FROST FULMAR
FROSTBITE FULMINIC ACID
FROSTBURG FULTON, ROBERT
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS FULTON (Missouri, U.S.A.)
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY FULTON (New York, U.S.A.)
FRUCTOSE FUM
FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA FUMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS
FRUIT FUMAROLE
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING FUMIGATION
FRUMENTIUS FUMITORY
FRUNDSBERG, GEORG VON FUNCHAL
FRUSTUM FUNCTION
FRUYTIERS, PHILIP FUNDY, BAY OF
FRY FUNERAL RITES
FRY, SIR EDWARD FUNGI
FRY, ELIZABETH FUNJ
FRYXELL, ANDERS FUNKIA
FUAD PASHA FUNNEL
FUCHOW FUR
FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON FURAZANES
FUCHS, LEONHARD FURETIERE, ANTOINE
FUCHSIA FURFOOZ
FUCHSINE FURFURANE
FUCINO, LAGO DI FURIES
FUEL FURLONG
FUENTE OVEJUNA FURNACE
FUENTERRABIA FURNEAUX, TOBIAS
FUERO FURNES
FUERTEVENTURA FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD
FUGGER FURNESS
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS FURNISS, HARRY
FUGLEMAN FURNITURE
FUGUE FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES
FUHRICH, JOSEPH VON FURSE, CHARLES WELLINGTON
FUJI FURST, JULIUS
FU-KIEN FURSTENBERG
FUKUI FURSTENWALDE
FUKUOKA FURTH
FULA FURTWANGLER, ADOLF
FULCHER OF CHARTRES FURZE
FULDA FUSARO, LAGO
FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES FUSELI, HENRY
FULGINIAE FUSEL OIL
FULGURITE FUSIBLE METAL
FULHAM FUSILIER
FULK (king of Jerusalem) FUSION
FULK (archbishop of Reims) FUSSEN
FULKE, WILLIAM FUST, JOHANN
FULK NERRA FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS
FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV FUSTIAN
FULLER, ANDREW FUSTIC
FULLER, GEORGE FUTURES
FULLER, MARGARET FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON FUZE
FULLER, THOMAS FYNE, LOCH
FULLER, WILLIAM FYRD
FULLER'S EARTH FYT, JOHANNES
FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA FYZABAD
FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, _vorst_, Ger. _Frost_, from
the common Teutonic verb meaning "to freeze," Dutch, _vriezen_, Ger.
_frieren_; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. _pruina_, hoar-frost,
cf. _prurire_, to itch, burn, _pruna_, burning coal, Sansk. _plush_, to
burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the process, of freezing;
hence the terms "hoar-frost" and "white-frost" applied to visible frozen
vapour formed on exposed surfaces. A frost can only occur when the
surface temperature falls below 32 deg. F., the freezing-point of water;
if the temperature be between 28 deg. and 32 deg. it is a "light frost,"
if below 28 deg. it is a "heavy," "killing" or "black frost"; the term
"black frost" is also used when no hoar-frost is present. The number of
degrees below freezing-point is termed "degrees of frost." As soon as a
mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to be precipitated
in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoarfrost is only formed at the
immediate surface of the land if the latter be at a temperature below 32
deg., and this may occur even when the temperature of the air a few feet
above the ground is 12 deg.-16 deg. above the freezing-point. The
heaviest hoar-frosts are formed under weather conditions similar to
those under which the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm
nights, when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the
surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and completely
cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil is very moist, as
for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it is a practice in America to
flood fields on the receipt of a frost warning, radiation being checked
by the light fog sheets which develop over moist soils, just as a
cloud-layer in the upper atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale.
A layer of smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end
smoky fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may drift
over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from frost.
Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town, protected by its
smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley with fairly high and steep
flanks frost sometimes occurs locally at the bottom, because the layer
of air cooled by contact with the cold surface of the higher ground is
heavier than that not so cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle
downwards along the slope of the land. When meteorological
considerations point to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature
may be obtained by multiplying the difference between the readings of
the wet and dry bulb thermometer by 2.5 and subtracting the result from
the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the evening air is at
about 50 deg. and 30.1 in. pressure, the sky being clear. An instrument
has been devised in France for the prediction of frost. It consists of a
wet bulb and a dry bulb thermometer, mounted on a board on which is also
a scale of lines corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer
traversing a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb.
Observations for the night are taken about half an hour before sunset.
By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at which the
line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to the reading of the
wet bulb. The scale is further divided by colours so that the observed
point may fall within one of three zones, indicating certain frost,
probable frost or no probability of frost.
FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action of extreme
cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers, toes, nose, ears,
&c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs as "chaps" and
"chilblains," but the term frostbite is usually applied only to more
severe cases, where the part affected becomes in danger of gangrene. An
immediate application of snow, or ice-water, will restore the
circulation; the application of heat would cause inflammation. But if
the mortification has gone too far for the circulation to be restored,
the part will be lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.
FROSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A., 11 m. W. of
Cumberland. Pop. (1890) 3804; (1900) 5274 (578 foreign-born and 236
negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania
railway and the Cumberland & Westernport electric railway. The town is
about 2000 ft. above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and
Dans mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it
attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state normal
school, opened in 1904. Frostburg is in the midst of the coal region of
the state, and is itself almost completely undermined; it has planing
mills and manufactures large quantities of fire-brick. The municipality
owns and operates its waterworks. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from
the West Virginia fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in
1812; was called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name
was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town's founders;
and was incorporated in 1870.
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American clergyman and author,
was born in Boston on the 26th of November 1822, son of Nathaniel
Langdon Frothingham (1793-1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of
Boston, and through his mother's family related to Phillips Brooks. He
graduated from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in
1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem,
Massachusetts, in 1847-1855. From 1855 to 1860 he was pastor of a new
Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the Lord's Supper,
thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction; and it was as a
radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another young church in New
York City in 1860. Indeed in 1864 he was recognized as leader of the
radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge's address to the graduating
students of the Divinity School on _Anti-Supernaturalism in the Pulpit_.
In 1865, when he had practically given up "transcendentalism," his
church building was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric
Hall under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 1875 they
removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-health compelled
Frothingham's resignation, and the church dissolved. Paralysis
threatened him and he never fully recovered his health; in 1881 he
returned to Boston, where he died on the 27th of November 1895. To this
later period of his life belongs his best literary work. While he was in
New York he was for a time art critic of the _Tribune_. Always himself
on the unpopular side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the
majority, he habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only
an anti-slavery leader when abolition was not popular even in New
England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible for him to
stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he was the first
president of the National Free Religious Association (1867) and an early
and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer. To his radical views he was
always faithful. It is a mistake to say that he grew more conservative
in later years; but his judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was
a greater orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were
delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the Masonic
Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and in the charm of his
spoken word he was probably surpassed in his day by none save George
William Curtis. Personally he seemed cold and distant, partly because of
his impressive appearance, and partly because of his own modesty, which
made him backward in seeking friendships.
His principal published works are: _Stories from the Life of the
Teacher_ (1863), _A Child's Book of Religion_ (1866), and other works
of religious teaching for children; several volumes of sermons;
_Beliefs of Unbelievers_ (1876), _The Cradle of the Christ: a Study in
Primitive Christianity_ (1877), _The Spirit of New Faith_ (1877), _The
Rising and the Setting Faith_ (1878), and other expositions of the
"new faith" he preached; _Life of Theodore Parker_ (1874),
_Transcendentalism in New England_ (1876), which is largely
biographical, _Gerrit Smith, a Biography_ (1878), _George Ripley_
(1882), in the "American Men of Letters" series, _Memoir of William
Henry Channing_ (1886), _Boston Unitarianism, 1820-1850_ (1890),
really a biography of his father; and _Recollections and Impressions,
1822-1890_ (1891).
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894), English historian, son of R.H.
Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was born at Dartington, Devon, on the 23rd
of April 1818. He was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford,
then the centre of the ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second
class and the chancellor's English essay prize, and was elected a fellow
of Exeter College (1842). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell Froude
(1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High Church movement at
Oxford. Froude joined that party and helped J.H. Newman, afterwards
cardinal, in his _Lives of the English Saints_. He was ordained deacon
in 1845. By that time his religious opinions had begun to change, he
grew dissatisfied with the views of the High Church party, and came
under the influence of Carlyle's teaching. Signs of this change first
appeared publicly in his _Shadows of the Clouds_, a volume containing
two stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the
pseudonym of "Zeta," and his complete desertion of his party was
declared a year later in his _Nemesis of Faith_, an heretical and
unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be autobiographical.
On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at Oxford, and
mainly at least supported himself by writing, contributing largely to
_Fraser's Magazine_ and the _Westminster Review_. The excellence of his
style was soon generally recognized. The first two volumes of his
_History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish
Armada_ appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an
historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the art
with which he represents his conception of the past. He condemns a
scientific treatment of history and disregards its philosophy. He held
that its office was simply to record human actions and that it should be
written as a drama. Accordingly he gives prominence to the personal
element in history. His presentations of character and motives, whether
truthful or not, are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should
be "no theorizing" about history tended to narrow his survey, and
consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign policy of
Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a period on which he
is writing.
Froude's work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect statements. He
wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his _History_ is contained in his
assertion that the Reformation was "the root and source of the expansive
force which has spread the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe." Hence he
overpraises Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and
speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his _English in
Ireland_ (1872-1874), which was written to show the futility of attempts
to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all that can be said against the
Irish, touches too lightly on English atrocities, and writes unjustly of
the influence of Roman Catholicism. A strong anti-clerical prejudice is
manifest in his historical work generally, and is doubtless the result
of the change in his views on Church matters and his abandonment of the
clerical profession. Carlyle's influence on him may be traced both in
his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which led him to
write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable, and in his
independent treatment of character. His rehabilitation of Henry VIII.
was a useful protest against the idea that the king was a mere
sanguinary profligate, but his representation of him as the self-denying
minister of his people's will is erroneous, and is founded on the false
theory that the preambles of the acts of Henry's parliaments represented
the opinions of the educated laymen of England. As an advocate he
occasionally forgets that sobriety of judgment and expression become an
historian. He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been
unwilling to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any
statement which militated against his case. In his _Divorce of Catherine
of Aragon_ (1891) he made an unfortunate attempt to show that certain
fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward by Dr Gairdner, Dr
Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent with the views which he has
expressed in his _History_ nearly forty years before. He worked
diligently at original manuscript authorities at Simancas, the Record
Office and Hatfield House; but he used his materials carelessly, and
evidently brought to his investigation of them a mind already made up as
to their significance. His _Life of Caesar_ (1879), a glorification of
imperialism, betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and
the life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, _The
English in the West Indies_ (1888) shows that he made little effort to
master his subject, and _Oceana_ (1886), the record of a tour in
Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders, notes
the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the date of his
visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-crop, hundreds
were then living on charity. He was constitutionally inaccurate, and
seems to have been unable to represent the exact sense of a document
which lay before him, or even to copy from it correctly. Historical
scholars ridiculed his mistakes, and Freeman, the most violent of his
critics, never let slip a chance of hitting at him in the _Saturday
Review_. Froude's temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these
attacks, which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The
literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general interest when
it blazed out in a series of articles which Freeman wrote in the
_Contemporary Review_ (1878-1879) on Froude's _Short Study_ of Thomas
Becket.
Notwithstanding its defects, Froude's _History_ is a great achievement;
it presents an important and powerful account of the Reformation period
in England, and lays before us a picture of the past magnificently
conceived, and painted in colours which will never lose their freshness
and beauty. As with Froude's work generally, its literary merit is
remarkable; it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in
design and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needlessly
long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details;
every incident is made subordinate to the general idea, appears in its
appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection of the
whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty of its style,
for Froude was a master of English prose. The most notable
characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it is never
affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy, and follow one
another naturally. He is always lucid. He was never in doubt as to his
own meaning, and never at a loss for the most appropriate words in which
to express it. Simple as his language is, it is dignified and worthy of
its subject. Nowhere perhaps does his style appear to more advantage
than in his four series of essays entitled _Short Studies on Great
Subjects_ (1867-1882), for it is seen there unfettered by the
obligations of narrative. Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the
most part flowing easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour,
picturesque beauty or pathos. Few more brilliant pieces of historical
writing exist than his description of the coronation procession of Anne
Boleyn through the streets of London, few more full of picturesque power
than that in which he relates how the spire of St Paul's was struck by
lightning; and to have once read is to remember for ever the touching
and stately words in which he compares the monks of the London
Charterhouse preparing for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae.
Proofs of his power in the sustained narration of stirring events are
abundant; his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at
St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the murder of
Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of it. Nor is he less
successful when recording pathetic events, for his stories of certain
martyrdoms, and of the execution of Mary queen of Scots, are told with
exquisite feeling and in language of well-restrained emotion. And his
characters are alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but
the men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life with
which he endows them and animated by the motives which he attributes to
them. His successes must be set against his failures. At the least he
wrote a great history, one which can never be disregarded by future
writers on his period, be their opinions what they may; which attracts
and delights a multitude of readers, and is a splendid example of
literary form and grace in historical composition.
The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each instalment of his
_History_, in common with almost everything which he wrote, was widely
read, and in spite of some adverse criticisms was received with eager
applause. In 1868 he was elected rector of St Andrews University,
defeating Disraeli by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in
the United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on Ireland
which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction. On the death of
his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed, on the recommendation
of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as regius professor of modern history
at Oxford. Except to a few Oxford men, who considered that historical
scholarship should have been held to be a necessary qualification for
the office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures on
Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely attended. With some
allowance for the purpose for which they were originally written, they
present much the same characteristics as his earlier historical books.
His health gave way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 20th of
October.
His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as an
author, he was for fourteen years editor of _Fraser's Magazine_. He was
one of Carlyle's literary executors, and brought some sharp criticism
upon himself by publishing Carlyle's _Reminiscences_ and the _Memorials
of Jane Welsh Carlyle_, for they exhibited the domestic life and
character of his old friend in an unpleasant light. Carlyle had given
the manuscripts to him, telling him that he might publish them if he
thought it well to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their
publication. Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world
he was carrying out his friend's wish by enabling him to make a
posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these
manuscripts he wrote a _Life of Carlyle_. His earlier study of Irish
history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel entitled _The
Two Chiefs of Dunboy_ (1889). In spite of one or two stirring scenes it
is a tedious book, and its personages are little more than machines for
the enunciation of the author's opinions and sentiments. Though Froude
had some intimate friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to
please, his manners and conversation were charming. Those who knew him
well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical affairs. In 1874
Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent Froude to South Africa to
report on the best means of promoting a confederation of its colonies
and states, and in 1875 he was again sent to the Cape as a member of a
proposed conference to further confederation. Froude's speeches in South
Africa were rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (see SOUTH
AFRICA: _History_). He was twice married. His first wife, a daughter of
Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley, died in 1860; his
second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for Taunton, died in 1874.