the belief that the children come from a supernal habitation, the flower
land, to enter into the mother. Various objects were thought to carry
the foetal germs, especially shuttlecocks and green jewels. For this
reason these were placed on the mat for the Mexican bridal pair after
the marriage ceremony. The rattle club is perhaps also considered as the
bearer of fertility. In India various trees play a _rôle_ in
fertilisation ideas.
Noteworthy is the belief found in various places that only the
nourishment of the child is supplied by the mother before birth, while
the germ of the new being comes from the father. This is the opinion of
certain tribes of South-east Australia described by Howitt and the same
belief exists among South American tribes who have the well-known
_couvade_. Karl von den Steinen writes regarding this: "One might be
tempted to explain this curious custom, which is very advantageous to
the women, by the hunting life. But even if the custom suits the women,
it is not evident why the men should have submitted to it. The father
cuts off the navel cord of the new-born child, goes to bed, looks after
the child, and fasts strictly until the rest of the navel cord falls off
(or even longer). One might consider him as the professional doctor who
also fasts like the student medicine-man, as otherwise his cure would be
endangered and the child harmed. But not only the Xingu, but many other
tribes, say that the father must not eat fish, meat, or fruit, as it
would be the same as if the child itself ate them; and there is no
reason to doubt that this is the real belief of the natives. The
medicine-man of the village is always at disposal, and he is called in
in all cases when the mother or child falls ill. The father is the
patient in so far as he feels himself one with the child. Nor is it
difficult to understand how this comes about. The native cannot very
well know anything about the egg cell and the Graafian follicle, and he
cannot know that the mother harbours elements corresponding to the
bird's egg. For the native the man is the bearer of the egg, which, to
put it clearly and concisely, he lays into the mother, and which she
hatches during pregnancy." This idea of the _couvade_ is confirmed by
linguistic peculiarities: there are the same or similar words for
"father," "testicle," "egg," and "child." The child is considered part
of the father, and therefore, as long as the child is at its weakest,
the father must keep diet, and must avoid anything that the other could
not digest. The child is considered the reproduction of the father, and
"for the sake of the helpless, unintelligent creature, representing a
miniature copy of himself, he must behave as if he were a child to whom
no harm must come. Should the child happen to die in the first days, how
could the father, with such views as he has, doubt that he is to blame,
seeing that he has eaten indigestible things, particularly as all
illnesses are due to the fault of others? What we call _pars pro toto_
prevails in all folk belief in connection with witch or healing magic,"
though it cannot be assumed "that the magic worker has a clear
conception of the 'part' with which he works. The _couvade_ proceeds
according to the same logic, only that in this case the whole stands for
the 'part.' It comes to the same whether the enemy's hair is poisoned,
and he is thus brought into a decline, or whether food is eaten which is
harmful to the child detached from one's own body, because it could not
digest it, at least not during the time when the detachment takes
place."
Besides South America and Australia, the _couvade_ is also frequent in
Asia and Africa. Previously it existed also in South-western Europe.
Hugo Kunike, who gives a survey of the prevalence and literature of the
_couvade_, thinks that this custom arose from prohibitions which the man
was subject to in matriarchal families. The prohibitions condemned the
man to inactivity for some time after the birth, so that he took to his
hammock. There resulted an external condition which led to an analogy
with the lying-in period. There can, according to Kunike, be no question
of an imitation of the woman's lying-in, for with the South American
Indians and other primitive peoples among whom the _couvade_ is found no
lying-in of the women occurs.
VII
MUTILATION OF SEX ORGANS
Mutilations of the sex organs are performed by many primitive peoples
for religious reasons. They occur much more rarely for the purpose of
sex stimulation, as, _e.g._, the artificial lengthening of the small
labia among the Hottentots and the negro women and the slitting of the
penis among the Australians. The most frequent mutilation is the
abscission of the foreskin of the penis. Circumcision of boys is
widespread in Asia, Africa, and Australia. Among the Mohammedan tribes
of Asia and the negroes of Northern and Middle Africa it is mostly
performed with a razor. In Indonesia a sharp bamboo splinter serves as
the instrument for operation; in other places sharp stone splinters are
used. In addition to the familiar circular abscission of the foreskin,
numerous primitive peoples practise incision of the foreskin, which is
split downwards in its full length. Bleeding is stopped generally by
very simple means, either by some kind of tampon or by styptic powders.
In girls, as, for instance, on some of the Indonesian Islands, the
operation often merely consists in the abscission of a small piece of
the preputium clitoridis. Among the East African tribes, however, parts
of the mons veneris and of the large labia are removed, generally with
a dirty razor. After the removal of the labia the two wounds are made to
coalesce by letting the girl lie in a suitable position, or sometimes by
a suture, which serves the purpose of closing up the vagina. A little
tube is inserted to allow for micturition. The united parts are again
partly severed for marriage, and completely in case of confinement.
After the recovery from confinement partial occlusion is again resorted
to (Bartels, p. 271).
Among the natives of Southern Asia living under the influence of Islam
circumcision of boys is practised universally, but it is also customary
among many peoples that are quite free from Islamitic influence.
Circumcision of girls is practised by various Islamitic peoples of
Western Asia and India. The operation is performed by old women. In
Baroda and Bombay the clitoris is cut away, ostensibly in order to
lessen the sensuality of the girls. In the province of Sindo the
circumcision of girls is fairly prevalent, especially among the Pathan
and Baluchi tribes. It is performed shortly before marriage by the
barber's wife or a female servant, who uses a razor, and it is said to
make the confinement easier. Among many tribes in the North-western
border province the girls are also circumcised at the age of marriage,
and here, besides the clitoris, the small labia are also sometimes cut
away. In Baluchistan among some peoples the tip of the clitoris is
pinched off; while among others the labia are slashed, so that scars
are formed. The operation is performed partly in childhood, partly on
the bridal night; in the latter case it assures the requisite flow of
blood at the first coition. Among some tribes, in place of circumcision
or in addition to it, the hymen is torn on the bridal night (should it
still exist), and the vaginal entrance is wounded, so that bleeding is
sure to take place at cohabitation. In Sind the castes which prostitute
their women are said to practise partial infibulation for contracting
the vagina. It is reported from the Punjab that formerly men leaving
their home for a time used to close up the sex passage of the wives they
left behind.
On the Philippine Islands circumcision is frequently practised by the
non-Christian natives, but not everywhere. The Igorots of Luzon incise
the foreskin of boys from four to seven years old at the upper side of
the glans with a bamboo knife or the edge of a battle axe. They say this
is necessary in order to prevent the skin from growing longer and
longer. No other reason is now known to them for this operation.
Circumcision is practised by the Mohammedans of the Southern Philippine
Islands.
Incision of the foreskin is customary on the Indonesian Islands, thus,
_e.g._, on Buru, Ceram, the Watu-Bela Islands, in the Minahassa, partly
also in the remaining North and Central Celebes, also on Ambon and
Halmaheira. Circumcision is customary on the Aru and Kei Islands, on the
Ceram Laut and Goram group, in certain parts of Central Celebes, Ambon,
etc. It is doubtful whether circumcision here is due to the influence of
Islam.
Incision is practised on various islands in the Western Pacific Ocean,
according to Friederici (p. 45), for instance, on New Guinea, on the
south-east coast, among the Jabim and on the Astrolabe Bay. In wide
districts of New Guinea, however, the inhabitants are not circumcised.
On the island Umboi, between New Guinea and New Pomerania, incision is
customary, also in various places on the north coast of New Pomerania,
on the Witu Islands, some islands of the Admiralty group, etc. If
incision is performed at a very early age, the result is similar to that
of circumcision. Frequently, however, only completely mature young men
are circumcised; in such cases the cut foreskin hangs down as an ugly
brown flap. It is questionable whether this intensifies the women's
excitement. As many people as possible are circumcised, in order to have
the opportunity for a great festival. This is the result of the liking
for numbers shown by primitive people, which is to be met with
everywhere. For the operation, the person is laid on his back and held
down by relatives. The boys scream and wince at the moment of cutting;
but the adults are ashamed before the women, and take an areca nut, into
which they bite. Among the East Barriari on the north coast of New
Pomerania, the operator--a wise man, but not the priest--pushes an
oblong piece of wood under the preputium of the patient, and cuts it
from the top downward with an obsidian splinter. The custom of incision
is widespread in the New Hebrides, New Caledonia (with the exception of
the Loyalty Islands), and also in Fiji.
While with the Empress Augusta River expedition in New Guinea, A.
Roesike found the foreskin cut among a number of men. It was not a
circumcision, nor an incision of the foreskin, but a deep cut into the
glans about 1 to 1½ centimetres long, sometimes a single one, sometimes
a double one crosswise.
Among some tribes of Indonesia a mutilation is customary, which is most
likely intended to intensify the lust of the women. It consists in a
perforation of the glans or the body of the male organ, into which a
little stick is inserted. These little sticks are called _palang_,
_ampallang_, _utang_ or _kampion_, and are replaced on journeys or at
work by feather quills. Among some tribes several little sticks are
stuck through the penis. Nieuwenhuis describes this operation as
follows: "At first the glans is made bloodless by pressing it between
the two arms of a bent strip of bamboo. At each of these arms there are
openings at the required position opposite each other, through which a
sharp pointed copper pin is pressed after the glans has become less
sensitive. Formerly a pointed bamboo chip was used for this purpose. The
bamboo clamp is removed, and the pin, fastened by a cord, is kept in the
opening until the canal has healed up. Later on the copper pin
(_utang_) is replaced by another one, generally of tin, which is worn
constantly. Only during hard work or at exhausting enterprises is the
metal pin replaced by a wooden one." Exceptionally brave men have the
privilege, together with the chief, of boring a second canal, crossing
the first, into the glans. Distinguished men may, in addition, wear a
ring round the penis, which is cut from the scales of the _pangolin_,
and studded with blunt points. It may hence be concluded that the
perforation of the penis is not intended as an endurance test for the
young men, but that the pin is introduced for the heightening of sexual
excitement. Many natives assert that the insertion of a pin in the
perforated penis has the purpose of preventing pederasty, which is very
frequent among the Malays (compare Nieuwenhuis, Vol. I., p. 78; Kleiweg
de Zwaan, p. 301; Meyer, p. 878; Hose and McDougall, Vol. II., p. 170;
Buschan, 1912, p. 240).
Among the Australians the slitting of the male urethra is frequently
practised. Formerly it was believed that this custom was intended to
prevent conception. But as the Australians who are not under European
influence are ignorant of the process of generation, this cannot be its
meaning. The operation is generally performed in boyhood or early youth,
but even adult men undergo it. Where this operation on the urethra is
customary, the hymen of the girls is cut, the cut often going through
the perineum. Many tribes practise simple circumcision. Among the
Australian tribe Worgait, for instance, certain relatives decide about
the circumcision of the boys. After a previous elaborate ceremonial the
boy who is to be circumcised is laid on the backs of three men lying on
the ground; another man sits on his chest, one holds his legs apart, and
the sixth performs the operation by drawing the foreskin forward and
cutting it off with a sharp splinter of stone. The group is hidden from
the view of the women by a screen made of pieces of bark. Afterwards the
youth is instructed by old men how he must behave as a man, and he is
informed about the matters kept secret from women. He remains for
another two months under the supervision of two sons of his maternal
uncle, and has further to go through a number of ceremonies. Other
tribes of the Australian North Territory have similar customs.
Circumcision among the Hamites of East Africa is particularly elaborate.
As an example we may take the pastoral tribe of the Nandi. These people
used to circumcise boys every seven and a half years, and celebrated the
occasion with great festivals. Since 1905 circumcision takes place at
shorter intervals. The usual age for circumcision is from the fifteenth
to the nineteenth year. Younger boys are only circumcised if they are
rich orphans, or if their fathers are old men. The ceremony begins at
the time of the first quarter of the moon. Three days before the
operation the boys are given over by their fathers or guardians into
the charge of old men, called _moterenic_, as many as ten boys going to
two of these men. The _moterenic_ and their boys betake themselves to a
neighbouring wood, where they build a hut, in which they spend the six
months after the circumcision. The boys have their heads shaved and are
given a strong aperient of Arsidia sp. Warriors visit the hut, and take
away all the boys' clothes and ornaments. Then young girls visit the
boys and give them a part of their clothing and ornaments. After the
boys have put these on they inform their relations of the forthcoming
circumcision. There is dancing on the next day, after which the warriors
draw the boys aside to discover from their expressions whether they will
behave cowardly or bravely at the circumcision. After this examination
the boys receive necklaces from their girl friends, with which they
decorate themselves. After sunset they must listen to the sharpening of
the operating knife. Warriors are present, and tease the boys. Later on
all undress, and a procession is formed with a _moterenic_ at the head
and rear of it. Four times they have to crawl through a small cage,
where warriors are stationed at the entrance and exit with nettles and
hornets. With the former they beat the boys in the face and on the sex
organs; the hornets they set on their backs. A fire is kept burning in
the middle of the room, around which old men are seated. Each boy has to
step before them and beg for permission to be circumcised. He is
questioned about his early life; and if the old men think that he has
told an untruth or is hiding something, he is put among nettles. If the
old men are satisfied with his words, the price of the circumcision has
to be arranged, whereupon the boys are led back to their huts. There the
warriors and elders assemble the next morning, and at dawn the
circumcision begins. The boy to be circumcised is supported by the
senior _moterenic_, the others sitting close by and looking on. The
operator kneels before the boy, and with a quick cut performs the first
part of the operation; the foreskin is drawn forward and cut off at the
tip of the glans penis. The surrounding men watch the boy's face in
order to see whether he winces or shows any sign of pain. If this is the
case, he is called a coward, and receives the dishonourable nickname of
_kilpit_; he is not allowed to be present at later circumcisions nor at
the children's dances. The brave boys receive bundles of ficus from the
women, who welcome them with cries of joy when they return the necklaces
which they have previously received from their girl friends. The
foreskins are collected and placed in an ox horn. Friends and relatives
make merry together, while the second part of the operation begins. At
this only sterile girls may be present, and also women who have lost
several brothers and sisters at short intervals. Many boys become
unconscious during this part of the operation. The wounds are only
washed with cold water, and the boys are led back to their huts, where
they spend some weeks quietly. During the first four days they are not
allowed to touch food with their hands; they must eat either out of a
half-calabash or with the help of some leaves. They get what they like,
also milk and meat. But, apart from their _moterenic_, nobody may come
near them for four days. Afterwards the hand-washing ceremony is
performed; the foreskins are taken out of the ox horn, sacrificed to
their god, and then buried in cowdung at the foot of a croton tree. Now
the boys may eat with their hands again, but still no one may see them
except the young children who bring them food. Three months later, when
the boys are quite well again, they have to go through a new ceremony,
during which they have to dive repeatedly into the river. If one of them
should meet with an accident, his father has to kill a goat. Only now
may the boys move about freely, but they still have to wear women's
clothes (as hitherto) and a special head-dress that hides their faces.
They must not enter a cattle kraal nor come near the cattle, nor are
they allowed to be outdoors when the hyena howls. This period of
semi-seclusion lasts about eight weeks. Its conclusion is celebrated by
a feast. Still more ceremonies follow, and again a feast, after which
the boys finally enter the status of manhood.
Girls are circumcised when some of them in the settlement have reached
marriage age. They are shaved, given aperients, have to put on men's
clothes, which they receive from their lovers, and take their clubs,
loin bells, etc. After three days' ceremonial the circumcision is
performed in the morning, at which the mothers and some old women are
present; men are only admitted when they have lost several brothers and
sisters in succession. The mothers run about crying and shouting during
the operation. Only the clitoris is cut out. If a girl behaves bravely,
she may return the clothes and other things of her lover, otherwise they
are thrown away. The girls, too, must not touch food with their hands
for four days; afterwards they are put into long dresses with a kind of
head mask, and have to go through a period of seclusion. After the
completion of various other formalities they are fit for marriage
(Hollis, 1909, pp. 52 _et seq._).
No satisfactory explanation has so far been forthcoming of the purpose
of these elaborate circumcision customs. Similar customs are observed by
other Hamites of Eastern Africa.
Among the Masai there exists the belief that circumcision was introduced
by the command of God (Merker, p. 60). After the circumcision boys and
girls are considered grown up. The former have to be circumcised as soon
as they are strong enough to take part in a war expedition. The
circumcision of sons whose parents have no property and of poor orphans
takes place last of all. For the meat banquet which the newly
circumcised hold every one present has to supply an ox. Poor boys must
first acquire it by working for it. The circumcision is a public affair,
and is arranged by the witch doctor in certain years. The old men
consult in all the districts, and fix a day for the circumcision of the
first batch of boys. All the boys circumcised during a certain number of
years form an age class with a particular name (as among the Nandi).
Several weeks before the circumcision the boys, adorned with many
ornaments, dance and sing in their own and neighbouring kraals, in order
to express their joy at their approaching admission into the warrior
class. On the day before the circumcision the boys' heads are shaved. On
the appointed day itself the boys and the warriors who are present at
the operation assemble before dawn at the place chosen by the operators.
The boys pour cold water over each other, so as to become less
sensitive. After the operation the wounded member is washed with milk;
no remedy for stopping the bleeding is applied. Later on all the men of
the neighbourhood assemble in the kraal, where they are regaled with
meat and honey beer by the parents of the newly circumcised boys. The
girls are circumcised as soon as signs of puberty become evident,
sometimes even earlier. The operation consists in a complete abscission
of the clitoris. The wound, as with the boys, is washed in milk. The
girl remains in her mother's hut until the wound is healed. As soon as
the man to whom the girl is promised as bride hears of her recovery he
pays her father the remaining part of the bride-price, and nothing more
stands in the way of the marriage.
Among the Somals in North-east Africa the boys are circumcised when six
years old, and the girls are infibulated at three or four years of age.
The infibulation is preceded by the shortening of the clitoris and the
clipping of the external labia. The operation is performed by
experienced women, who also sew up the inner labia (except for a small
aperture) with horse-hair, bast, or cotton thread. The girls have to
rest for several days with their legs tied together. Before marriage the
above-mentioned women or the girls themselves undo the stitching, which,
however, is in most cases only severed completely before the confinement
(Paulitschke, p. 24).
In Western Africa most peoples practise the circumcision of boys. The
age at which this takes place varies greatly. The Duala in Cameron have
the boys circumcised when four or five years old, the Bakwiri as late as
the twelfth to fourteenth year, and the Dahomey even postpone the
circumcision to the twentieth year. But it always takes place before
marriage, as women would refuse to have relationship with uncircumcised
men (Buschan, "Sitten," III., p. 40).