest, of equal extent, and
immediately at the back of the other, is usually granted to the person
who holds the first depth from the sea, so soon as it shall be
certified, by the two neighbouring planters, that two-thirds of the
first grant are brought into good cultivation, and that the new grant
will not be in anywise injurious to them. Some gentlemen are now in
possession of these double plantations of 18,000 feet; but, for the most
part, only the single estates of 9000 feet are yet made obedient to the
hoe.
Thus you will perceive, that these rich colonies are merely a narrow
strip of land, upon the margin of the Atlantic Ocean, bounded by a deep
forest, which extends across the whole continent to the Pacific Ocean.
Until within the last twelve or fifteen years, scarcely any plantations
were formed upon the coast. It is since this period that English
enterprise has taught the plodding Hollander that he had overlooked his
best interests, in not bestowing his industry upon the immediate verge
of the ocean; and the seashore already exhibits one rich and fertile
field, throughout nearly the whole extent, from the river Demarara to
the river Berbische.
It is probable that, in the course of a few years, the borders of the
rivers will be totally abandoned, and, instead of being enriched with
coffee and sugar, will be left to relapse into their primeval state. In
such event a very short time would efface every mark of human industry,
and it would be difficult to discover that the arm of man had ever
extended thither; for so rapid is the progress of vegetation, that the
land is only held subservient to useful purposes by the unremitted toil
of slaves, which being once withdrawn, it would speedily revert to its
original wildness, and again become a part of one vast forest.
The colony of Berbische was the first settled; but that of Demarara has
proceeded with far the most rapid improvement. The estates now in
cultivation upon the sea-coast, from the Demarara river to the boundary
of the colony of Berbische, are one hundred and sixteen; all producing
cotton, except the “Kitty” belonging to Mr. T. Cuming, which has been
recently planted with sugar[6]. This part of the colony is divided into
four districts, the burgher captains, presiding over which, are all
British planters, viz. Mr. Lochland Cuming, Mr. Rogers, Mr. Telfer, and
Mr. Sutherland.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that coffee, cotton, and sugar are
the great, and almost only commercial productions of the colony. The
average produce of the 80 best cotton estates, is calculated at from
50,000 lb. to 60,000 lb. weight, each, of cotton per annum. In the
cultivation of this plant _one prime negro_ is considered as sufficient
stock for _two acres_ of land. The average number of cotton bushes,
planted upon an acre, is six hundred. Each bush is calculated to produce
eight ounces of cotton; and the average price of the article, sold in
the colony, is estimated at fifteen stivers per pound.
The requisite proportion of stock, for an estate cultivated with coffee,
is _two negroes_ to _three acres_ of land. The number of coffee bushes
usually planted is four hundred and fifty per acre. Each bush is
calculated to produce 1½ lb. of coffee; and the average price, when sold
in the colony, is from seven to eight stivers per pound.
The cultivation of sugar, is the most expensive, and requires
considerably the greatest proportion of stock, _one prime negro_ being
necessary to _every acre_ of land. The average return of an estate,
planted with sugar, is 50_l._ sterling per acre, being 2000 lb. weight
of sugar at four-pence per pound, and rum in proportion.
The domestic fowls and animals seen in these colonies are the same as
those of Europe; but we find that the Moscovy duck, and the Guinea fowl
are much more commonly used than in England. Very few of the birds, or
beasts of the surrounding woods, have yet been domesticated, and these,
not for the purpose of utility, but amusement: the monkey and parrot
tribes being almost the only species seen about the houses. The horse,
the sheep, the dog, and the other animals which are usually associated
with the family circle, and made subservient to man, are not the native
inhabitants of these forests; but, possibly, there may be others which
might be brought into social habits, and made to contribute to our
wants. Domestic birds it is known there are; for we occasionally see, in
that state, the native ducks of the rivers, and what is here called the
powys, or turkey of the woods, which is a more stately bird, and nearly
as large as the common turkey of Europe.
With respect to the natural history of the country, a wider field seems
to be opened in botany and zoology, than in mineralogy; for while the
animal and vegetable worlds are abundantly stored, scarcely a stone or a
pebble can be found in any part of the colonies yet cultivated. I lament
exceedingly that my occupations will not allow me more time to devote to
these subjects; and, on this ground, I have particularly to regret being
separated from my baggage, having left on board the Lord Sheffield two
boxes of books, the loss of which I feel very severely.
Delightful as the study is, perhaps no extensive progress can be
expected to be made in the different branches of the natural history of
the country, so long as it shall continue to be visited only from views
of pecuniary gain. Even the enthusiasm which attaches to new
discoveries, can induce but few to toil in such a climate, in the mere
pursuits of science; and, accordingly, we see that it is the object of
those, who do hazard their persons, to devote themselves to the means of
acquiring a competent fortune, to enable them to retire, as speedily as
possible, to enjoy the fruits of it in a more temperate atmosphere.
It is not only with excessive heat and disease that those who visit
these regions have to contend! The extreme annoyance, from insects and
reptiles is still more severe, to many persons, than the exhausting
warmth of the climate. In truth I may say it is so to myself; for the
general buzzing, the biting, stinging, creeping, and crawling of these
tormenting objects, distress me far more than the temperature, or any
apprehension of disease. We are bitten, stung, or overrun by day and by
night, and exposed to incessant pain and discomfort, unless constantly
upon the watch, or carefully protected by some defensive covering; being
perpetually beset with myriads of flies, ants, musquitoes, cockroaches,
lizards, Jack Spaniards[7], fireflies, centipedes, &c. &c.; which, in
addition to their bites and stings, fly in our faces, crawl about our
persons, and make an intolerable buzzing in our ears. In an evening, and
particularly after rain, the confused noise of these humming hosts is
peculiarly disagreeable. It conveys the idea of breathing in an
atmosphere of sounds, or amidst a great and animated hive, where every
created insect joins in full chorus—the enormous frog of the country
croaking the bass, in a voice which resembles the loud bellowings of an
ox.
From the great fertility of the soil; from the uninterrupted regularity
of the crops, and their abundant produce; and from the immense extent of
territory capable of being brought into cultivation, these colonies may
be regarded as the most valuable capture which has been made during the
war, and perhaps that which it might be most to the advantage of England
to preserve, to herself, upon the return of peace.
The number of slaves, at this period, in the united colony of Essequibo
and Demarara, is about fifty-five thousand[8]. The greatest number
possessed by an individual is nearly 2000. These are the property of
Mynheer Boode, a planter living upon the western coast of the Demarara
river; a man of immense fortune, who is said to have been originally a
drum-boy, in the Dutch service, and to have come to this colony from
Surinam, where he had arrived with the troops from Holland. Here, by a
steady perseverance in successful industry, he has been enabled to
acquire a fortune, which is represented as princely indeed; it being
said to amount to nearly 50,000_l._ sterling, per annum.
Of the wages of daily labour it is difficult to speak, with any degree
of accuracy, in a country where the work is done by slaves. I have
already mentioned an instance of the exorbiant price of wages among the
labouring class of carpenters, and this may serve as a specimen of the
rate of hire given to others. The lower ranks of white people are mostly
mechanics, or artisans, and these obtain high and extravagant wages in
all parts of the West Indies. White labouring peasants, or husbandmen,
are here unknown. The mulattoes, like wise, are for the most part bred
to some handicraft employment, and very few of them are seen to toil
their daily round in the field: the cultivating of the land, therefore,
and all the menial, and lower degrees of labour, are performed by the
negro slaves, who are themselves, equally with the implements of their
toil, the sole and disposable property of their masters; wherefore, in
order to ascertain the wages of labour, it would be necessary to
calculate the cost of the slave, his provisions, and clothing, the price
of the tools he uses, the risk of sickness, and of casualties, and the
interest of money; and thence to draw the ratio of expenditure, or the
sum invested to procure his daily toil.
But it sometimes happens that persons buy slaves, who have neither land
for them to cultivate, nor any other means of employing them: they let
them out therefore to hire, by the month or the year. Some even purchase
negroes expressly for this purpose; and lay the foundation of their
fortunes by selling the toil of Africans, who are thus made to sweat
drops of gold for their owners, under the lash of other masters. The
profit obtained from the labour of a slave, who costs about eighty
pounds, is usually from twenty to twenty-two guineas per annum, all
expense of food, and of medicines when sick, being defrayed, throughout
the term for which he is engaged, by the person who hires him.
Upon making minute inquiry I understand that the hire of a negro may be
fairly estimated at about two guilders for a single day; if engaged for
several weeks, at one guilder per day; and when hired for a longer
period, it may be rated at about 250, or nearly 300 guilders per annum.
The compensation of professional labour bears a due proportion to the
high profits acquired by the merchants and planters. From the population
being very limited, and the inhabitants not yet crowded into towns, the
medical practitioners are seldom rewarded with regular fees for their
attendance; but are commonly allowed an annual salary for their
services, thus establishing a kind of fixed income, which depends upon
the number of estates under their inspection, and not upon the number of
sick, whom they may have to visit.
PRICE OF PROVISIONS
IN THE COLONY OF DEMARARA.