[1] This date is uncertain; some place the marriage in 1453 or soon
after, others about 1464. It is probable that Fust alluded to this
relationship when he spoke of Schoffer as _pueri mei_ in the
colophons of Cicero's _De officiis_ of 1465 and 1466.
[2] This method was patented in England by Solomon Henry in 1780, and
by Sir William Congreve in 1819.
[3] (3) Durandus, _Rationale divinorum officiorum_ (1459), folio, 160
leaves; (4) the _Clementine Constitutions_, with the gloss of
Johannes Andreae (1460), 51 leaves; (5) _Biblia Sacra Latina_ (1462),
folio, 2 vols., 242 and 239 leaves, 48 lines to a full page; (6) the
Sixth Book of Decretals, with Andreae's gloss, 17th December 1465,
folio, 141 leaves; (7) Cicero, _De officiis_ (1465). 4to, 88 leaves,
the first edition of a Latin classic and the first book containing
Greek characters, while in the colophon Fust for the first time calls
Schoffer "puerum suum"; (8) the same, 4th February 1466; (9)
_Grammatica rhytmica_ (1466), folio, 11 leaves. They also printed in
1461-1462 several papal bulls, proclamations of Adolf of Nassau, &c.
Nothing is known to have appeared for three years after the storming
and capture of Mainz in 1462.
[4] Some confusion in the history of the Fust family has arisen since
the publication of Bernard's _Orig. de l'imprimerie_ (1853). On p.
262, vol. i. he gave an extract from the correspondence between
Oberlin and Bodmann (now preserved in the Paris Nat. Library), from
which it would appear that Peter Schoffer was the son-in-law, not of
Johann Fust, but of a brother of his, Conrad Fust. Of the latter,
however, no other trace has been found, and he is no doubt a fiction
of F.J. Bodmann, who, partly basing himself on the "Conrad" (Henlif,
or Henckis) mentioned above, added the rest to gratify Oberlin (see
Wyss in _Quartalblatter des hist. Vereins fur Hessen_, 1879, p. 17).
FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS (1830-1889), French historian, was born
in Paris on the 18th of March 1830, of Breton descent. After studying at
the Ecole Normale Superieure he was sent to the French school at Athens
in 1853, directed some excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical
account of the island. After his return he filled various educational
offices, and took his doctor's degree with two theses, _Quid Vestae
cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit_ and _Polybe,
ou la Grece conquise par les Romains_ (1858). In these works his
distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute knowledge of the
language of the Greek and Roman institutions, coupled with his low
estimate of the conclusions of contemporary scholars, led him to go
direct to the original texts, which he read without political or
religious bias. When, however, he had succeeded in extracting from the
sources a general idea that seemed to him clear and simple, he attached
himself to it as if to the truth itself, employing dialectic of the most
penetrating, subtle and even paradoxical character in his deduction of
the logical consequences. From 1860 to 1870 he was professor of history
at the faculty of letters at Strassburg, where he had a brilliant career
as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence exercised by the German
universities in the field of classical and Germanic antiquities.
It was at Strassburg that he published his remarkable volume _La Cite
antique_ (1864), in which he showed forcibly the part played by religion
in the political and social evolution of Greece and Rome. Although his
making religion the sole factor of this evolution was a perversion of
the historical facts, the book was so consistent throughout, so full of
ingenious ideas, and written in so striking a style, that it ranks as
one of the masterpieces of the French language in the 19th century. By
this literary merit Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to
his theories. When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications were
very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it, as he often
expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life, he would not
have abandoned any part of his fundamental thesis. The work is now
largely superseded.
Fustel de Coulanges was the most conscientious of men, the most
systematic and uncompromising of historians. Appointed to a lectureship
at the Ecole Normale Superieure in February 1870, to a professorship at
the Paris faculty of letters in 1875, and to the chair of medieval
history created for him at the Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to
the study of the political institutions of ancient France. The invasion
of France by the German armies during the war of 1870-71 attracted his
attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire. Pursuing the
theory of J.B. Dubos, but singularly transforming it, he maintained that
those invasions were not marked by the violent and destructive character
usually attributed to them; that the penetration of the German
barbarians into Gaul was a slow process; that the Germans submitted to
the imperial administration; that the political institutions of the
Merovingians had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if
not more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was no
conquest of Gaul by the Germans. This thesis he sustained brilliantly in
his _Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_, the
first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the author's original
intention to complete this work in four volumes, but as the first volume
was keenly attacked in Germany as well as in France, Fustel was forced
in self-defence to recast the book entirely. With admirable
conscientiousness he re-examined all the texts and wrote a number of
dissertations, of which, though several (e.g. those on the Germanic mark
and on the _allodium_ and _beneficium_) were models of learning and
sagacity, all were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a
total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as
diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work, less well
arranged than the original, but richer in facts and critical comments.
The first volume was expanded into three volumes, _La Gaule romaine_
(1891), _L'Invasion germanique et la fin de l'empire_ (1891) and _La
Monarchie franque_ (1888), followed by three other volumes, _L'Alleu et
le domaine rural pendant l'epoque merovingienne_ (1889), _Les Origines
du systeme feodal: le benefice et le patronat ..._ (1890) and _Les
Transformations de la royaute pendant l'epoque carolingienne_ (1892).
Thus, in six volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the
Carolingian period. The result of this enormous labour, albeit worthy of
a great historian, clearly showed that the author lacked all sense of
historical proportion. He was a diligent seeker after the truth, and was
perfectly sincere when he informed a critic of the exact number of
"truths" he had discovered, and when he remarked to one of his pupils a
few days before his death, "Rest assured that what I have written in my
book is the truth." Such superb self-confidence can accomplish much, and
it undoubtedly helped to form Fustel's talent and to give to his style
that admirable concision which subjugates even when it fails to
convince; but a student instinctively distrusts an historian who settles
the most controverted problems with such impassioned assurance. The
dissertations not embodied in his great work were collected by himself
and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Jullian, and published as
volumes of miscellanies: _Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire_
(1885), dealing with the Roman colonate, the land system in Normandy,
the Germanic mark, and the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the
Franks; _Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire_ (1891);
and _Questions historiques_ (1893), which contains his paper on Chios
and his thesis on Polybius.
His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his books. In
1875 he was elected member of the Academie des Sciences Morales, and in
1880 reluctantly accepted the post of director of the Ecole Normale.
Without intervening personally in French politics, he took a keen
interest in the questions of administration and social reorganization
arising from the fall of the imperialist regime and the disasters of the
war. He wished the institutions of the present to approximate more
closely to those of the past, and devised for the new French
constitution a body of reforms which reflected the opinions he had
formed upon the democracy at Rome and in ancient France. But these were
dreams which did not hold him long, and he would have been scandalized
had he known that his name was subsequently used as the emblem of a
political and religious party. He died at Massy (Seine-et-Oise) on the
12th of September 1889. Throughout his historical career--at the Ecole
Normale and the Sorbonne and in his lectures delivered to the empress
Eugenie--his sole aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of
truth his polemics against what he imagined to be the blindness and
insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harshness
and injustice. But, in France at least, these critics were the first to
render justice to his learning, his talents and his disinterestedness.
See Paul Guiraud, _Fustel de Coulanges_ (1896); H. d'Arbois de
Jubainville, _Deux Manieres d'ecrire l'histoire: critique de Bossuet,
d'Augustin Thierry et de Fustel de Coulanges_ (1896); and Gabriel
Monod, _Portraits et souvenirs_ (1897). (C. B.*)
FUSTIAN, a term which includes a variety of heavy woven cotton fabrics,
chiefly prepared for men's wear. It embraces plain twilled cloth called
jean, and cut fabrics similar to velvet, known as velveteen, moleskin,
corduroy, &c. The term was once applied to a coarse cloth made of cotton
and flax; now, fustians are usually of cotton and dyed various colours.
In the reign of Edward III. the name was given to a woollen fabric. The
name is said to be derived from El-Fustat, a suburb of Cairo, where it
was first made; and certainly a kind of cloth has long been known under
that name. In a petition to parliament, _temp._ Philip and Mary,
"fustian of Naples" is mentioned. In the 13th and 14th centuries
priests' robes and women's dresses were made of fustian, but though
dresses are still made from some kinds the chief use is for labourers'
clothes.
FUSTIC (Fr. _fustoc_, from Arab. _fustuq_, Gr. [Greek: pistake],
pistachio) YELLOW WOOD or OLD FUSTIC, a dye-stuff consisting of the wood
of _Chlorophora tinctoria_, a large tree of the natural order Moraceae,
growing in the West Indies and tropical America. Fustic occurs in
commerce in blocks, which are brown without, and of a brownish-yellow
within. It is sometimes employed for inlaid work. The dye-stuff termed
young fustic or Zante fustic, and also Venetian sumach, is the wood of
_Rhus cotinus_ (fustet, or smoke tree), a southern European and Asiatic
shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae, called by Gerarde "red
sumach," and apparently the "coccygia" and "cotinus" of Pliny (_Nat.
Hist._ xiii. 41, xvi. 30). Its colouring matter is fisetin, C15H10O6,
which was synthesized by S. von Kostanecki (_Ber._, 1904, 37, p. 384).
(See DYEING.)
FUTURES, a term used in the produce markets for purchases or sales of
commodities to be completed at a future date, as opposed to cash or
"spot" transactions, which are settled immediately. See MARKET, and (for
a detailed discussion of the question as affecting cotton) COTTON:
_Marketing and Supply_.
FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH (1660-1741), Austrian musician, was born at
Hirtenfeld (Styria) in 1660. Of his youth and early training nothing is
known. In 1696 he was organist at one of the principal churches of
Vienna, and in 1698 was appointed by the emperor Leopold I. as his
"imperial court-composer," with a salary of about L6 a month. At the
court of Leopold and of his successors Joseph I. and Charles VI., Fux
remained for the rest of his life. To his various court dignities that
of organist at St Stephen's cathedral was added in 1704. He married the
daughter of the government secretary Schnitzbaum. As a proof of the high
favour in which he was held by the art-loving Charles VI., it is told
that at the coronation of that emperor as king of Bohemia in 1723 an
opera, _La Constanza e la Fortezza_, especially composed by Fux for the
occasion, was given at Prague in an open-air theatre. Fux at the time
was suffering from gout, but the emperor had him carried in a litter all
the way from Vienna, and gave him a seat in the imperial box. Fux died
at Vienna on the 13th of February 1741. His life, although passed in the
great world, was eventless, and his only troubles arose from the
intrigues of his Italian rivals at court. Of the numerous operas which
Fux wrote it is unnecessary to speak. They do not essentially differ
from the style of the Italian _opera seria_ of the time. Of greater
importance are his sacred compositions, psalms, motets, oratorios and
masses, the celebrated _Missa Canonica_ amongst the latter. It is an all
but unparalleled _tour de force_ of learned musicianship, being written
entirely in that most difficult of contrapuntal devices--the canon. As a
contrapuntist and musical scholar generally, Fux was unsurpassed by any
of his contemporaries, and his great theoretical work, the _Gradus ad
Parnassum_, long remained by far the most thorough treatment of
counterpoint and its various developments. The title of the original
Latin edition is _Gradus ad Parnassum sive manuductio ad compositionem
musicae regularem, methoda nova ac certa nondum ante tam exacta ordine
in lucem edita, elaborata a Joanne Josepho Fux_ (Vienna, 1715). It was
translated into most European languages during the 18th century, and is
still studied by musicians interested in the history of their art. The
expenses of the publication were defrayed by the emperor Charles VI.
Fux's biography was published by Ludwig von Kochel (Vienna, 1871). It
is based on minute original research and contains, amongst other
valuable materials, a complete catalogue of the composer's numerous
works.
FUZE or FUSE, an appliance for firing explosives in blasting operations,
military shells, &c. (see BLASTING and AMMUNITION, S SHELL). The
spelling is not governed by authority, but modern convenience has
dictated the adoption of the "z" by military engineers as a general
rule, in order to distinguish this sense from that of melting by heat
(see below). The word, according to the _New English Dictionary_, is one
of the forms in which the Lat. _fusus_, spindle, has been adapted
through Romanic into English, the ordinary fuze taking the shape of a
spindle-like tube. Similarly the term "fusee" (Fr. _fusee_, spindle full
of tow, Late Lat. _fusata_) is applied to a coned spindle sometimes used
in the wheel train of watches and spring clocks to equalize the action
of the mainspring (see WATCH); and the application of the same term to a
special kind of match may also be due to its resemblance to a spindle.
Again, in heraldry, another form, "fusil," derived through the French
from a Late Lat. diminutive (_fusillus_ or _fusellus_) of this same
_fusus_, is used of a bearing, an elongated lozenge. According to other
etymological authorities, however (see Skeat, _Etym. Dict._, 1898),
"fuze" or "fuse," and "fusee" in the sense of match, are all forms
derived through the Fr. fusil, from Late Lat. _focile_, steel for
striking fire from a flint, from Lat. _focus_, hearth. The Fr. _fusil_
and English "fusil" were thus transferred to the "firelock," i.e. the
light musket of the 17th century (see FUSILIER).
In electrical engineering a "fuse" (always so spelled) is a safety
device, commonly consisting of a strip or wire of easily fusible metal,
which melts and thus interrupts the circuit of which it forms part,
whenever that circuit, through some accident or derangement, is caused
to carry a current larger than that for which it is intended. In this
sense the word must be connected with _fusus_, the past participle of
Lat. _fundere_, to pour, whence comes the verb "fuse," to melt by heat,
often used figuratively in the sense of blend, mix.
FYNE, LOCH, an inlet of the sea, Argyllshire, Scotland. From the head, 6
m. above Inveraray, to the mouth on the Sound of Bute, it has a
south-westerly and then southerly trend and is 44 m. long, its width
varying from 1/4 m. to 6 m. It receives the Fyne, Shira, Aray and many
other streams, and, on the western side, gives off Lochs Shira, Gair,
Gilp (with Ardrishaig, the Crinan Canal and Lochgilphead) and East
Tarbert (with Tarbert village). The glens debouching on the lake are
Fyne, Shira, Aray, Kinglas and Hell's Glen. The coast generally is
picturesque and in many parts well wooded. All vessels using the Crinan
Canal navigate the loch to and from Ardrishaig, and there are daily
excursions during the season, as far up as Inveraray. There are ferries
at St Catherine's and Otter, and piers at Tarbert, Ardrishaig, Kilmory,
Crarae, Furnace, Inveraray, Strachur and elsewhere. The industries
comprise granite quarrying at Furnace and Crarae, distilling at
Ardrishaig, gunpowder-making at Furnace and Kilfinan, and, above all,
fishing. Haddock, whiting and codling are taken, and the famous "Loch
Fyne herrings" command the highest price in the market.
FYRD, the name given to the English army, or militia, during the
Anglo-Saxon period (see ARMY, 60). It is first mentioned in the
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 605. The ealdorman, or sheriff,
of the shire was probably charged with the duty of calling out and
leading the fyrd, which appears always to have retained a local
character, as during the time of the Danish invasions we read of the
fyrd of Kent, of Somerset and of Devon. As attendance at the fyrd was
included in the _trinoda necessitas_ it was compulsory on all holders of
land; but that it was not confined to them is shown by the following
extract from the laws of Ine, king of the West Saxons, dated about 690,
which prescribes the penalty for the serious offence of neglecting the
fyrd: "If a _gesithcund_ man owning land neglect the fyrd, let him pay
120 shillings, and forfeit his land; one not owning land 60 shillings; a
ceorlish man 30 shillings as _fyrdwite_." The fyrd was gradually
superseded by the gathering of the thegns and their retainers, but it
was occasionally called out for defensive purposes even after the Norman
Conquest.
FYT, JOHANNES (1609-1661), Belgian animal painter, was born at Antwerp
and christened on the 19th of August 1609. He was registered apprentice
to Hans van den Berghe in 1621. Professionally van den Berghe was a
restorer of old pictures rather than a painter of new ones. At twenty
Johannes Fyt entered the gild of St Luke as a master, and from that time
till his death in 1661 he produced a vast number of pictures in which
the bold facility of Snyders is united to the powerful effects of
Rembrandt, and harmonies of gorgeous tone are not less conspicuous than
freedom of touch and a true semblance of nature. There never was such a
master of technical processes as Fyt in the rendering of animal life in
its most varied forms. He may have been less correct in outline, less
bold in action than Snyders, but he was much more skilful and more true
in the reproduction of the coat of deer, dogs, greyhounds, hares and
monkeys, whilst in realizing the plumage of peacocks, woodcocks, ducks,
hawks, and cocks and hens, he had not his equal, nor was any artist even
of the Dutch school more effective in relieving his compositions with
accessories of tinted cloth, porcelain ware, vases and fruit. He was not
clever at figures, and he sometimes trusted for these to the
co-operation of Cornelius Schut or Willeborts, whilst his architectural
backgrounds were sometimes executed by Quellyn. "Silenus amongst Fruit
and Flowers," in the Harrach collection at Vienna, "Diana and her Nymphs
with the Produce of the Chase," in the Belvedere at Vienna, and "Dead
Game and Fruit in front of a Triumphal Arch," belonging to Baron von
Rothschild at Vienna, are specimens of the co-operation respectively of
Schut, Willeborts and Quellyn. They are also Fyt's masterpieces. The
earliest dated work of the master is a cat grabbing at a piece of dead
poultry near a hare and birds, belonging to Baron Cetto at Munich, and
executed in 1644. The latest is a "Dead Snipe with Ducks," of 1660,
sold with the Jager collection at Cologne in 1871. Great power is shown
in the bear and boar hunts at Munich and Ravensworth castle. A "Hunted
Roedeer with Dogs in the Water," in the Berlin Museum, has some of the
life and more of the roughness of Snyders, but lacks variety of tint and
finish. A splendid specimen is the Page and Parrot near a table covered
with game, guarded by a dog staring at a monkey, in the Wallace
collection. With the needle and the brush Fyt was equally clever. He
etched 16 plates, and those representing dogs are of their kind unique.
FYZABAD, or FAIZABAD, a city, district and division of British India in
the United Provinces. The city stands on the left bank of the river
Gogra, 78 m. by rail E. of Lucknow. Pop. (1901) 75,085. To the E. of
Fyzabad, and now forming a suburb, is the ancient site of Ajodhya
(q.v.). Fyzabad was founded about 1730 by Sa'adat Ali Khan, the first
nawab wazir of Oudh, who built a hunting-lodge here. It received its
present name in the reign of his successor; and Shuja-ud-daula, the
third nawab, laid out a large town and fortified it, and here he was
buried. It was afterwards the residence of the Begums of Oudh, famous in
connexion with the impeachment of Warren Hastings. When the court of
Oudh was removed to Lucknow in 1775 all the leading merchants and
bankers abandoned the place. At the census of 1869 Fyzabad contained
only 37,804 inhabitants; but it is now again advancing in prosperity and
population. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the cantonment
contained two regiments of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, and a light
field battery of artillery--all natives. Owing to their threatening
demeanour after the Meerut massacre, many of the European women and
children were sheltered by one of the great landholders of Oudh, and
others were sent to less disturbed parts of the country. The troops
rose, as was anticipated, and although they at first permitted their
officers to take boats and proceed towards Dinapur, a message was
afterwards sent to a rebel force lower down the river to intercept the
fugitives. Of four boats, one, having passed the rebels unnoticed,
succeeded in reaching Dinapur safely. Of those in the other three boats,
one alone escaped. Fyzabad is now a station for European as well as for
native troops. It is the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division
of the northern army. There is a government college. Sugar-refining and
trade in agricultural produce are important.
THE DISTRICT OF FYZABAD, lying between the two great rivers Gogra and
Gumti, has an area of 1740 sq. m. It is entirely alluvial and well
wooded, and has a good climate. Pop. (1901) 1,225,374, an increase of
.7% in the decade. The district is traversed throughout its length by
the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Benares, with a branch
to Allahabad. Tanda, with a population in 1901 of 19,853, has the
largest production of cotton goods in Oudh.
The DIVISION OF FYZABAD has an area of 12,113 sq. m., and comprises the
six districts of Fyzabad, Gonda, Bahraich, Sultanpur, Partabgarh and
Bara Banki. Pop. (1901) 6,855,991, an increase of 2% in the decade.