ST. STEPHEN, THE FIRST KING OF HUNGARY.
997-1038.
King Stephen led the Hungarian nation from the darkness of paganism
into the light of Christianity, and from the disorders of barbarism
into the safer path of western civilization. He induced his people to
abandon the fierce independence of nomadic life, and assigned to them
a place in the disciplined ranks of European society and of organized
states. Under him, and through his exertions, the Hungarian people
became a western nation. Never was a change of such magnitude, and
we may add such a providential change, accomplished in so short a
time, with so little bloodshed, and with such signal success as this
remarkable transformation of the Hungarian people. The contemporaries
of this great and noble man, those who assisted him in guiding the
destinies of the Hungarian nation, gave him already full credit for the
wise and patriotic course pursued by him, and the Hungarian nation of
the present day still piously and gratefully cherishes his memory. To
the Hungarians of to-day, although eight and a half centuries removed
from St. Stephen, his form continues to be a living one, and they
still fondly refer to his exalted example, his acts, his opinions, and
admonitions, as worthy to inspire and admonish the young generations in
their country.
This need be no matter for surprise, for at no period of Hungary’s
history has her political continuity been interrupted in such a way as
to make her lose sight of the noble source from which its greatness
sprang. No doubt a complete change has taken place in the political
and social order, in the course of so many centuries, but the state
structure, however modified, still rests upon the deep and sure
foundations laid by the wisdom of her first king. One day in the year,
the 20th of August—called St. Stephen’s day—is still hallowed to his
memory. On that day his embalmed right hand is carried about with great
pomp and solemnity, in a brilliant procession, accompanied by religious
ceremonies, through ancient Buda, and shown to her populace. The
kingdom of Hungary is called the realm of St. Stephen to this day, the
Hungarian kings are still crowned with the crown of St. Stephen, and
the nation acknowledges only him to be its king whose temples have been
touched by the sacred crown. The Catholic Church in Hungary although
it no more occupies its former pre-eminent position in the state,
still retains enough of power, wealth, and splendor to bear ample
testimony to the lavish liberality of St. Stephen. Thus the historian
meets everywhere with traces of his benignant activity, and whilst the
fame and saintliness of the great king have surrounded his name with
a luminous halo in the annals of his nation, that very brilliancy
has prevented from coming down to posterity such mere terrestrial and
every-day details as would assist in drawing his portrait. The grand
outlines of his form detach themselves vividly and sharply from the
dark background of his age—but there is a lack of contemporary accounts
which would help to fill up these outlines, and the legends of the
succeeding generations, which make mention of him, can but ill supply
this want, for they regard in him the saint only, and not the man. His
deeds alone remain to guide us in the task of furnishing a truthful
picture of the founder of his country, and well may we apply to him the
words of Scripture, that the tree shall be known by its fruit.
[Illustration: CORONATION OF ST. STEPHEN.]
Stephen was born in Gran (Esztergom), the first and most ancient
capital of Hungary, about 969, at a time when his father had not
yet succeeded to the exalted position of ruler over Hungary, and a
magnificent memorial chapel in the Roman style of the tenth century,
erected there, marks the event of his birth in that place. His mother
Sarolta, Geyza’s first wife, was the daughter of that Gyula, Duke of
Transylvania, who, whilst upon a mission to Constantinople, in 943,
had embraced the Christian faith and subsequently endeavored to spread
it at home. Thus a Christian mother watched prayerfully at the cradle
of young Stephen, and in early childhood, already, the tender mind of
the boy was guided by the pious Count of San Severino. Adalbert, the
Archbishop of Prague, who sought a martyr’s death and subsequently won
the martyr’s crown, introduced him to the community of professing
Christians. With his wife Gisella, a Bavarian princess, at his side,
he took his place among the Western rulers as their kinsman. While his
long reign proved him to be true to his country and his nation, yet the
paganism of the ancient Hungarians was quite foreign to his soul.
After the first half of the tenth century religious ideas began to
exercise a more powerful influence in Europe than before. The great
movement which originated in the monastery of Cluny, in France, held
out to the world the promise of a new salvation. Men of extraordinary
endowments began again to proclaim with evangelical enthusiasm the
mortification of the flesh, in order to exalt the soul, and the
suppression of earthly desires for the purpose of restoring the true
faith to its pristine glory. They insisted that the shepherd of the
faithful souls, the Church, should be freed from all earthly fetters
and interests, for, just as the soul was above the body, so was the
Church superior to the worldly communities. The Church therefore,
they taught, must be raised from her humiliating position, her former
dependence changed into a state of the most complete freedom. As a
consequence, the visible head of the Church, the Pope, could not be
allowed to remain the servant of the head of the worldly power, the
emperor, for it was the former that Providence had entrusted with the
care of the destinies and happiness of humanity. These ideas spread
triumphantly and with incredible rapidity throughout all Europe.
They were heralded by a sort of prophetic frenzy; and soul-stirring
fanaticism followed in their train. The age of asceticism, long past
and become an object almost of contempt, was rescued from oblivion
and revived. The despised body was again subjected to tortures and
vexations, and the purified soul longed for the destruction of its own
earthly existence in order to soar on high freed from mundane trammels.
It was the miraculous age of hermits, saints, and martyrs who made it
resound with their wailing and weeping, changing this home of dust
into a valley of tears, so that the soul transported to the regions
of bliss might appear in greater splendor to the dazzled eyes of the
earthly beholder. The popes, moreover, riding high on the unchained
waves, guided the Church through the tempest of the newly awakened
religious passions, with a watchful eye and steady persistence toward
one end—the exaltation of the papal power over that of the emperors. At
the end of the tenth century Pope Sylvester II. was the representative
of the spirit of the age clamoring for the aggrandizement of the papal
power, and Otto III. represented in opposition to him the imperial
power, undermined by the new ideas. Since the overthrow of the Western
Roman empire the world had not been called upon to witness a contest
of greater import than the impending struggle between these two rival
powers. The great upheaval, indeed, which was to shake Europe to its
very centre, did not take place until half a century later, but the
seeds, from which the war of ecclesiastical investiture, the stir of
the crusades, and the universality of the papal power were to spring,
were already scattered throughout the soil which had lain barren
through many centuries.
This was the age which gave birth to Stephen and in which he
was educated, but his exalted mind rejected the exaggerations,
eccentricities, and errors of his time and accepted only its noble
sentiments and ideas. His sober-mindedness was equal to his religious
enthusiasm, and as his innate energy exceeded both, he left it to
religious visionaries to indulge in ascetic dreams. He desired to be
the apostle of the promises of his faith, but not their martyr. He made
the maintenance, defence, and extension of Christianity the task of his
life, because he saw in its establishment the only sure means for the
safety and happiness of his people. He pursued no schemes looking to
adventures in foreign lands, but devoted all his thoughts, feelings,
and energies to his own nation, subordinating to her interests
everybody and every thing else. He defended these alike against
imperial attacks and papal encroachments. His eyes were fixed on the
Cross, but his strong right arm rested on the hilt of his sword, and
his apostolic zeal never made him forget for a single moment his duty
to a people which had gone through many trials, whose position amongst
the European nations was a very difficult one, whose destinies rested
in his hands, and who were yet to be called upon to play a great part
in the history of the world.
Stephen was about twenty-eight years old when he succeeded his father
in 997. He at once embarked with the enthusiasm of youth, coupled with
the deliberation and constancy of manhood, on his mission to bring to
a happy conclusion the task begun by his mother. In this work he was
sedulously assisted by Astrik and his monastic brethren, and the gaze
of the foreign Christian lords, who had immigrated with his Bavarian
wife, as well as of the great number of lay and ecclesiastical persons
who came, flocking to the country, was centred upon the young royal
leader, who surpassed them all in zeal and enthusiasm. He spared
no pains, nor was he deterred by dangers; he visited in person the
remotest parts of the realm, bringing light to places where darkness
prevailed, and imparting truth where error stalked defiantly. He sought
out the men of distinction and the mighty of the land, and the hearts
which were closed to the message of the foreign monks freely opened
to his wise and friendly exhortations. Where he could not prevail by
the charms of his apostolic persuasion he unhesitatingly threw the
weight of his royal sword into the scale. Whilst battling with the
arms of truth he did not recoil from using violence, if necessary, in
its service. Fate did not spare him the cruel necessity of having to
proceed even against his own blood.
The more rapidly and successfully the work of conversion went on,
the greater became the apprehension and exasperation of those who
looked upon the destruction of the ancient pagan faith as dangerous
and ruinous to their nation. Nor did these recoil from any hazard to
maintain their faith and to prevent the national ruin anticipated
by them. They took up arms on more than one occasion, as has been
previously mentioned, but Stephen succeeded in quelling the dangerous
rebellions. Assisted by the foreign knights, he broke the power
of paganism, and he showed no regard for any pretence of national
aspirations. Those who still harbored the ancient faith in their hearts
kept it secretly locked up there, and for the time being at least did
homage to the new faith and the power of the king. The possessions of
the rebels were devoted to ecclesiastical uses, and the king, at the
same time, bestirred himself in the organization of the triumphant
Church. He divided the converted territory into ecclesiastical
districts, providing each with a spiritual chief, and placing the
ecclesiastical chief of Gran at the head of all and of the Church
government instituted by him. He caused fortified places to be erected
throughout the newly organized Church territory for the defence of
Christianity, as well as for the maintenance of his own worldly power,
which began nearly to rival that of the other Christian kings.
But in order successfully to carry into effect these measures, Stephen
had to obtain their confirmation by at least one of the leading powers
which then shared in the mastery over Europe—namely, imperialism and
papacy. The emperors, on the one hand, claimed supreme authority over
all the pagan populations converted to Christianity, while the papal
see, on the other hand, was inclined to protect against the empire the
smaller nations, which were jealous of their independence, in order
to gain allies for the impending struggle of the Church against the
empire. Stephen was quick to choose between these two. The German
Church—except in the abortive attempt made by Bishop Pilgrin—had
contributed but little to the conversion of the Hungarian people, and
it could therefore lay no claim to exercise any authority over the
Church of Hungary. Nor had the German kings done any thing to assist
Geyza and Stephen in their attempts at conversion. Stephen had before
him the example of his brother-in-law, Boleslas of Poland, who had
but recently applied to the papal see for the bestowal of the royal
crown, in order to secure the independence of his position as a ruler
and that of the Church in his realm. The religious bent of Stephen’s
mind, combined with his acute perception of the true interests of
his country, induced him, at last, in the spring of 1000, to send a
brilliant embassy to Rome, under the lead of the faithful, experienced,
and indefatigable Astrik.
Pope Sylvester II., than whom no one exerted himself more strenuously
to increase the papal power, received the Hungarian envoys cordially,
and upon learning from Astrik their mission, he exclaimed: “I am but
apostolic, but thy master who sent thee here is, in truth, the apostle
of Christ himself!” He readily complied with Stephen’s every request,
adding even more signal favors. He confirmed the bishoprics already
established, and empowered him to establish additional ones, conferring
upon Stephen, at the same time, such rights in the administration of
the affairs of the Church of Hungary as hitherto had been allowed only
to the most illustrious princes in Christendom, the sovereigns of
France and Germany. He granted to Stephen and his successors the right
of styling themselves “apostolic kings,” and to have carried before
them, on solemn occasions, the double cross, as an emblem of their
independent ecclesiastical authority. As a further mark of his favor,
the Pope presented Stephen with the crown which had been destined for
Boleslas of Poland, in order to symbolize for all times to come the
blessing bestowed upon the Hungarian kingdom by God’s representative
upon earth. The crown of to-day, weighing altogether 136 ounces, is
not quite identical with the crown that adorned St. Stephen’s head.
It now consists of two parts. The upper and more ancient part is the
crown sent by Pope Sylvester, the lower one has been added at a later
date. The former is formed by two intersecting hoops and connected at
the four lower ends by a border. On its top is a small globe capped
by a cross, which is now in an inclined position, and beneath it is
seen a picture of the Saviour in sitting posture, surrounded by the
sun, the moon, and two trees. The entire surface of the two hoops
is adorned with the figures of the twelve apostles, each having an
appropriate Latin inscription, but four of these figures are covered
by the lower crown. The lower or newer crown is an open diadem from
which project, in front, representations of ruins, which terminate in
a crest alternating with semicircular bands. The seams of the latter
are covered with smaller-sized pearls, and larger oval pearls adorn the
crests. Nine small drooping chains, laid out with precious stones,
are attached to the lower rim. A large sapphire occupies the centre of
the front of the diadem, and above it, on a semicircular shield, is a
representation of the Saviour. To the left and right of the sapphire
are representations of the archangels, Michael and Gabriel, and of
the four saints, Damianus, Dominic, Cosmus, and George, and, finally,
of the Greek emperors, Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Michael Ducas,
and of the Hungarian king Geyza, with inscriptions. With regard to
the upper crown no doubt whatever is entertained as to its being the
one sent by Pope Sylvester, and concerning the lower crown Hungarian
historians state that it was sent, about 1073, by the Greek emperor,
Michael Ducas, to the Hungarian duke, Geyza, as a mark of gratitude for
the good services rendered to him by the latter. The exact date when
the two crowns united cannot be ascertained. This minute description of
the crown of Hungary may be well pardoned, considering the antiquity
and the high veneration in which this relic of the past is held by the
Hungarian people.
The legend of St. Stephen speaks thus of Astrik’s mission to the
Eternal City: “Father Astrik having accomplished his errand in Rome,
and obtained even more than he had asked for, returned joyfully home.
As he was nearing Gran the king came out to meet him with great pomp,
and Father Astrik showed him the presents he had brought with him from
Rome, the royal crown and the cross. Stephen offered up thanks to God,
and subsequently expressed his gratitude to the Pope for the presents
received. The great prelates, the clergy, the lords, and the people
having listened to the contents of the letter conveying the apostolic
benediction, with one heart and soul and with shouts of joy acclaimed
Stephen their king, and having been anointed with the sacred oil, he
was crowned on the day of Mary’s ascension (15th of August) at Gran.”
That highly important letter brought by Astrik from Rome, which
established the independent authority of the Hungarian kings over the
national church, has been preserved to this day. The following lines of
the papal bull may in some measure characterize the age in which they
were written, and illustrate, at the same time, the importance which
was ascribed to these missives during many centuries:
“My glorious son,” the letter proceeds to say, after having in the
introduction exalted Stephen’s apostolic zeal, “all that which thou
hast desired of the apostolic see, the crown, the royal title, the
metropolitan see at Gran, and the other bishoprics, we joyfully allow
and grant thee by the authority derived from Almighty God and Saints
Peter and Paul, together with the apostolic and our own benediction.
The country which thou hast offered, together with thy own self, to St.
Peter, and the people of Hungary, present and future, being henceforth
received under the protection of the Holy Roman Church, we return
them to thy wisdom, thy heirs, and rightful successors, to possess,
rule, and govern the same. Thy heirs and successors, too, having
been lawfully elected by the magnates of the land, shall be likewise
bound to testify to ourselves and our successors their obedience and
respect, to prove themselves subjects of the Holy Roman Church, to
steadfastly adhere to, and support the religion of Christ our Lord and
Saviour. And as thy Highness did not object to undertake the apostolic
office of proclaiming and spreading the faith of Christ, we feel moved
to confer, besides, upon thy Excellency and out of regard for thy
merits, upon thy heirs and lawful successors, this especial privilege:
we permit, desire, and request that, as thou and thy successors will be
crowned with the crown we sent thee, the wearing of the double cross
may serve thee and them as an apostolic token, even so that, according
to the teachings of God’s mercy, thou and they may direct and order,
in our and our successors’ place and stead, the present and future
churches of thy realm. * * * We also beseech Almighty God that thou
mayest rule and wear the crown, and that He shall cause the fruits of
His truth to grow and increase; that He may abundantly water with the
dew of His blessing the new plants of thy realm; that He may preserve
unimpaired thy country for thee, and thee for thy country; that He
may protect thee against thy open and secret foes, and adorn thee,
after the vexations of thy earthly rule, with the eternal crown in His
heavenly kingdom.”
The brilliant successes so rapidly achieved by Stephen during the first
years of his reign secured the triumph of Christianity and of the royal
authority in the western half of the country only. The adherents of the
ancient faith and liberty still remained in a majority in the eastern,
more-thinly peopled regions beyond the Theiss and in Transylvania.
Gyula, the duke of Transylvania, and the uncle of Stephen, was not
slow in protesting against the new kingdom and the innovations coupled
with it. The rebellion failed, as we have already seen. Gyula and his
whole family were made captives by the victors, and neither he nor
his posterity ever regained their lost power. Transylvania was more
closely united with the mother country, and from that time, during a
period extending over more than five centuries, was ruled by _vayvodes_
appointed by the kings. Soon after Stephen opposed victoriously
the Petchenegs, the allies of the defeated Gyula, who were settled
beyond the Transylvanian mountains in the country known at present
as Roumania, and having also defeated Akhtum, who, trusting in the
protection of the Greek emperor, was disposed to act the master in the
region enclosed by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros, there was no one in
the whole land who—openly, at least—dared to refuse homage to the crown
pressing the temples of Stephen and to the double cross. During the
twenty years succeeding the events just narrated, history is entirely
silent as to any great martial enterprise of Stephen. It is true that
hostilities were frequent along the northern and western borders
against the Poles and Czechs, but they were never of a character to
endanger the territorial integrity of the country. During those years
of comparative peace Stephen firmly established the Hungarian Christian
kingdom.
The Christian Church was the corner-stone of all social and political
order in the days of Stephen. The Church pointed out the principal
objects of human endeavor, marked out the ways leading to the
accomplishment of those aims, drew the bounds of the liberty of action,
and prescribed to mankind its duties. It educated, instructed, and
disciplined the people in the name and in the place of the state, and
in doing this the Church acted for the benefit of the state. Hence it
was that Stephen, in organizing the Hungarian Christian Church and
placing it on a firmer basis, consulted quite as much the interests
of his royal power as the promptings of his apostolic zeal. Where the
Christian faith gained ground, there the respect for royalty also took
root, and the first care of royalty, when its authority had become
powerful, was to preserve the authority of the Church.
Immediately on his accession to the throne, Stephen addressed himself
to the great and arduous task, and in all places where the promises of
the holy faith, scattered by his proselyting zeal, met with a grateful
soil, he established the earliest religious communities. Later, as
the number of parishes rapidly increased, he appointed chief prelates
to superintend and maintain the flocks and to keep them together. The
ecclesiastical dignities and offices were conferred, in the beginning,
without exception, upon members of the religious orders, they being at
that time the most faithful warriors of Christianity against paganism,
and the most devoted servants of the triumphant church. Stephen took
good care of them, and rewarded them according to their merits. He
founded four abbeys for these pious monks, who all of them belonged
to the religious order of St. Benedict. The abbey of Pannonhalom was
the wealthiest and most distinguished among these; and to this day, it
maintains the chief rank among the greatly increased number of kindred
societies. The first schools were connected with the cathedrals and
monasteries, and although their mission consisted mainly in propagating
the new church and faith, they yet cultivated the scanty learning of
the age.
Stephen endowed the bishoprics and monasteries with a generosity
truly royal. He granted them large possessions in land, together with
numerous bondsmen inhabiting the estates. The Hungarian Catholic
Church has preserved the larger part of these grants to this day.
His munificence was displayed in the cathedral at Stuhlweissenburg
(Székesfejérvár), built in honor of the Virgin Mary, of whose marvels
of enchantment the old chronicles speak with reverential awe. The
chronicler calls it “the magnificent church famous for its wondrous
workmanship, the walls of which are adorned with beautiful carvings,
and whose floor is inlaid with marble slabs,” and then he proceeds
in this strain: “Those can bear witness to the truth of my words who
have beheld there with their own eyes the numerous chasubles, sacred
utensils, and other ornaments, the many exquisite tablets wrought of
pure gold and inlaid with the most precious jewels about the altars,
the chalice of admirable workmanship standing on Christ’s table, and
the various vessels of crystal, onyx, gold, and silver with which the
sacristy was crowded.”
Stephen’s munificence was not confined to his own realm, and numerous
memorials of his beneficence and generosity are still preserved in
foreign lands. As soon as Christianity had gained a firm foothold
in the land, and the Hungarian people felt no more as strangers in
the family of Christian nations, the natives, either singly or in
larger numbers, began to journey to the revered cities of Rome,
Constantinople, and Jerusalem. Stephen took care that these pilgrims
should feel at home in the strange places they visited. Thus, amongst
other things, he had a church and dwelling-house built in Rome for the
accommodation of twelve canons, providing it also with a _hospitium_
(inn). In Constantinople and Jerusalem also he caused a convent and
church to be erected, within whose hospitable walls the Hungarian
pilgrim might find rest for his weary body, after the fatigues of the
long journey, and spiritual comfort for his thirsting soul. He was ever
mindful of the interests of Christianity both at home and abroad. He
not only founded the Hungarian Christian Church, but knew how to make
it universally respected, and, in his own time already, the popes were
in the habit of referring to Hungary as the “archiregnum”—that is, a
country superior to the others.
In establishing the Hungarian kingdom Stephen necessarily shaped its
institutions after the pattern of the Western States, but fortunately
for the nation he possessed a rare discrimination which made him
imitate his neighbors in those things only which were beneficial or
unavoidable, whilst he rejected their errors and refused to introduce
them into his own land. At that period feudalism, although it had
sadly degenerated, prevailed, England alone excepted, throughout the
whole West. It was a system which did not permit the strengthening of
the central power of the state, and the countries subjected to it were
divided up into parts but loosely connected, each of which acknowledged
an almost independent master, who, although he held his county or duchy
from his king, and owned and governed it by virtue of that tenure,
was yet powerful enough to defy with impunity the sovereign himself.
Without adverting to the pitiful dismemberment of Italy, we need only
mention that France was divided into about fifty, and Germany into five
small principalities of this character. The kings themselves might make
use of their kingly title, they might bask in the splendor of their
own royalty, but of the plenitude of their royal power they could but
rarely and then only temporarily boast.
Stephen’s chief aim was to enhance the royal power by rendering it
as independent as he possibly could of restrictions on the part of
the nation, and to introduce such institutions as would prove most
efficacious in the defence of the integrity and unity of nation and
country. He left the nobility—the descendants of those who had taken
possession of the soil at the conquest of Hungary—in the undisturbed
enjoyment of their ancient privileges; he did not restrict their
rights, but in turn did not allow himself to be hampered by them. He
only introduced an innovation with reference to the tenure of their
property, which he changed from tribal to individual possession,
using his royal authority to protect each man in the possession of
the estates thus allotted to him. The nobles governed themselves,
administered justice amongst themselves, through men of their own
selection, and the king interfered only if he was especially requested
to judge between them. The nobles had always free access to the king’s
person, not only during Stephen’s reign, but for many centuries
afterwards. The nobility was exempted from the payment of any kind of
taxes into the royal treasury, and they joined the king’s army only if
the country was menaced by a foreign foe, or if they chose to offer
their services of their own free will.
Inasmuch as the great power of the nobility had its foundations on
freehold possessions in land, Stephen was careful to support the
dignity of the royal power by the control of large domains. The royal
family were already the owners of private estates of large extent, and
to these the king now added those vast tracts of land which, scattered
throughout the whole realm, and more particularly extending along
the frontiers, were without masters, and could not well pass into
private hands, as the scant Hungarian population was inadequate for
their occupation. These domains, which, for the most part, were thinly
inhabited by the indigenous conquered populations, speaking their own
languages, and the colonization of which by foreigners became a special
object with the kings, were now declared state property, and as such
taken possession of and administered by Stephen. He divided these
possessions into small domains, called in Latin _comitatus_, county,
and in Hungarian _megye_, eyre or circuit, and placed at the head of
the administration of each county a royal official styled _comes_,
count. These districts subsequently gave rise to the county system,
which was destined to play such an important part in the history of the
country, but originally they were designed to answer a twofold purpose,
one financial and one military. One portion of the people living on
these royal lands had to hand over to the royal treasury a certain
part of their produce, whilst another portion was bound to military
service for life. In this way the royal counties furnished a sort of
standing army, always at the disposal of the king, and supplied, at the
same time, the revenues necessary to support that army. Stephen found
also other means to replenish his treasury and to add to his military
strength. The revenues derived from the mineral and salt mines, and
from the coining of money, flowed into the royal coffers; he levied,
besides, a thirtieth on all merchandise, market-tolls at fairs, and
collected tolls on the roads, and at bridges and ferries. The towns
and the privileged territories had to pay taxes, and, on a given day,
to send presents to the king. Stephen added, besides, to his military
strength by granting to individuals—mostly to native or foreign
noblemen of reduced circumstances—extensive estates in fee, subject to
the obligation, in case of need, of joining the royal army with a fixed
number of armed men. The Petchenegs, Szeklers, and Ruthenes settled as
border guards along the frontiers were also obliged to render military
service, and even the royal cities sent their contingents of troops
equipped by them. This brief enumeration of the means employed by
Stephen to strengthen his throne, will make it evident that he provided
abundant resources for maintaining the royal power, such as none of his
neighbors, or even the rulers of the countries further west, had, then,
at their disposal.
The royal court was the centre and faithful mirror of that kingly
power, and, in its ordering and conduct, Stephen was careful to imitate
foreign courts, not only in their main features, but at times even in
their most minute details. The court of his imperial brother-in-law,
Henry II. of Germany, especially, served him as a model. Thus it
was held that the person of the king was sacred, and that to offend
against him who was the embodiment of the majesty of the state, was
looked upon as a crime to be punished with loss of life and fortune.
The king stood above all the living, and above the law itself. Stephen
surrounded himself with the distinguished men, lay and ecclesiastical,
of the realm, and, aided by their counsel, administered the affairs
of the country, but his word and will was a law to everybody. Amongst
the officers of his court were a lord-palatine, a court-judge, a lord
of the treasury, and many others, who, in part, assisted him in the
government of the state and, in part, ministered to the comforts of the
court. At a much later period only, after the lapse of centuries, did
the offices of palatine, judge, and treasurer, become dignities of the
realm.
The government of the country in time of peace involved no great care
or trouble, for only the royal domains or counties and the royal
cities possessing privileges fell within the sphere of the direct power
of the king and court. The Church and nobility governed themselves and
applied to the king in cases of appeal only, the royal towns conducted
their affairs through the agency of judges and chief magistrates
elected by themselves, whilst the bulk of the people, composed of the
various classes of bondmen and servants, were completely subjected to
the authority and jurisdiction of the lords of the land. The bondman
might move about freely, but he could never emancipate himself from the
tutelage of the landlords. The Hungarian nation was composed of the
same social strata which were to be met with everywhere in the West,
and the growth of these pursued the same direction, differing, however,
in one particular—the relation of the large landed proprietors, the
nobility, to their king. To these exceptional relations must be
attributed the fact that the political changes in the country did
not run in parallel grooves with those of the other western states.
Stephen granted no constitution, all complete, to his people; its
growth was the work of centuries, but the country was indebted to him
for having organized the state in such a manner that, whilst there was
nothing in the way of a free and healthy development of its political
institutions, its inherent strength was such that it could successfully
resist the many and severe shocks to which in the course of nearly a
thousand years it was subjected.
The country prospered during the long reign of King Stephen, thanks to
his untiring labors and to the rare moderation with which he tempered
his passionate zeal. The nation became gradually familiar with the
changes wrought, and began to accept the new order of things, although
it could not quite forget the old ways. Old memories revived again and
again, and those especially who bowed down before the crown and cross
from compulsion and not from conviction, were filled with anxiety as
to the uncertain future. Stephen thoroughly understood the feelings
and prejudices of his people, and he carefully avoided every act,
and steered clear of every complication which might tend to rouse
their passions. He well knew that time alone could give permanence
and stability to the institutions created by him, and that years of
peace and continued exertions were necessary to consolidate his work.
Two great objects, therefore, occupied his mind continually, even in
his old age; in the first place, to defend the realm against external
dangers, and in the second place, to raise a successor to himself to
whom he might safely entrust the continuation of the work commenced by
him.
But fate denied him the accomplishment of either of his objects. As
long as Henry II., his brother-in-law, reigned there was peace between
Hungary and the German empire, but the death of the latter in 1024
severed the bond of amity between the two countries. The feelings
entertained by Conrad II. toward the kingdom of Hungary were very
different from those manifested by his predecessor, and this change of
sentiment was soon shown by Conrad’s laying claim, by virtue of his
imperial prerogative, to the sovereignty over Stephen’s realm. Conrad,
with his ally, the Duke of Bohemia, and the united forces of his vast
empire, began war in 1030, and overran with his armies the country on
both banks of the Danube, as far as the Gran and the Raab. Stephen was
undismayed, his courage rather rose with the perils environing him. He
bade the people throughout the land to fast and pray, for not alone his
kingdom was at stake, but the independence of the Hungarian Church was
menaced by the imperial forces. Those who looked with indifference at
the cause of the Hungarian crown and the cross, had their enthusiasm
excited by the proud satisfaction of fighting in defence of the
national dignity and liberty. Amongst those western nations who had
been for so long a time harassed by the military expeditions of the
Hungarians, the German people, feeling its strength, was the first to
turn its arms against the former assailants. But Conrad’s attack proved
unsuccessful against the united strength of the king and the nation,
between whom the peril from without had restored full harmony, and he
was compelled to leave the country in the autumn of the very year in
which he entered upon the war, dejectedly returning to Germany after
a campaign of utter failure instead of the expected triumphs. Peace
was concluded in the following year, and the emperor acknowledged the
independence of the young but powerful kingdom. Conrad’s son, who
subsequently succeeded to the imperial throne as Henry III., visited
Stephen at his court, in order to draw closer the ties of amity
between the two countries. The danger had passed for the time being,
but the apprehensions of Stephen were far from being allayed as he
pondered on the future. The peace just concluded did not satisfy him;
there were no guaranties for its preservation, nor had he any faith in
its being a permanent peace, for he well knew that the German kings,
as long as they wore the imperial crown, would not fail to repeat
their attacks on the independence of the young kingdom. Reflections of
this sombre nature often filled his soul with despondency, and then
came occasions when he entertained fears that the nation might not be
strong enough to withstand the dangers threatening her, or that if she
triumphed she would, in the intoxication of her victory, turn with
exasperation against those innovations which had brought the foreign
foes upon her.
All his hopes centred in Duke Emeric, his only son, who, under the
care of the pious Bishop Gerhard, grew up to be a fine youth, full
of promise, in whom his fond father discovered all those qualities
which he wished him to possess for the good of his nation. The young
prince was, indeed, very zealous in his faith; his piety amounted
almost to frenzy, and he turned away from the world, despising its
joys and harassing struggles, and seeking the salvation of his soul
in self-denial and the mortification of his flesh. He was, in truth,
the holy child of a holy parent, but not born to rule as the fit son
of a great king. He preferred the cloister to the royal throne, and,
far from inheriting the apostolic virtues of his august father, he
was rather inclined to indulge in the errors of the age he lived in.
But the aged king, dazzled by the lustre of his son’s holiness, was
blind to his shortcomings. He had faith in him, for in him he saw
his only hope. In order fitly to prepare him for his future royal
mission, he set down for him in writing the experiences of his long
and beneficent rule, and the wisdom and goodness treasured up in his
heart and mind. These admonitions addressed to his son have been spared
by all-devouring time, and to this day they are apt to delight and
instruct us as one of the most precious relics of that age. The reader
will surely be pleased with a few specimens of these exhortations:
“I cannot refrain, my beloved son,” Stephen wrote, “from giving thee
advice, instruction, and commands whereby to guide thyself and thy
subjects. * * * Strive to obey sedulously the injunctions of thy
father, for if thou despisest these thou lovest neither God nor man. Be
therefore dutiful, my son; thou hast been brought up amidst delights
and treasures, and knowest nothing of the arduous labors of war and the
perils of hostile invasions by foreign nations, in the midst of which
nearly my whole life has been passed. The time has arrived to leave
behind thee those pillows of luxuriousness which are apt to render thee
weak and frivolous, to make thee waste thy virtues, and to nourish in
thee thy sins. Harden thy soul in order that thy mind may attentively
listen to my counsels.”
After enlarging in ten paragraphs upon the topic of his counsels, he
proceeds as follows: “I command, counsel, and advise thee, above all,
to preserve carefully the apostolic and Catholic faith if thou wishest
thy kingly crown to be held in respect, and to set such an example to
thy subjects that the clergy may justly call thee a Christian man, * *
* for he who does not adorn his faith with good deeds—the one being a
dead thing without the others—cannot rule in honor.”
Stephen then lays down rules of conduct towards the magnates of the
realm, the lay lords, the high dignitaries, and the warriors, as
follows: “They are, my dear son, thy fathers and thy brothers, neither
call them nor make them thy servents. Let them combat for thee,
but not serve thee. Rule over them peaceably, humbly, and gently,
without anger, pride, and envy, bearing in mind that all men are
equal, that nothing exalts more than humility, nor is there any thing
more degrading than pride and envy. If thou wilt be peaceable, every
one will love thee and call thee a brave king, but if thou wilt be
irritable, overbearing, and envious, and look down upon the lords, the
might of the warriors will weaken thy kingly state, and thou wilt lose
thy realm. Govern them with thy virtues, so that, inspired by love for
thee, they may adhere to thy royal dignity.”
He then recommends, above all, patience and careful inquiry in the
administration of justice in these words: “Whenever a capital cause or
other cause of great importance be brought before thee for judgment, be
not impatient, nor indulge in oaths beforehand that the accused shall
be brought to punishment. Do not hasten to pronounce judgment thyself,
lest thy royal dignity be impaired thereby, but leave the cause rather
in the hands of the regular judges. Fear the functions of a judge, and
even the name of a judge, and rather rejoice in being and having the
name of a righteous king. Patient kings rule, impatient ones oppress.
If, however, there be a cause which it is fit for thee to decide, judge
mercifully and patiently to the enhancement of the praise and glory of
thy crown.”
Speaking of the foreigners settled in the country, he says: “The Roman
empire owed its growth, and its rulers their glory and power, chiefly
to the numerous wise and noble men who gathered within its boundaries
from every quarter of the world. * * * Foreigners coming from different
countries and places to settle here bring with them a variety of
languages, customs, instructive matters, and arms, which all contribute
to adorn and glorify the royal court, holding in check, at the same
time, foreign powers. A country speaking but one language, and where
uniform customs prevail, is weak and frail. Therefore I enjoin on thee,
my son, to treat and behave towards them decorously, so that they shall
more cheerfully abide with thee than elsewhere. For if thou shouldst
spoil what I have built up, and scatter what I have gathered, thy realm
would surely suffer great detriment from it.”
The preference of Stephen for the immigrants from abroad did not
degenerate into contempt for ancient customs, for he thus concludes:
“It is both glorious and royal to respect the laws of the forefathers
and to imitate ancestors worthy of reverence. He who holds in
contempt the decisions of his predecessors will not keep the laws of
God. Conform, therefore, my dear son, to my institutions, and follow
without hesitation my customs, which befit the royal dignity. It would
be difficult for thee to govern a realm of this character without
following the precedents laid down by those who governed before thee.
Adhere, therefore, to my customs, so that thou shalt be deemed the
first amongst thine, and merit the praise of the stranger. * * * The
evil-minded ruler who stains himself with cruelty vainly calls himself
king; he but deserves the name of a tyrant. I therefore beseech and
enjoin upon thee, my beloved son, thou delight of my heart and hope
of the coming generation, be, above all, gracious, not only to thy
kinsmen, to princes, and to dukes, but also to thy neighbors and
subjects; be merciful and forbearing not only to the powerful but to
the weak; and, finally, be strong, lest good fortune elate thee, and
bad fortune depress thee. Be humble, moderate, and gentle, be honorable
and modest, for these virtues are the chief ornaments of the kingly
crown.”
But the young duke was not fated to realize the hopes of his fond
father. In the very year (1031), and on the very day, say the
chronicles, on which Stephen intended to have his son annointed before
the nation as his successor, the mysterious edict of divine Providence
suddenly took him away. In place of the crown of terrestrial power, his
unstained life, nipped in the bud, was to be rewarded by the glory of
everlasting salvation.
This sad blow prostrated the aged king, who had already been ailing,
throwing him on his bed, and from that moment up to the day of his
death he was unable to recover either his bodily or mental strength.
Bereft of all hope and left to himself with his great sorrow and
harassing doubts, he looked about him irresolutely for one on whose
shoulders the cares of royalty should rest after his departure. The
descendants of his uncle Michael were still living, and his choice fell
upon them, they being rightfully entitled to succeed to the throne.
But he was foiled in his intention by the opposition of the court,
where the foreigners rallying round Queen Gisella had obtained the
mastery, and where they now resorted to every evil scheme to compel the
decrepit king to designate as his successor Duke Peter, who resided at
the court, and was the son of one of the king’s sisters, and Ottone
Urseolo, the Doge of Venice. He finally yielded, and by this act the
vessel of State which he had piloted for nearly half a century with a
strong arm and great circumspection, was drawn into a most dangerous
current. Stephen was the founder of the kingdom of Hungary; to others
was left the inheritance of defending and strengthening it. He died
in 1038 on Mary’s Ascension Day, the anniversary of the same day on
which, thirty-eight years before, he had placed the crown on his head.
On the day of his death Stephen gathered about him his courtiers and
the magnates of the land, and commended the realm to their care, but,
as if distrustful of them, he, in his last prayer, placed both the
church and the kingdom founded by him under the patronage of the Holy
Virgin Mary. Five centuries later Stephen was canonized and placed
upon the calendar of saints by the Church of Rome, and the event of
the exaltation of their first king and apostle was celebrated as a
great national holiday by the people. Time has preserved St. Stephen’s
right hand and the crown which his piety earned for him, but the
brightest and noblest monument he erected to himself is the creation
of a commonwealth whose free institutions, unimpaired strength and
independence have survived the storms of nearly nine centuries.
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